Inulin-based polymer coated SPIONs as potential drug delivery systems for targeted cancer therapy

Chemical Conjugation of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for the Development of Magnetically Directable Silk Particles

Magnetically directable materials containing iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have been utilized for a variety of medical applications, including localized drug delivery. Regenerated silk fibroin (RSF) has also been used in numerous regenerative medicine and drug delivery applications, given its biocompatibility and tunable properties. In this work, we explored the hypothesis that chemically conjugating IONPs to RSF to anchor the IONPs to silk microparticles would provide better magnetic guidance than nonconjugated IONPs untethered to silk microparticles. IONPs were fabricated using a coprecipitation method and conjugated with glutathione (GSH) prior to mixing with RSF. IONPs incorporated into RSF were mixed with potassium phosphate buffer to fabricate microparticles. IONPs with and without GSH were characterized for particle size, shape, morphology, GSH conjugation efficiency, and composition. Silk iron microparticles (SIMPs) were also characterized for particle size, shape, and composition and tested for stability, degradation properties, magnetic movability, and cytotoxicity. IONPs demonstrated a uniform size distribution and spherical morphology. Conjugation of IONPs with GSH was verified through changes in the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra. IONPs and RSF were able to be chemically conjugated and fabricated into SIMPs, which demonstrated a spherical and porous morphology. FTIR revealed an increased β-sheet content in SIMPs, suggesting that the IONPs may be inducing conformational changes in the silk fibroin. SIMPs showed stability up to 4 weeks in ultrapure water and rapid enzymatic degradation within 24 h. SIMPs were able to be moved magnetically through solution and through a hydrogel and were not cytotoxic.

Nanotechnological approaches to improve corticosteroids ocular therapy

The administration of corticosteroids is the first-line treatment of the clinical conditions with ocular inflammation. Nonetheless, ocular physiological mechanisms, anatomical barriers and corticosteroid properties prevent it from reaching the target site. Thus, frequent topical administered doses or ocular injections are required, leading to a higher risk of adverse events and poor patient compliance. Designing novel drug delivery systems based on nanotechnological tools is a useful approach to overcome disadvantages associated with the ocular delivery of corticosteroids. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems represent an alternative to the current dosage forms for the ocular administration of corticosteroids, since due to their particle size and the properties of their materials, they can increase their solubility, improve ocular permeability, control their release and increase bioavailability after their ocular administration. In this way, lipid and polymer-based nanoparticles have been the main strategies developed, giving rise to novel patent applications to protect these innovative drug delivery systems as a product, its preparation or administration method. Additionally, it should be noted that at least 10 clinical trials are being carried out to evaluate the ocular application of different pharmaceutical formulations based on corticosteroid-loaded nanoparticles. Through a comprehensive and extensive analysis, this review highlights the impact of nanotechnology applications in ocular inflammation therapy with corticosteroids.

Fabrication of PEGylated SPIONs-Loaded Niosome for Codelivery of Paclitaxel and Trastuzumab for Breast Cancer Treatment: In Vivo Study

There is a growing appeal for engineering drug delivery systems for controlled and local drug delivery. Conjugation of antibodies on the nanocarriers for targeted chemotherapeutic drugs has always been one of the main techniques. This work aims to develop a polycaprolactone/chitosan electrospun mat incorporated with paclitaxel/Fe3O4-loaded niosomes (SPNs) decorated with trastuzumab (TbNs) for cancer therapy. SPNs and TbNs were analyzed by DLS, zeta potential, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Fabricated mats with distinct concentrations of TbNs were classified into four groups (G0 (0), G1 (1), G2 (2.5), and G3 (5%)) and were studied physicochemically, mechanically, and biologically. Paclitaxel release was also studied for 7 days under an alternative magnetic field (AMF). The optimized mat was nominated for an in vivo study to evaluate its tumor growth inhibition. Based on the results, the TbNs had a spherical core and shell morphology with a smooth surface. The zeta potential and the mean size of TbNs were equal to -14.7 mV and 221 nm. TbNs did not affect the morphology and quality of nanofibers, but in general, the presence of TbNs increased the elastic modulus, water uptake, and degradation. Regarding the release study, AMF showed a significant increase in accelerating paclitaxel release from mats, and most releases belonged to the mat with 5% of TbNs. Results from the in vivo study showed the effective and synergistic effects of AMF on drug release and significant tumor growth inhibition. To summarize, the proposed nanocarrier under AMF can be a good candidate for cancer therapy.

The landscape of nanoparticle-based siRNA delivery and therapeutic development

Five small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based therapeutics have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), namely patisiran, givosiran, lumasiran, inclisiran, and vutrisiran. Besides, siRNA delivery to the target site without toxicity is a big challenge for researchers, and naked-siRNA delivery possesses several challenges, including membrane impermeability, enzymatic degradation, mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) entrapment, fast renal excretion, endosomal escape, and off-target effects. The siRNA therapeutics can silence any disease-specific gene, but their intracellular and extracellular barriers limit their clinical applications. For this purpose, several modifications have been employed to siRNA for better transfection efficiency. Still, there is a quest for better delivery systems for siRNA delivery to the target site. In recent years, nanoparticles have shown promising results in siRNA delivery with minimum toxicity and off-target effects. Patisiran is a lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-based siRNA formulation for treating hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis that ultimately warrants the use of nanoparticles from different classes, especially lipid-based nanoparticles. These nanoparticles may belong to different categories, including lipid-based, polymer-based, and inorganic nanoparticles. This review briefly discusses the lipid, polymer, and inorganic nanoparticles and their sub-types for siRNA delivery. Finally, several clinical trials related to siRNA therapeutics are addressed, followed by the future prospects and conclusions.

