Alantolactone alleviates collagen-induced arthritis and inhibits Th17 cell differentiation through modulation of STAT3 signalling

CONTEXT

Alantolactone, the bioactive component in Inula helenium L. (Asteraceae), exhibits multiple biological effects.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to determine the anti-inflammatory effect of alantolactone in a collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse model and its immunomodulatory effects on Th17 differentiation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A CIA mouse model was established with DBA/1 mice randomly divided into four groups (n = 6): healthy, vehicle and two alantolactone-treated groups (25 or 50 mg/kg), followed by oral administration of alantolactone to mice for 21 consecutive days after arthritis onset. The severity of CIA was evaluated by an arthritic scoring system and histopathological examination. Levels of cytokines and anti-CII antibodies as well as percentages of splenic Th17 and Th17 differentiation with or without alantolactone treatments (0.62, 1.2 or 2.5 μM) were detected with ELISA and flow cytometry, respectively. Western blot analysis was used to evaluate intracellular signalling in alantolactone-treated spleen cells.

RESULTS

In CIA mice, alantolactone at 50 mg/kg attenuated RA symptoms, including high arthritis scores, infiltrating inflammatory cells, synovial hyperplasia, bone erosion and levels of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-17A, but not IL-10 in paw tissues. Alantolactone also reduced the number of splenic Th17 cells and the capability of naïve CD4⁺ T cells to differentiate into the Th17 subset by downregulating STAT3/RORγt signalling by as early as 24 h of treatment.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Alantolactone possesses an anti-inflammatory effect that suppresses murine CIA by inhibiting Th17 cell differentiation, suggesting alantolactone is an adjunctive therapeutic candidate to treat rheumatoid arthritis.

A review of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects of Allium cepa and its main constituents

CONTEXT

Allium cepa L. (Liliaceae), known as onion, is consumed throughout the world. Onion and its derivatives including saponins, aglycones, quercetin, cepaenes, flavonoids, organosulfurs, and phenolic compounds, showed various pharmacological properties and therapeutic effects.

OBJECTIVE

Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects of A. cepa and its main constituents, along with the underlying molecular mechanisms are presented.

METHODS

Databases including, Web of Knowledge, Medline/PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar were checked for articles published between 1996 and the end of July 2020, using the key-words Allium cepa, quercetin, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunomodulatory.

RESULTS

A. cepa and its constituents mainly quercetin showed anti-inflammatory effects mediated via reduction of total and differential WBC counts, inhibition of chemotaxis of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, COX, and LOX pathways and prevented formation of leukotrienes and thromboxanes, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) as onVCAM-1, NF-κB, MARK,d STAT-1, JNK, p38 and osteoclastogenesis. A. cepa and its derivatives showed antioxidant effect by decreasing lipid peroxidation, NAD(P)H, MDA, NO, LPO and eNOS but enhancing antioxidants such as SOD, CAT, GSH, GPx, GSPO, TrxR, SDH, GST and GR activities and thiol level. Immunomodulatory effects of the plant and quercetin was also shown by reduction of Th2 cytokines, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 as well as IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-1β and TNF-α and IgE levels, but increased CD4 cells, IFN-γ level and IFN-γ/IL4 ratio (Th1/Th2 balance).

CONCLUSIONS

The effect of onion and its constituents on oxidative stress, inflammatory and immune system were shown indicating their therapeutic value in treatment of various diseases associated with oxidative stress, inflammation, and immune-dysregulation.

Nanobodies as powerful pulmonary targeted biotherapeutics against SARS-CoV-2, pharmaceutical point of view

Background Since December 2019, the newly emerged SARS-CoV-2 virus continues to infect humans and many people died from severe Covid-19 during the last 2 years worldwide. Different approaches are being used for treatment of this infection and its consequences, but limited results have been achieved and new therapeutics are still needed. One of the most interesting biotherapeutics in this era are Nanobodies which have shown very promising results in recent researches. Scope of review Here, we have reviewed the potentials of Nanobodies in Covid-19 treatment. We have also discussed the properties of these biotherapeutics that make them very suitable for pulmonary drug delivery, which seems to be very important route of administration in this disease. Major conclusion Nanobodies with their special biological and biophysical characteristics and their resistance against harsh manufacturing condition, can be considered as promising, targeted biotherapeutics which can be administered by pulmonary delivery pharmaceutical systems against Covid-19. General significance Covid-19 has become a global problem during the last two years and with emerging mutant strains, prophylactic and therapeutic approaches are still highly needed. Nanobodies with their specific properties can be considered as valuable and promising candidates in Covid-19 therapy.