Inulin-based formulations as an emerging therapeutic strategy for cancer: A comprehensive review

Cancer stands as the second leading cause of death in the United States (US). Most chemotherapeutic agents exhibit severe adverse effects that are attributed to exposure of drugs to off-target tissues, posing a significant challenge in cancer therapy management. In recent years, inulin, a naturally occurring prebiotic fiber has gained substantial attention for its potential in cancer treatment owing to its multitudinous health values. Its distinctive structure, stability, and nutritional properties position it as an effective adjuvant and carrier for drug delivery in cancer therapy. To address some of the above unmet clinical issues, this review summarizes the recent efforts towards the development of inulin-based nanomaterials and nanocomposites for healthcare applications with special emphasis on the multifunctional role of inulin in cancer therapy as a synergist, signaling molecule, immunomodulatory and anticarcinogenic molecule. Furthermore, the review provides a concise overview of ongoing clinical trials and observational studies associated with inulin-based therapy. In conclusion, the current review offers insights on the significant role of inulin interventions in exploring its potential as a therapeutic agent to treat cancer.

Polysaccharides-based nanocarriers enhance the anti-inflammatory effect of curcumin

Curcumin (CUR) has been discovered to have many biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-oxygenation, anti-human immunodeficiency virus, anti-microbial and exhibits a good effect on the prevention and treatment of many diseases. However, the limited properties of CUR, including the poor solubility, bioavailability and instability caused by enzymes, light, metal irons, and oxygen, have compelled researchers to turn their attention to drug carrier application to overcome these drawbacks. Encapsulation may provide potential protective effects to the embedding materials and/or have a synergistic effect with them. Therefore, nanocarriers, especially polysaccharides-based nanocarriers, have been developed in many studies to enhance the anti-inflammatory capacity of CUR. Consequently, it's critical to review current advancements in the encapsulation of CUR using polysaccharides-based nanocarriers, as well as further study the potential mechanisms of action where polysaccharides-based CUR nanoparticles (the complex nanoparticles/Nano CUR-delivery systems) exhibit their anti-inflammatory effects. This work suggests that polysaccharides-based nanocarriers will be a thriving field in the treatment of inflammation and inflammation-related diseases.

The influence of pure (ligandless) magnetite nanoparticles functionalization on blood gases and electrolytes in acute blood loss

Objective was to compare the effect of functionalization of magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles (NPs) with sodium chloride (NaCl), or its combination with ethylmethylhydroxypyrydine succinate (EMHPS) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) on blood gases and electrolytes in acute blood loss. Ligandless magnetite NPs were synthesized by the electron beam technology and functionalized by mentioned agents. Size of NPs in colloidal solutions Fe₃O₄@NaCl, Fe₃O₄@NaCl@EMHPS, Fe₃O₄@NaCl@PVP, Fe₃O₄@NaCl@EMHPS@PVP (nanosystems 1-4) was determined by dynamic light scattering. In vivo experiments were performed on 27 Wistar rats. Acute blood loss was modeled by removal 25 % circulating blood. Nanosystems 1-4 were administered to animals intaperitoneally after the blood loss with followed determination of blood gases, pH and electrolytes. In blood loss, nanosystems Fe₃O₄@NaCl and Fe₃O₄@NaCl@PVP were able to improve the state of blood gases, pH, and the ratio of sodium/potassium in the blood. So, magnetite NPs with a certain surface modification can promote oxygen transport under hypoxic conditions.

Galactosylated Polymer/Gold Nanorods Nanocomposites for Sustained and Pulsed Chemo-Photothermal Treatments of Hepatocarcinoma

In this paper, we propose a rational design of a hybrid nanosystem capable of locally delivering a high amount of hydrophobic anticancer drugs (sorafenib or lenvatinib) and heat (hyperthermia) in a remote-controlled manner. We combined in a unique nanosystem the excellent NIR photothermal conversion of gold nanorods (AuNRs) with the ability of a specially designed galactosylated amphiphilic graft copolymer (PHEA-g-BIB-pButMA-g-PEG-GAL) able to recognize hepatic cells overexpressing the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) on their membranes, thus giving rise to a smart composite nanosystem for the NIR-triggered chemo-phototherapy of hepatocarcinoma. In order to allow the internalization of AuNRs in the hydrophobic core of polymeric nanoparticles, AuNRs were coated with a thiolated fatty acid (12-mercaptododecanoic acid). The drug-loaded hybrid nanoparticles were prepared by the nanoprecipitation method, obtaining nanoparticles of about 200 nm and drug loadings of 9.0 and 5.4% w/w for sorafenib and lenvatinib, respectively. These multifunctional nanosystems have shown to convert NIR radiation into heat and release charged drugs in a remote-controlled manner. Then, the biocompatibility and synergistic effects of a chemo-phototherapy combination, as well the receptor-mediated internalization, were evaluated by an in vitro test on HepG2, HuH7, and NHDF. The results indicate that the proposed nanoparticles can be considered to be virtuous candidates for an efficient and selective dual-mode therapy of hepatocarcinoma.

Polysaccharide-based nanomedicines for cancer immunotherapy: A review

Cancer immunotherapy is an effective antitumor approach through activating immune systems to eradicate tumors by immunotherapeutics. However, direct administration of "naked" immunotherapeutic agents (such as nucleic acids, cytokines, adjuvants or antigens without delivery vehicles) often results in: (1) an unsatisfactory efficacy due to suboptimal pharmacokinetics; (2) strong toxic and side effects due to low targeting (or off-target) efficiency. To overcome these shortcomings, a series of polysaccharide-based nanoparticles have been developed to carry immunotherapeutics to enhance antitumor immune responses with reduced toxicity and side effects. Polysaccharides are a family of natural polymers that hold unique physicochemical and biological properties, as they could interact with immune system to stimulate an enhanced immune response. Their structures offer versatility in synthesizing multifunctional nanocomposites, which could be chemically modified to achieve high stability and bioavailability for delivering therapeutics into tumor tissues. This review aims to highlight recent advances in polysaccharide-based nanomedicines for cancer immunotherapy and propose new perspectives on the use of polysaccharide-based immunotherapeutics.

Inulin and Its Application in Drug Delivery

Inulin’s unique and flexible structure, stabilization/protective effects, and organ targeting ability make it an excellent drug delivery carrier compared to other biodegradable polysaccharides. The three hydroxyl groups attached to each fructose unit serve as an anchor for chemical modification. This, in turn, helps in increasing bioavailability, improving cellular uptake, and achieving targeted, sustained, and controlled release of drugs and biomolecules. This review focuses on the various types of inulin drug delivery systems such as hydrogel, conjugates, nanoparticles, microparticles, micelles, liposomes, complexes, prodrugs, and solid dispersion. The preparation and applications of the different inulin drug delivery systems are further discussed. This work highlights the fact that modification of inulin allows the use of this polymer as multifunctional scaffolds for different drug delivery systems.

Inulin as a Delivery Vehicle for Targeting Colon-Specific Cancer

Natural polysaccharides, as well as biopolymers, are now days widely developed for targeting colon cancer using various drug delivery systems. Currently, healing conformations are being explored that can efficiently play a multipurpose role. Owing to the capability of extravagance colonic diseases with the least adverse effects, biopolymers for site specific colon delivery have developed an increased curiosity over the past decades. Inulin (INU) was explored for its probable application as an entrapment material concerning its degradation by enzymes in the colonic microflora and its drug release behavior in a sustained and controlled manner. INU is a polysaccharide and it consists of 2 to 1 linkage having an extensive array of beneficial uses such as a carrier for delivery of therapeutic agents as an indicative/investigative utensil or as a dietary fiber with added well-being aids. In the main, limited research, as well as information, is available on the delivery of therapeutic agents using inulin specifically for colon cancer because of its capability to subsist in the stomach's acidic medium. This exceptional steadiness and robustness properties are exploited in numerous patterns to target drugs securely for the management of colonic cancer, where they effectively act and kills colonic tumor cells easily. In this review article, recent efforts and inulin-based nano-technological approaches for colon cancer targeting are presented and discussed.

PVP Surface-protected silica coated iron oxide nanoparticles for MR imaging application

This paper proposed an engineered mesoporous silica-coated Fe₃O₄ nanoparticle, PVPMSFe, prepared by a sol-gel/surface-protected etching mechanism as an MRI T2 contrast agent. To this end, the structural characterization of the nanocomposite was performed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method, VSM, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), TEM, FESEM, and energy-dispersive X-ray scanning electron microscopy (EDS). The findings show that the synthesized nanocomposite has a mesoporous structure with an average particle size of 11.8 nm and excellent magnetization properties. The biocompatibility of PVPMSFe was investigated by MTT assay and hemolysis assay of red blood cells and the results indicate that PVPMSFe has favorable biocompatibility. Besides, the effect of PVPMSFe was assessed with MRI relaxivity measurement (T2 signal). Regarding the in vitro MRI relaxivity measurements outputs (r₂=144.4), PVPMSFe can attenuate the T2 signal of MRI, perfectly which makes it an efficient T2 contrast agent.

Magnetically Controlled Carbonate Nanocomposite with Ciprofloxacin for Biofilm Eradication

Biofilms are the reason for a vast majority of chronic inflammation cases and most acute inflammation. The treatment of biofilms still is a complicated task due to the low efficiency of drug delivery and high resistivity of the involved bacteria to harmful factors. Here we describe a magnetically controlled nanocomposite with a stimuli-responsive release profile based on calcium carbonate and magnetite with an encapsulated antibiotic (ciprofloxacin) that can be used to solve this problem. The material magnetic properties allowed targeted delivery, accumulation, and penetration of the composite in the biofilm, as well as the rapid triggered release of the entrapped antibiotic. Under the influence of an RF magnetic field with a frequency of 210 kHz, the composite underwent a phase transition from vaterite into calcite and promoted the release of ciprofloxacin. The effectiveness of the composite was tested against formed biofilms of E. coli and S. aureus and showed a 71% reduction in E. coli biofilm biomass and an 85% reduction in S. aureus biofilms. The efficiency of the composite with entrapped ciprofloxacin was higher than for the free antibiotic in the same concentration, up to 72%. The developed composite is a promising material for the treatment of biofilm-associated inflammations.