Extraction, structural characterization, and antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities of a polysaccharide from Notarchus leachii freeri eggs

The crude polysaccharides (NLCEP) were extracted from Notarchus leachii freeri eggs strings by the saltextractionmethod. The extraction conditions were optimized using the single-factorexperimentmethod and response surface method (RSM). The results showed that the maximum extraction yield of NLCEP was obtained under the following conditions: NaCl solution concentration of 2.96 %, raw material to liquid ratio of 1: 40 g/mL, extraction time of 2 h and extraction temperature of 69 °C. A new novel pure polysaccharide fraction named as NLCEPs-1 was fractionated from NLCEP by using DEAE-Cellulose 52 and Sephadex G-100. Its structure and immunomodulatory and antioxidant activities were analyzed. The results exhibited that the molecular weight of NLCEPs-1 was 31.4 kDa and it was composed of rhamnose, glucose, galactose, xylose and arabinose in the molar percentage of 11.128: 63.770: 5.439: 6.585: 13.077. The backbone of NLCEPs-1 was mainly consisted of → )4-α-d-Glcp (1→, →6)-α-d-Glcp (1→, →1)-β-d-Galp and β-d-Galp-(1→. NLCEPs-1 exhibited the strong antioxidant activity in scavenging ability of various free radicals and immunomodulatory activity by the enhancement of the pinocytic capacity, nitric oxide (NO) and cytokines.

Aqueous extracts from cultivated Cistanche deserticola Y.C. Ma as polysaccharide adjuvant promote immune responses via facilitating dendritic cell activation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Herbal polysaccharides have exhibited great immune-enhancing potential. Adjuvants are a key tool for developing efficacious vaccines. In our previous study, a water-soluble polysaccharide extracted from wild Cistanche deserticola Y.C. Ma showed potent immunostimulatory activity.

AIM OF STUDY

In this study, the immune profiles and efficacy of aqueous extracts of cultivated Cistanche deserticola Y.C. Ma (AECCD) on ICR mice against ovalbumin (OVA) were investigated. In vitro experiments, the possible DC activation mechanism by AECCD was evaluated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

AECCD were extracted using hot water after which the crude polysaccharides were precipitated by ethanol. Mice were firstly immunized subcutaneously with OVA (10 μg per mouse) alone or OVA (10 μg per mouse) respectively containing different dose of AECCD (200, 400 and 800 μg per mouse) on Days 1 and 14 and the magnitude and kinetics of antibodies and cell-mediated responses were then assessed.

RESULTS

AECCD elicited vigorous and long-term IgG responses with mixed Th1/Th2 responses and up-regulated levels of Th-associated cytokines (CD4⁺IL-4, CD4⁺IFN-γ and CD8⁺IFN-γ). Moreover, AECCD induced the strong cellular immune response characterized by increased splenocyte proliferation as well as the activated T cell response. Notably, AECCD significantly enhanced the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) and inhibited Tregs. In vitro experiments, Preliminary tests indicated that AECCD induced DC activation by promoting phenotypic maturation, cytokine section and allostimulatory activity. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) was an essential receptor for DCs to directly bind AECCD. The inhibitors of NF-κB decreased the expression levels of CD40, CD80, CD86 and MHC-II and the production of IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-6 through DCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Finally, these findings suggested that AECCD could elicit potent and durable antigen specific immune responses through DC activation, which was involved in the regulation of maturation markers and cytokine expression via TLR4-related NF-κB pathway. The study indicates that AECCD is a potential immunomodulator.