Inulin-Coated Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: A Theranostic Platform for Contrast-Enhanced MR Imaging of Acute Hepatic Failure

The present study introduces a superparamagnetic nanocomposite, Fe-Si-In, as a T2 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent with a core of iron oxide nanoparticles and a nonporous silica inner shell/carboxymethyl inulin outer shell. Due to its core/shell properties, the structure characterization, biocompatibility, and performance in MRI, as well as its potential as a drug delivery system, were thoroughly evaluated. The results have shown that the synthesized nanocomposite possesses excellent biocompatibility and acceptable magnetization (M_s = 20 emu g^-1). It also has the potential to be a nanocarrier for drug delivery purposes, as evidenced by the results of curcumin administration studies. The developed nanocomposite has shown excellent performance in MRI, while the in vitro relaxivity measurements reveal a stronger T2 relaxivity (r₂ = 223.2 ms) compared to the commercial samples available in the market. Furthermore, the in vivo MRI studies demonstrate an excellent contrast between injured livers and normal ones in rats which again upholds the high performance of Fe-Si-In in MRI diagnostics.

Functionalization of Metal and Carbon Nanoparticles with Potential in Cancer Theranostics

Cancer theranostics is a new concept of medical approach that attempts to combine in a unique nanoplatform diagnosis, monitoring and therapy so as to provide eradication of a solid tumor in a non-invasive fashion. There are many available solutions to tackle cancer using theranostic agents such as photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) under the guidance of imaging techniques (e.g., magnetic resonance-MRI, photoacoustic-PA or computed tomography-CT imaging). Additionally, there are several potential theranostic nanoplatforms able to combine diagnosis and therapy at once, such as gold nanoparticles (GNPs), graphene oxide (GO), superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) and carbon nanodots (CDs). Currently, surface functionalization of these nanoplatforms is an extremely useful protocol for effectively tuning their structures, interface features and physicochemical properties. This approach is much more reliable and amenable to fine adjustment, reaching both physicochemical and regulatory requirements as a function of the specific field of application. Here, we summarize and compare the most promising metal- and carbon-based theranostic tools reported as potential candidates in precision cancer theranostics. We focused our review on the latest developments in surface functionalization strategies for these nanosystems, or hybrid nanocomposites consisting of their combination, and discuss their main characteristics and potential applications in precision cancer medicine.

Potential applications of hydrophobically modified inulin as an active ingredient in functional foods and drugs - A review

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Inulin is a substance found in a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and herbs.

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Inulin was modified by physical and chemical means to improve functionality.

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HMI has been used in the stability of emulsions and suspensions.

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SCFAs inulin esters have transformed the gut microbiota and improved the bioavailability of SCFAs.

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HMI based bioconjugates, hydrogel, and nanomicelles were used as a controlled release of drugs and vaccines.

Over the past few years, hydrophobically modified inulin (HMI) has gained considerable attention due to its multitudinous features. The targeted release of drugs remains a subject of research interest. Moreover, it is important to explore the properties of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) inulin esters because they are less studied. Additionally, HMI has been used to stabilize various dispersion formulations, which have been observed to be safe because inulin is generally recognized as safe (GRAS). However, the results regarding HMI-based dispersion products are dispersed throughout the literature. This comprehensive review is discussed the possible limitations regarding SCFAs inulin esters, real food dispersion formulations, and HMI drugs. The results revealed that SCFAs inulin esters can regulate the human gut microbiota and increase the biological half-life of SCFAs in the human body. This comprehensive review discusses the versatility of HMI as a promising excipient for the production of hydrophobic drugs.

The physiological functions and pharmaceutical applications of inulin: A review

Inulin (IN), a fructan-type plant polysaccharide, is widely found in nature. The major plant sources of IN include chicory, Jerusalem artichoke, dahlia etc. Studies have found that IN possessed a wide array of biological activities, e.g. as a prebiotic to improve the intestinal microbe environment, regulating blood sugar, regulating blood lipids, antioxidant, anticancer, immune regulation and so on. Currently, IN is widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries. IN can be used as thickener, fat replacer, sweetener and water retaining agent in the food industry. IN also can be applied in the pharmaceutics as stabilizer, drug carrier, and auxiliary therapeutic agent for certain diseases such as constipation and diabetes. This paper reviews the physiological functions of IN and its applications in the field of pharmaceutics, analyzes its present research status and future research direction. This review will serve as a one-in-all resource for the researchers who are interested to work on IN.

Recent Advances on Graphene Quantum Dots as Multifunctional Nanoplatforms for Cancer Treatment

Graphene quantum dots (GQDs), the latest member of the graphene family, have attracted enormous interest in the last few years, due to their exceptional physical, chemical, electrical, optical, and biological properties. Their strong size-dependent photoluminescence and the presence of many reactive groups on the graphene surface allow their multimodal conjugation with therapeutic agents, targeting ligands, polymers, light responsive agents, fluorescent dyes, and functional nanoparticles, making them valuable agents for cancer diagnosis and treatment. In this review, the very recent advances covering the last 3 years on the applications of GQDs as drug delivery systems and theranostic tools for anticancer therapy are discussed, highlighting the relevant factors which regulate their biocompatibility. Among these factors, the size, kind, and degree of surface functionalization have shown to greatly affect their use in biological systems. Toxicity issues, which still represent an open challenge for the clinical development of GQDs based therapeutic agents, are also discussed at cellular and animal levels.

Novel Polymeric Micelles-Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles for In Vivo Bioimaging of Liver: Toxicological Profile and Contrast Enhancement

Magnetic nanoparticles are intensively studied for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as contrast agents but yet there remained some gaps regarding their toxicity potential and clinical implications of their biodistribution in organs. This study presents the effects induced by magnetite nanoparticles encapsulated in polymeric micelles (MNP-DSPE-PEG) on biochemical markers, metabolic functions, and MRI signal in CD1 mice liver. Three groups of animals, one control and the other ones injected with a suspension of five, respectively, 15 mg Fe/kg bw nanoparticles, were monitored up to 14 days. The results indicated the presence of MNP-DSPE-PEG in the liver in the first two days of the experiment. The most significant biochemical changes also occurred in the first 3 days after exposure when the most severe histological changes were observed. The change of the MRI signal intensity on the T2-weighted images and increased transverse relaxation rates R2 in the liver were observed after the first minutes from the nanoparticle administration. The study shows that the alterations of biomarkers level resulting from exposure to MNP-DSPE-PEG are restored in time in mice liver. This was associated with a significant contrast on T2-weighted images and made us conclude that these nanoparticles might be potential candidates for use as a contrast agent in liver medical imaging.

Covalent hyaluronic-based coating of magnetite nanoparticles: Preparation, physicochemical and biological characterization

In this paper we report about the preparation, physicochemical and biological characterization of a magneto responsive nanostructured material based on magnetite nanoparticles (NP) coated with hyaluronic acid (HA). A synthetic approach, based on a Cu(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition "click" reaction between azido-functionalized magnetite NP and a derivative of hyaluronic acid bearing propargylated ferulic acid groups (HA-FA-Pg), was developed to link covalently the polymer layer to the magnetite NP. The functionalization steps of the magnetite NP and their coating with the HA-FA-Pg layer were monitored by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) while Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and ζ-potential measurements were performed to characterize the aqueous dispersions of the HA-coated magnetite NP. Aggregation and sedimentation processes were investigated also by UV-visible spectroscopy and the dispersions of HA-coated magnetite NP were found significantly more stable than those of bare NP. Magnetization and zero field cooled/field cooled curves revealed that both bare and HA-coated magnetite NP are superparamagnetic at room temperature. Moreover, cytotoxicity studies showed that the coating with HA-FA-Pg significantly reduces the cytotoxicity of the magnetite NP providing the rational basis for the application of the HA-coated magnetite NP as healthcare material.

Inulin as a multifaceted (active) substance and its chemical functionalization: From plant extraction to applications in pharmacy, cosmetics and food

This review is aimed at critically discussing a collection of research papers on Inulin (INU) in different scientific fields. The first part of this work gives an overview on the main characteristics of native INU, including production, applications in food or cosmetics industries, its benefits on human health as well as its main nutraceutical properties. A particular focus is dedicated to the extraction techniques and to the specific effects of INU on intestinal microbiota. Other than in food industry, the number of INU applications increases dramatically in the pharmaceutical field especially due to its simple chemical functionalization. Thus, aim of this review is also to give practical examples of chemical functionalization performed on INU also by including critical comments based on the direct experience of the Authors. With this aim, a full paragraph is dedicated to practical chemical experiences useful to reduce the efforts when establishing new experimental conditions. Moreover, the pharmaceutical technology is also taken in special consideration by underlining the aspects leading at the preparation of formulations based on INU. At the end of the review, a critical paragraph is intended to feed the scientists' curiosity on this versatile polysaccharide.

Combining Inulin Multifunctional Polycation and Magnetic Nanoparticles: Redox-Responsive siRNA-Loaded Systems for Magnetofection

Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) are recognized as one of the most promising agents for theranostic applications. Among methods designed for siRNA delivery, magnetofection, that is, nucleic acid cell uptake under the influence of a magnetic field acting on magnetic nucleic acid vectors, is emerging as a unique approach to combining advantages such as strong improvement of the kinetics of the delivery process and the possibility of localizing nucleic acid delivery to an area where the magnetic field is applied. This paper reports on the preparation of siRNA loaded magnetoplexes—named ICD@SS@SPIONs/siRNA—by controlled crosslinking, in the presence of SPIONs, of the polycation INU-C-DETA, synthesized starting from the polysaccharide inulin by grafting diethylenetriamine and cystamine molecules. The obtained ICD@SS@SPIONs/siRNA have suitable chemical-physical characteristics to be employed for iv administration and are also able to release siRNA in a redox-triggered manner thanks to intracellular glutathione (GSH) mediated reduction of disulphide bridges formed during the crosslinking process. Moreover, ICD@SS@SPIONs/siRNA are able to produce magnetic targeting in vitro on breast cancer cells, without appreciable cyto- and hemo-toxic effects, in a wide range of concentrations. Finally, protein binding to nanoparticles revealed that obtained systems are potentially longer circulating and applicable as a smart multifunctional agents for cancer therapy.

Inulin: A novel and stretchy polysaccharide tool for biomedical and nutritional applications

Inulin (INU) is a flexible, fructan type polysaccharide carbohydrate, mainly obtained from the root of chicory. It is a water-soluble dietary fibre and has been recently approved by the Food and Drug Administration for improving the nutritional values of food products. INU is not digested or fermented in the initial portion of the human digestive system and directly reaches on the distal portion of the colon. Owing to this superior property, INU is specially applied to develop specific carrier systems for localized delivery of drugs related to colon diseases. Several studies proved that the fermented bi-products of INU help the growth and stimulating activity of colon bacteria e.g. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacilli. INU also has several inherent therapeutic effects like reduction of tumor risks, help in calcium ion absorption, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant properties etc. Apart from these, INU has been used for different pharmaceutical applications as a drug carrier, stabilizing agent, cryoprotectant, and an alternative to fats and sugars. Here, we review the applications of INU in different areas of biomedical science, look back into the nutritional effects of INU and outline various routes of administration of INU-based formulations.