Establishing novel roles of bifidocin LHA, antibacterial, antibiofilm and immunomodulator against Pseudomonas aeruginosa corneal infection model

Bifidocin LHA, a novel bacteriocin, was extracted from bee honey B. adolescentis and purified. Bifidocin LHA was characterized as a protein in nature, without lipid or carbohydrate moieties, the molecular weight was 16,000 Da protein, heat-stable and active at a wide range of pH values, bactericidal effect, detergent, and solvents did not affect bifidocin activity and can be classified as type II bacteriocin. In vitro, the antibacterial activity of purified bifidocin LHA was significantly higher than crude bifidocin LHA (P < 0.05) against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa). The antibiofilm activity of bifidocin LHA was significantly higher than the antibiofilm activity of Amikacin (P < 0.05). In vivo, bifidocin LHA demonstrates a significant decreased in the number of P. aeruginosa in the eye, while complete clearance of P. aeruginosa comparing with the control (P < 0.05) when treating with Bifidobacterium adolescentis and bifidocin LHA together. Bifidobacterium adolescentis and bifidocin LHA treatment together induced substantial elevation of IL10 and IL-12 concentrations (P < 0.01) that helped to prevent damage caused by the inflammatory response. Succeeded to eradicate P. aeruginosa infection improved by histological patterns of the eye tissues. This study indicated Bifidobacterium adolescentis and bifidocin LHA consider as crucial strategies for the practical treatment of eye infection in the future.

Plant/algal polysaccharides extracted by microwave: A review on hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, prebiotic, and immune-stimulatory effect

Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) is an emerging technology to obtain polysaccharides with an extensive spectrum of biological characteristics. In this study, the hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, prebiotic, and immunomodulatory (e.g., antiinflammatory, anticoagulant, and phagocytic) effects of algal- and plant-derived polysaccharides rich in glucose, galactose, and mannose using MAE were comprehensively discussed. The in vitro and in vivo results showed that these bioactive macromolecules with the low digestibility rate could effectively alleviate the fatty acid-induced lipotoxicity, acute hemolysis, and dyslipidemia status. The optimally extracted glucomannan- and glucogalactan-containing polysaccharides revealed significant antidiabetic effects through inhibiting α-amylase and α-glucosidase, improving dynamic insulin sensitivity and secretion, and promoting pancreatic β-cell proliferation. These bioactive macromolecules as prebiotics not only improve the digestibility in gastrointestinal tract but also reduce the survival rate of pathogens and tumor cells by activating macrophages and producing pro-inflammatory biomarkers and cytokines. They can effectively prevent gastrointestinal disorders and microbial infections without any toxicity.

Marine sulfated polysaccharides as potential antiviral drug candidates to treat Corona Virus disease (COVID-19)

The viral infection caused by SARS-CoV-2 has increased the mortality rate and engaged several adverse effects on the affected individuals. Currently available antiviral drugs have found to be unsuccessful in the treatment of COVID-19 patients. The demand for efficient antiviral drugs has created a huge burden on physicians and health workers. Plasma therapy seems to be less accomplishable due to insufficient donors to donate plasma and low recovery rate from viral infection. Repurposing of antivirals has been evolved as a suitable strategy in the current treatment and preventive measures. The concept of drug repurposing represents new experimental approaches for effective therapeutic benefits. Besides, SARS-CoV-2 exhibits several complications such as lung damage, blood clot formation, respiratory illness and organ failures in most of the patients. Based on the accumulation of data, sulfated marine polysaccharides have exerted successful inhibition of virus entry, attachment and replication with known or unknown possible mechanisms against deadly animal and human viruses so far. Since the virus entry into the host cells is the key process, the prevention of such entry mechanism makes any antiviral strategy effective. Enveloped viruses are more sensitive to polyanions than non-enveloped viruses. Besides, the viral infection caused by RNA virus types embarks severe oxidative stress in the human body that leads to malfunction of tissues and organs. In this context, polysaccharides play a very significant role in providing shielding effect against the virus due to their polyanionic rich features and a molecular weight that hinders their reactive surface glycoproteins. Significantly the functional groups especially sulfate, sulfate pattern and addition, uronic acids, monosaccharides, glycosidic linkage and high molecular weight have greater influence in the antiviral activity. Moreover, they are very good antioxidants that can reduce the free radical generation and provokes intracellular antioxidant enzymes. Additionally, polysaccharides enable a host-virus immune response, activate phagocytosis and stimulate interferon systems. Therefore, polysaccharides can be used as candidate drugs, adjuvants in vaccines or combination with other antivirals, antioxidants and immune-activating nutritional supplements and antiviral materials in healthcare products to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Structural characterization of novel arabinoxylan and galactoarabinan from citron with potential antitumor and immunostimulatory activities