A Rapid Method for the Detection of Sarcosine Using SPIONs/Au/CS/SOX/NPs for Prostate Cancer Sensing

BACKGROUND

Sarcosine is an amino acid that is formed by methylation of glycine and is present in trace amounts in the body. Increased sarcosine concentrations in blood plasma and urine are manifested in sarcosinemia and in some other diseases such as prostate cancer. For this purpose, sarcosine detection using the nanomedicine approach was proposed. In this study, we have prepared superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) with different modified surface area. Nanoparticles (NPs) were modified by chitosan (CS), and sarcosine oxidase (SOX). SPIONs without any modification were taken as controls. Methods and Results: The obtained NPs were characterized by physicochemical methods. The size of the NPs determined by the dynamic light scattering method was as follows: SPIONs/Au/NPs (100⁻300 nm), SPIONs/Au/CS/NPs (300⁻700 nm), and SPIONs/Au/CS/SOX/NPs (600⁻1500 nm). The amount of CS deposited on the NP surface was found to be 48 mg/mL for SPIONs/Au/CS/NPs and 39 mg/mL for SPIONs/Au/CS/SOX/NPs, and repeatability varied around 10%. Pseudo-peroxidase activity of NPs was verified using sarcosine, horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) as a substrate. For TMB, all NPs tested evinced substantial pseudo-peroxidase activity at 650 nm. The concentration of SPIONs/Au/CS/SOX/NPs in the reaction mixture was optimized to 0⁻40 mg/mL. Trinder reaction for sarcosine detection was set up at 510 nm at an optimal reaction temperature of 37 °C and pH 8.0. The course of the reaction was linear for 150 min. The smallest amount of NPs that was able to detect sarcosine was 0.2 mg/well (200 µL of total volume) with the linear dependence y = 0.0011x - 0.0001 and the correlation coefficient r = 0.9992, relative standard deviation (RSD) 6.35%, limit of detection (LOD) 5 µM. The suggested method was further validated for artificial urine analysis (r = 0.99, RSD 21.35%, LOD 18 µM). The calculation between the detected and applied concentrations showed a high correlation coefficient (r = 0.99). NPs were tested for toxicity and no significant growth inhibition was observed in any model system (S. cerevisiae, S. aureus, E. coli). The hemolytic activity of the prepared NPs was similar to that of the phosphate buffered saline (PBS) control. The reaction system was further tested on real urine specimens. Conclusion: The proposed detection system allows the analysis of sarcosine at micromolar concentrations and to monitor changes in its levels as a potential prostate cancer marker. The whole system is suitable for low-cost miniaturization and point-of-care testing technology and diagnostic systems. This system is simple, inexpensive, and convenient for screening tests and telemedicine applications.

DS, Sahithya CS, Bhavya KS, Saipriya C. Preparation, characterization and utilization of coreshell super paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for curcumin delivery

In this study, super paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) were produced by chemical co-precipitation method, then it was constructed to be a core shell nanoparticle by functionalizing with SDS, loading with curcumin and coating with a biopolymer i.e. chitosan. Each step was analyzed microscopically and spectroscopically. The produced coreshell particles were between 40 and 45nm and these coreshell particles were utilized for drug delivery studies against cervical cancer cell line-HeLa cells. The coreshell SPIONs were found to be releasing curcumin in between 6 and 12 h, which was evidenced by increased apoptotic cells and increased caspase 3 expression in HeLa cells.

Redox-sensitive nanoparticles based on 4-aminothiophenol-carboxymethyl inulin conjugate for budesonide delivery in inflammatory bowel diseases

The purpose of this study was to develop an oral nanocarrier as budesonide delivery system and to evaluate its therapeutic potential for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The nanoparticles (NPs) based on an amphiphilic inulin polymer with 4-aminothiophenol (ATP) grafted onto carboxymethyl inulin (CMI) were prepared. The particle sizes were about 210.18 nm and had the obvious pH/redox sensitive swelling transitions. The drug-release study of NPs <-- >in vitro showed a low release rate (about 45 wt%) in GSH-free media, whereas high release rate (about 80 wt%) in the media containing 20 mM GSH, exhibiting a redox-responsive property. Further in vivo experiments found the NPs tended to accumulate in inflamed sites, and exerted excellent therapeutic efficacy in comparison to drug suspension in colitis mice model. All the results demonstrated that the redox-sensitive NPs, based on amphiphilic inulin, may be used as colon-targeted drug delivery for the treatment of IBD.

Inulin based glutathione-responsive delivery system for colon cancer treatment

Colorectal cancer is one of the most common types of tumor in the world. Here we developed a lipoic acid esterified polysaccharide (inulin) delivery system for tanshinone IIA to treat colorectal cancer in vitro. The release of tanshinone IIA in the system was highly responsive to glutathione, which is commonly abundant in cancer cells. In addition, this drug delivery system was proliferative to Bifidobacterium longum, the common inhabitant of human intestine. Thus, this strategy might be useful to improve colon cancer therapy efficacy of anticancer drugs and meanwhile promote the growth of beneficial commensal flora in the gut.

Enzyme sensitive smart inulin-dehydropeptide conjugate self-assembles into nanostructures useful for targeted delivery of ornidazole

Molecular self-assembly of biodegradable amphiphilic polymers allows rational design of biocompatible nanomaterials for drug delivery. Use of substituted polysaccharides for such applications offers the ease of design and synthesis, and provides higher biofunctionality and biocompatibility to nanomaterials. The present work focuses on the synthesis, characterization and potential biomedical applications of self-assembled polysaccharide-based materials. We demonstrated that the synthesized amphiphilic inulin self-assembled in aqueous medium into nanostructures with average size in the range of 146-486nm and encapsulated hydrophobic therapeutic molecule, ornidazole. Hydrophophic dehydropeptide was conjugated with inulin via a biocompatible ester linkage. Dehydrophenylalanine, an unusual amino acid, was incorporated in the peptide to make it stable at a broader range of pH as well as against proteases. The resulting core-shell type of nanostructures could encapsulate ornidazole in the hydrophobic core and released it in a controlled fashion. By taking the advantage of inulin, which gets degraded in the colon by colonic bacteria, the effect of enzyme, inulinase, present in the microflora of the large intestine, on inulin-peptide degradation followed by drug release has been studied. Altogether, small peptide conjugated to inulin offers novel scaffold for the future design of nanostructures with potential applications in the field of targeted drug delivery.

Magnetic Drug Targeting: Preclinical in Vivo Studies, Mathematical Modeling, and Extrapolation to Humans

A sound theoretical rationale for the design of a magnetic nanocarrier capable of magnetic capture in vivo after intravenous administration could help elucidate the parameters necessary for in vivo magnetic tumor targeting. In this work, we utilized our long-circulating polymeric magnetic nanocarriers, encapsulating increasing amounts of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) in a biocompatible oil carrier, to study the effects of SPION loading and of applied magnetic field strength on magnetic tumor targeting in CT26 tumor-bearing mice. Under controlled conditions, the in vivo magnetic targeting was quantified and found to be directly proportional to SPION loading and magnetic field strength. Highest SPION loading, however, resulted in a reduced blood circulation time and a plateauing of the magnetic targeting. Mathematical modeling was undertaken to compute the in vivo magnetic, viscoelastic, convective, and diffusive forces acting on the nanocapsules (NCs) in accordance with the Nacev-Shapiro construct, and this was then used to extrapolate to the expected behavior in humans. The model predicted that in the latter case, the NCs and magnetic forces applied here would have been sufficient to achieve successful targeting in humans. Lastly, an in vivo murine tumor growth delay study was performed using docetaxel (DTX)-encapsulated NCs. Magnetic targeting was found to offer enhanced therapeutic efficacy and improve mice survival compared to passive targeting at drug doses of ca. 5-8 mg of DTX/kg. This is, to our knowledge, the first study that truly bridges the gap between preclinical experiments and clinical translation in the field of magnetic drug targeting.

Effects of Ultrasound Irradiation on the Release Profile of 5-fluorouracil from Magnetic Polylactic co-glycolic Acid Nanocapsules

BACKGROUND

Drug nano-carriers are one of the most important tools for targeted cancer therapy so that undesired side effects of chemotherapy drugs are minimized. In this area, the use of ultrasound can be helpful in controlling drug release from nanoparticles to achieve higher treatment efficiency.

OBJECTIVE

Here, we studies the effects of ultrasound irradiation on the release profile of 5-fluorouracil (5-Fu) loaded magnetic poly lactic co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanocapsules.

METHODS

5-Fu loaded magnetic PLGA nanocapsules were synthesized by multiple emulsification method. Particle size was measured by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). The pattern of drug release was assessed with and without 3 MHz ultrasound waves at intensities of 0.3, 0.5 and 1 w/cm2 for exposure time of 5 and 10 min in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS).

RESULTS

The size of nanoparticles was about 70 nm. Electron microscope images revealed the spherical shape of nanoparticles. The results demonstrated that the intensity and exposure time of ultrasound irradiation have significant effects on the profile of drug release from nanoparticles.

CONCLUSION

It may be concluded that the application of ultrasound to control the release profile of drug loaded nanocapsules would be a promising method to develop a controlled drug delivery strategy in cancer therapy.

RGD-peptide conjugated inulin-ibuprofen nanoparticles for targeted delivery of Epirubicin

Recently, chemotherapy-based polymeric nanoparticles have been extensively investigated for solid tumor treatment. Tumor targeted nanoparticles demonstrated great potential for improved accumulation in the tumor tissue, superior anticancer activity and reduced side effects. Thus, inulin-ibuprofen polymer was synthesized by esterification between inulin and ibuprofen, and RGD targeted epirubicin (EPB) loaded nanoparticles were prepared by the self-assembly of inulin-ibuprofen polymer and in situ encapsulation of EPB. RGD conjugated EPB loaded nanoparticles were characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). The EPB release from the nanoparticles showed pH-dependent profile and accelerated by the decreased pH value, which would favor the effective drug delivery in vivo. Intracellular uptake analysis suggested that RGD conjugated nanoparticles could be easily internalized by the cancer cells. In vitro cytotoxicity revealed that RGD conjugated EPB loaded nanoparticles exhibited the better antitumor efficacy compared with non-conjugated nanoparticles. More importantly, RGD conjugated EPB loaded nanoparticles showed superior anticancer effects and reduced toxicity than free EPB and non-conjugated nanoparticles by in vivo antitumor activity, EPB biodistribution and histology analysis.