This study aimed to extract polysaccharides from citron and analyze their structures and potential bioactivities. Two novel polysaccharides CM-1 and CM-2 were purified from citron by DEAE-Sepharose Fast Flow and Sephadex G-100 column chromatography. Monosaccharide composition, linkage and NMR data were used to infer their sugar chains composition. The anti-breast cancer cells and immunoregulatory activities of CM-1 and CM-2 were investigated. Results indicated that CM-1 (Mw = 21,520 Da), composed of arabinose, xylose, mannose and glucose in a molar ratio of 10.78:11.53:1.00:1.70, was arabinoxylan (AX) with (1 → 4)-linked β-d-Xylp skeleton monosubstituted with α-l-Araf units at O-3 position. While CM-2 (Mw = 22,303 Da), composed of arabinose, mannose, glucose and galactose in a molar ratio of 25.46:1.45:1.00:6.57, was galactoarabinan (GA) with (1 → 5)-linked α-l-Araf backbone substituted by β-d-Galp units at O-2 and/or O-3 positions. Both polysaccharides exhibited potential inhibiting cancer and immunostimulatory activities in vitro, especially CM-1. These results provide a basis for further research on citron polysaccharides.

Medicinal Plant Leaf Extract From Sage and Lemon Verbena Promotes Intestinal Immunity and Barrier Function in Gilthead Seabream (Sparus aurata)

The inclusion of a medicinal plant leaf extract (MPLE) from sage (Salvia officinalis) and lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora), rich in verbascoside and triterpenic compounds like ursolic acid, was evaluated in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) fed a low fishmeal-based diet (48% crude protein, 17% crude fat, 21.7 MJ kg-1, 7% fishmeal, 15% fish oil) for 92 days. In particular, the study focused on the effect of these phytogenic compounds on the gut condition by analyzing the transcriptomic profiling (microarray analysis) and histological structure of the intestinal mucosa, as well as the histochemical properties of mucins stored in goblet cells. A total number of 506 differentially expressed genes (285 up- and 221 down-regulated) were found when comparing the transcriptomic profiling of the intestine from fish fed the control and MPLE diets. The gut transcripteractome revealed an expression profile that favored biological mechanisms associated to the 1) immune system, particularly involving T cell activation and differentiation, 2) gut integrity (i.e., adherens and tight junctions) and cellular proliferation, and 3) cellular proteolytic pathways. The histological analysis showed that the MPLE dietary supplementation promoted an increase in the number of intestinal goblet cells and modified the composition of mucins' glycoproteins stored in goblet cells, with an increase in the staining intensity of neutral mucins, as well as in mucins rich in carboxylated and weakly sulfated glycoconjugates, particularly those rich in sialic acid residues. The integration of transcriptomic and histological results showed that the evaluated MPLE from sage and lemon verbena is responsible for the maintenance of intestinal health, supporting gut homeostasis and increasing the integrity of the intestinal epithelium, which suggests that this phytogenic may be considered as a promising sustainable functional additive for aquafeeds.

Enhancement of β-Glucan Biological Activity Using a Modified Acid-Base Extraction Method from Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Beta glucan (β-glucan) has promising bioactive properties. Consequently, the use of β-glucan as a food additive is favored with the dual-purpose potential of increasing the fiber content of food products and enhancing their health properties. Our aim was to evaluate the biological activity of β-glucan (antimicrobial, antitoxic, immunostimulatory, and anticancer) extracted from Saccharomyces cerevisiae using a modified acid-base extraction method. The results demonstrated that a modified acid-base extraction method gives a higher biological efficacy of β-glucan than in the water extraction method. Using 0.5 mg dry weight of acid-base extracted β-glucan (AB extracted) not only succeeded in removing 100% of aflatoxins, but also had a promising antimicrobial activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria, fungi, and yeast, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 0.39 and 0.19 mg/mL in the case of resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, respectively. In addition, AB extract exhibited a positive immunomodulatory effect, mediated through the high induction of TNFα, IL-6, IFN-γ, and IL-2. Moreover, AB extract showed a greater anticancer effect against A549, MDA-MB-232, and HepG-2 cells compared to WI-38 cells, at high concentrations. By studying the cell death mechanism using flow-cytometry, AB extract was shown to induce apoptotic cell death at higher concentrations, as in the case of MDA-MB-231 and HePG-2 cells. In conclusion, the use of a modified AB for β-glucan from Saccharomyces cerevisiae exerted a promising antimicrobial, immunomodulatory efficacy, and anti-cancer potential. Future research should focus on evaluating β-glucan in various biological systems and elucidating the underlying mechanism of action.

Development of an Affordable, Sustainable and Efficacious Plant-Based Immunomodulatory Food Ingredient Based on Bell Pepper or Carrot RG-I Pectic Polysaccharides

The prevalence of acute respiratory infections and their impact on quality of life underlies the need for efficacious solutions that are safe, sustainable and economically viable. Polysaccharides in several (traditional) plant extracts have been shown to be immunostimulatory, and some studies suggest beneficial effects against respiratory infections. The aim of this study was to (i) identify the active polysaccharide constituents from affordable and renewable crops (bell pepper and carrot) using activity-guided fractionation, (ii) evaluate in vitro effects on innate immune responses (phagocytosis and cytokine secretion), microbiota modulation and production of short chain fatty acids, followed by (iii) the evaluation of effects of a bell pepper extract enriched for the active component in a human proof of concept study. We identified rhamnogalacturonan-I (RG-I) as the nutricophore responsible for the immunostimulatory activity with substantial structural and functional equivalence between bell pepper (bp) and carrot (c). The in vitro studies showed that bpRG-I and cRG-I comprise similar immune- and microbiota modulatory potential and the human study demonstrated that bpRG-I was well tolerated and enhanced innate immune responsiveness in vivo. This is an important step towards testing the efficacy of RG-I from bpRG-I or cRG-I in an infection trial in humans.

Chemical profile of Cimicifuga heracleifolia Kom. And immunomodulatory effect of its representative bioavailable component, cimigenoside on Poly(I:C)-induced airway inflammation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The dried rhizome of Cimicifuga heracleifolia Kom. (C. heracleifolia) is a popular traditional Chinese medicine, which has been extensively used in Asian countries for its anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic activities. However, further utilization and application of C. heracleifolia have been hampered due to a lack of full understanding of its active ingredients.

AIM OF STUDY

The present study aims for clarification of the systematical chemical profile of C. heracleifolia and the immunomodulatory effect of its main bioavailable component.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Comprehensive chemical profile of C. heracleifolia was systematically analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography hyphenated with quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS). Xenobiotics after oral administration of C. heracleifolia extracts were investigated to hunt for bioavailable components. The immunomodulatory activity evaluation of cimigenoside was achieved on poly(I:C)-induced airway inflammation mouse and BEAS-2B cell models from aspects of neutrophil infiltration, lung inflammation by using microscope analysis, quantification of production and expression of inflammatory cytokine and chemokines by using ELISA and quantitative PCR.

RESULTS

By UPLC-Q-TOF/MS analysis, 110 compounds (including 81 triterpenoids, 21 cinnamic acid derivatives, and 8 other structure types) were identified or tentatively characterized in ethanolic extract of C. heracleifolia. Based on the data of chemical profile, xenobiotics of C. heracleifolia were subsequently analyzed, and triterpene glycosides were detected as the major bioavailable ingredients. Oral administration of cimigenoside, a representative triterpene glycoside, could prevent neutrophils infiltration in the lung due to suppression of the production of CXCL2 and CXCL10, and the expression of P-selectin, VCAM1 in poly(I:C)-induced airway inflammation model mice. Moreover, cimigenoside also inhibited the productions of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines from human airway epithelial cell line (BEAS-2B cells) induced by poly(I:C).

CONCLUSION

Triterpene glycosides were the main components of C. heracleifolia extract, and cimigenoside was considered as the effective component with immunomodulatory effect on the pulmonary immune system by oral administration.

Iripin-3, a New Salivary Protein Isolated From Ixodes ricinus Ticks, Displays Immunomodulatory and Anti-Hemostatic Properties In Vitro