Inulin coated plasmonic gold nanoparticles as a tumor-selective tool for cancer therapy

Polymer coated gold nanospheres are proposed as a tumor selective carrier for the anticancer drug doxorubicin. Thiolated polyethyleneglycol (PEG-SH) and an inulin-amino derivative based copolymer (INU-EDA) were used as stabilizing and coating materials for 40 nm gold nanospheres. The resulting polymer coated gold nanospheres (Au@PEG-INU) showed excellent physicochemical stability and potential stealth like behavior. The system was loaded with doxorubicin (Au@PEG-INU/Doxo) and its cytotoxicity profile was evaluated on human cervical cancer cells (HeLa) and lung cancer cells (A549), as compared to Au@PEG-INU and doxorubicin alone. Cytotoxicity assays showed that the system is able to drastically reduce cell viability upon incubation for 3 days. This result was supported by the ability of Au@PEG-INU/Doxo to be internalized by cancer cells and to release doxorubicin, as assessed by fluorescence microscopy. Finally, a cancer/non cancer cell co-culture model was used to display the advantageous therapeutic effects of the proposed system with respect to doxorubicin alone, thereby demonstrating the ability of Au@PEG-INU/Doxo to preferentially accumulate in tumor cells due to their enhanced metabolism, and to selectively kill target cells.

Polyaminoacid–doxorubicin prodrug micelles as highly selective therapeutics for targeted cancer therapy

An amphiphilic copolymer carrying high-dose doxorubicin (21% on a weight basis), PHEA–EDA–P,C–Doxo, was prepared by coupling doxorubicin with a biocompatible polyaminoacid through a pH-sensitive spacer.

Development of a simple, biocompatible and cost-effective Inulin-Diethylenetriamine based siRNA delivery system

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) have the potential to be of therapeutic value for many human diseases. So far, however, a serious obstacle to their therapeutic use is represented by the absence of appropriate delivery systems able to protect them from degradation and to allow an efficient cellular uptake. In this work we developed a siRNA delivery system based on inulin (Inu), an abundant and natural polysaccharide. Inu was functionalized via the conjugation with diethylenetriamine (DETA) residues to form the complex Inu-DETA. We studied the size, surface charge and the shape of the Inu-DETA/siRNA complexes; additionally, the cytotoxicity, the silencing efficacy and the cell uptake-mechanisms were studied in the human bronchial epithelial cells (16HBE) and in the hepatocellular carcinoma derived cells (JHH6). The results presented here indicate that Inu-DETA copolymers can effectively bind siRNAs, are highly cytocompatible and, in JHH6, can effectively deliver functional siRNAs. Optimal delivery is observed using a weight ratio Inu-DETA/siRNA of 4 that corresponds to polyplexes with an average size of 600nm and a slightly negative surface charge. Moreover, the uptake and trafficking mechanisms, mainly based on micropinocytosis and clatrin mediated endocytosis, allow the homogeneous diffusion of siRNA within the cytoplasm of JHH6. Notably, in 16 HBE where the trafficking mechanism (caveolae mediated endocytosis) does not allow an even distribution of siRNA within the cell cytoplasm, no significant siRNA activity is observed. In conclusion, we developed a novel inulin-based siRNA delivery system able to efficiently release siRNA in JHH6 with negligible cytotoxicity thus opening the way for further testing in more complex in vivo models.

Inulin-Ethylenediamine Coated SPIONs Magnetoplexes: A Promising Tool for Improving siRNA Delivery

PURPOSE

An inulin based polycation (Inu-EDA) has been synthesized by the grafting of ethylenediamine molecules onto inulin backbone. The obtained inulin copolymer has been though to coat SPIONs (IC-SPIONs) and obtain stable magnetoplexes by complexation of IC-SPIONs with a model duplexed siRNA, for improving oligonucleotide transfection efficiency.

METHODS

The physical-chemical characteristics of IC-SPIONs and IC-SPIONs/siRNA magnetoplexes have been investigated by scanning and transmission electron microscopies, dynamic light scattering, FT-IR and qualitative surface elementary analysis. Cell compatibility and internalization in vitro of IC-SPIONs have been evaluated by MTS and fluorescence microscopy respectively on cancer (HCT116) and normal human (16HBE) cells. The efficiency of gene silencing effect of magnetoplexes was studied on both tumoral (JHH6) and non tumoral (16HBE) cell lines also by applying an external magnet.

RESULTS

IC-SPIONs showed dimension of 30 nm and resulted cytocompatible on the tested cell lines; in the presence of an external magnet, the magnetic force enhanced the IC-SPIONs uptake inside cells. Magnetically improved transfection was observed in 16HBE cells under magnetofective conditions, in accordance with the IC-SPIONs uptake enhancement in the presence of an external magnet.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support the potential application of this system as a magnetically targeted drug delivery system. Graphical Abstract Magnetically improved siRNA transfection in cells under magnetofective conditions upon uptake enhancement of IC-SPIONs in the presence of an external magnet.

Self-organized environment-sensitive inulin–doxorubicin conjugate with a selective cytotoxic effect towards cancer cells

An inulin-based copolymer bearing high dose doxorubicin (18.45 % w/w), INU-EDA-P,C-DOXO, was prepared by coupling doxorubicin with inulin though citraconylamide bridge used as pH sensitive spacer. Its smart and selective anticancer effect was proved.