Tick saliva is a rich source of pharmacologically and immunologically active molecules. These salivary components are indispensable for successful blood feeding on vertebrate hosts and are believed to facilitate the transmission of tick-borne pathogens. Here we present the functional and structural characterization of Iripin-3, a protein expressed in the salivary glands of the tick Ixodes ricinus, a European vector of tick-borne encephalitis and Lyme disease. Belonging to the serpin superfamily of protease inhibitors, Iripin-3 strongly inhibited the proteolytic activity of serine proteases kallikrein and matriptase. In an in vitro setup, Iripin-3 was capable of modulating the adaptive immune response as evidenced by reduced survival of mouse splenocytes, impaired proliferation of CD4+ T lymphocytes, suppression of the T helper type 1 immune response, and induction of regulatory T cell differentiation. Apart from altering acquired immunity, Iripin-3 also inhibited the extrinsic blood coagulation pathway and reduced the production of pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated bone marrow-derived macrophages. In addition to its functional characterization, we present the crystal structure of cleaved Iripin-3 at 1.95 Å resolution. Iripin-3 proved to be a pluripotent salivary serpin with immunomodulatory and anti-hemostatic properties that could facilitate tick feeding via the suppression of host anti-tick defenses. Physiological relevance of Iripin-3 activities observed in vitro needs to be supported by appropriate in vivo experiments.

A lipid-soluble extract of Pinellia pedatisecta Schott orchestrates intratumoral dendritic cell-driven immune activation through SOCS1 signaling in cervical cancer

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Pinellia pedatisecta Schott extract (PE) is generated from Pinellia pedatisecta Schott, a traditional Chinese medicinal plant. PE suppresses cervical tumor growth and exhibits effects on dendritic cells (DCs) that lead to modulation of antitumor CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ responses.

AIMS

To explore the underlying mechanisms by which PE modulates tumor-associated dendritic cell (TADC) activation and function.

METHODS

DCs and TADCs were generated from murine bone marrow and exposed to PE solutions at different doses, as well as to repeated doses separated at different time intervals. Quantitative PCR, Western blot analysis, flow cytometry, and gene silencing were used to analyze the modulatory effects of PE on the SOCS1/JAK2/STAT pathways. Furthermore, we separated human cervical tumor-infiltrated DCs (TIDCs) and conducted an ex-vivo stimulation model to observe the effect of PE. For phenotypic analysis of cultured DCs and ex vivo human specimens, we used flow cytometry to detect the molecular markers associated with cell function.

RESULTS

In cultured TADCs and human cervical TIDCs, maturation- and functional markers (MHCII, CD80, CD83, CD86, and IL-12) were downregulated, whereas SOCS1 was upregulated. PE enhanced the expression of CD80, CD86, and IL-12 in cervical TIDCs, which induced increased expression of CD107a, GZMB, and perforin in CTLs, and furthermore induced apoptosis in a larger number of tumor cells. In cultured TADCs, PE downregulated SOCS1 expression and activated the phosphorylation of JAK2, STAT1, STAT4, and STAT5 in both dose- and time-dependent manners. The effects of PE upregulating MHCII, CD80, CD86, IL-12 on TADCs were blocked after SOCS1 silencing.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, PE restored the impaired function of cervical TIDCs, thereby eliciting further antitumor CTL responses. The effects of PE on TADCs were mediated through inhibition of SOCS1 and activation of downstream JAK2-STAT1/STAT4/STAT5 pathways. PE may be a potent and effective immunomodulatory drug for antitumor treatment via the blockade of SOCS1 signaling in DCs.

Immunostimulatory and anti-allergic potential of novel heterotrimeric lectin from seeds of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam

Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. seeds (ZMS) have been used medicinally as sedative or hypnotic drugs in most of Asian countries. ZMS has significant benefits to the human health. Therefore, we have evaluated immunomodulatory effect of lectin extracted from these ZMSL in both in vitro and in vivo study. Anaphylaxis is a severe life-threatening allergic reaction and Arthus reaction is deposition of immune complex and complement system activation, so we hypothesized that if ZMSL can protect these severe allergic diseases. We have studied the effect of ZMSL on macrophages and Wistar albino rats and confirmed its protective effect against anaphylaxis and Arthus reaction. Results of this study suggest ZMSL have immunostimulatory and antiallergic activity.

Microwave-Assisted Enzymatic Extraction of Flavonoids from Armeniaca mume Sieb. Blossom and Their Immunomodulating Effect in Mice with DSS-Induced Colitis

Armeniaca mume Sieb. blossom is among the traditional Chinese edible flowers, and it is widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Flavonoids are among the most abundant bioactive compounds in A. mume Sieb. blossom. However, the research on the extraction of flavonoids from A. mume Sieb. blossom and their immunomodulating function is insufficient. In this study, we developed a microwave-assisted enzymatic extraction of flavonoids from A. mume Sieb. blossom (FAMB) and explored their immunomodulating effect on mice with dextran sulfate sodium salt-induced colitis. The results showed that the optimum parameters for microwave-assisted enzymatic extraction of FAMB were as follows: cellulase: 2.0%; microwave power: 200 W; microwave action time: 5 min; and enzymatic hydrolysis time: 50 min. FAMB significantly promoted the lymphocyte proliferation and natural killer (NK) cell killing activity in colitis mice, and increased the concentrations of TNF-α, IFN-γ, and IL-2 in serum. FAMB also significantly reduced the apoptosis of spleen lymphocytes in these mice. These results demonstrated that the microwave-assisted enzymatic method could significantly improve the yield and efficacy extraction of FAMB. FAMB showed a good immunomodulation effect on colitis mice.

Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit protects colon from TNBS-induced inflammation via immunomodulatory, antioxidant and anti-proliferative mechanisms

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In folk medicine Hyptis suaveolens (Lamiaceae) has been reported to relieve respiratory and gastrointestinal infections, indigestion, cold, pain, fever, cramps, skin diseases, gastric ulcer and inflammatory disorders. This study investigated the effects and the mechanisms of action of Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit (Lamiaceae) ethanol extract (Hs-EtOH) and hexane phase (Hs-HexF) against intestinal inflammation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Acute and relapse TNBS-induced ulcerative colitis protocols were used to evaluate intestinal anti-inflammatory activity. Damage evaluations, biochemical, histological and immunostaining parameters were determined.

RESULTS

Both extracts decreased macroscopic colonic inflammation and the area of lesion induced by TNBS. Nevertheless, only Hs-HexF was able to reduce colonic wall thickness, edema and diffuse inflammatory cell infiltration and to prevent GSH depletion in the acute model of ulcerative colitis. In the chronic phase with relapse of colonic ulceration, yet again only Hs-HexF significantly attenuated inflammatory parameters and presented a decrease in nitrite/nitrate, MDA, MPO, IL-1-β and TNF-α and increased levels of SOD, CAT, GSH and IL-10. Hs-HexF also significantly reduced positive cells immunostained for PCNA.

CONCLUSION

The data indicate intestinal anti-inflammatory activity for H. suaveolens, due to the participation of the antioxidant system, decreased neutrophil infiltration and cytokine modulation, as well as, owing to regulation of cell proliferation.

The immunomodulatory activity of Chenopodium ambrosioides reduces the parasite burden and hepatic granulomatous inflammation in Schistosoma mansoni-infection

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Folk medicine reports have described the use of Chenopodium ambrosioides as an anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anthelmintic herb. These effects, including its activity against intestinal worms, are already scientifically observed. However, the immunological mechanisms of this species in the treatment of Schistosoma mansoni infection are unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the immunological and anti-Schistosoma mansoni effects of a crude Chenopodium ambrosioides hydro-alcoholic extract (HCE).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For the in vitro analysis, cercariae and adult worms were exposed to different concentrations (0 to 10,000 μg/mL) of the HCE. For the in vivo evaluation, Swiss mice were infected with 50 cercariae of S. mansoni and separated into groups according to treatment as follows: a negative control (without treatment), a positive control (treated with Praziquantel®), HCE1 Group (treated with HCE during the cutaneous phase), HCE2 Group (treated with HCE during the lung phase), HCE3 Group (treated with HCE during the young worm phase), and HCE4 Group (treated with HCE during the adult worm phase). The animals treated with HCE received daily doses of 50 mg/kg, by gavage, for seven days, corresponding to the different developmental stages of S. mansoni. For comparison, a clean control group (uninfected and untreated) was also included. All animals were euthanized 60 days post-infection to allow the following assessments to be performed: a complete blood cells count, counts of eggs in the feces and liver, the quantification of cytokines and IgE levels, histopathological evaluations of the livers, and the analysis of inflammatory mediators.

RESULTS

HCE treatment increased the mortality of cercariae and adult worms in vitro. The HCE treatment in vivo reduced the eggs in feces and liver. The number and area of liver granulomas, independent of the phase of treatment, were also reduced. The treatment with HCE reduced the percentage of circulating eosinophils, IgE, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-4. In contrast, the treatment with the HCE, dependent on the phase, increased IL-10 levels and the number of peritoneal and bone marrow cells, mainly of T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, and macrophages. This effect could be due to secondary compounds presents in this extract, such as kaempferol, quercetin and derivatives.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that Chenopodium ambrosioides has antiparasitic and immunomodulatory activity against the different phases of schistosomiasis, reducing the granulomatous inflammatory profile caused by the infection and, consequently, improving the disease prognosis.

Antitumor, Immunomodulatory and Antiangiogenic Efficacy of Medicinal Mushroom Extract Mixtures in Advanced Colorectal Cancer Animal Model

Due to frequent drug resistance and/or unwanted side-effects during conventional and targeted cancer treatments, development of multi-target therapies is an important research field. Medicinal mushrooms’ isolated specific compounds and mushroom extracts have been already proven as non-toxic multi-target inhibitors of specific oncogenic pathways, as well as potent immunomodulators. However, research on antitumor effects of multiple-species extract mixtures was limited so far. The aim of this study was therefore, a study of medicinal mushroom preparations AGARIKON.1 and AGARIKON PLUS on colorectal cell lines in vitro and colorectal mice model in vivo. We found a significant antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effect of tested medicinal mushroom preparations on colorectal (HCT-116, SW620) tumor cell lines, while the effect on human fibroblast cell line (WI-38) was proliferative emphasizing a specificity towards tumor cell lines. We further investigated the effect of the medicinal mushroom preparations AGARIKON.1 and AGARIKON PLUS in various combinations with conventional cytostatic drug 5-fluorouracil in the advanced metastatic colorectal cancer mouse model CT26.WT. AGARIKON.1 and AGARIKON PLUS exhibited immunostimulatory and antiangiogenic properties in vivo which resulted in significantly increased survival and reduction in tumor volume. The antitumor effects of AGARIKON.1 and AGARIKON PLUS, with or without 5-fluorouracil, are based on M1 macrophage polarization enhancement, inhibition of M2 and tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) polarization, effects on T helper cell Th1/Th2/Th17 cytokine profiles, direct inhibition of CT26.WT tumor growth, inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF) and metalloproteinases 2 and 9 (MMP-2 and MMP-9) modulation. The administration of AGARIKON.1 and AGARIKON PLUS did not show genotoxic effect. This data provides good basis for an expanded translational study.

Occurrence and possible roles of polysaccharides in fungi and their influence on the development of new technologies

The article summarizes the roles of polysaccharides in the biology of fungi and their relationship in the development of new technologies. The comparative approach between the evolution of fungi and the chemistry of glycobiology elucidated relevant aspects about the role of polysaccharides in fungi. Also, based on the knowledge of fungal glycobiology, it was possible to address the development of new technologies, such as the production of new anti-tumor drugs, vaccines, biomaterials, and applications in the field of robotics. We conclude that polysaccharides activate pathways of apoptosis, secretion of pro-inflammatory substances, and macrophage, inducing anticancer activity. Also, the activation of the immune system, which opens the way for the production of vaccines. The development of biomaterials and parts for robotics is a promising and little-explored field. Finally, the article is multidisciplinary, with a different and integrated approach to the role of nature in the sustainable development of new technologies.

The physiological functions and pharmaceutical applications of inulin: A review

Inulin (IN), a fructan-type plant polysaccharide, is widely found in nature. The major plant sources of IN include chicory, Jerusalem artichoke, dahlia etc. Studies have found that IN possessed a wide array of biological activities, e.g. as a prebiotic to improve the intestinal microbe environment, regulating blood sugar, regulating blood lipids, antioxidant, anticancer, immune regulation and so on. Currently, IN is widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries. IN can be used as thickener, fat replacer, sweetener and water retaining agent in the food industry. IN also can be applied in the pharmaceutics as stabilizer, drug carrier, and auxiliary therapeutic agent for certain diseases such as constipation and diabetes. This paper reviews the physiological functions of IN and its applications in the field of pharmaceutics, analyzes its present research status and future research direction. This review will serve as a one-in-all resource for the researchers who are interested to work on IN.

Immune-enhancing effects of anionic macromolecules extracted from Codium fragile coupled with arachidonic acid in RAW264.7 cells

Arachidonic acid (ARA) is an integral constituent of the biological cell membrane, conferring it with fluidity and flexibility, which are necessary for the function of all cells, especially nervous system, skeletal muscle, and immune system. Codium species biosynthesize sulfated polysaccharides with very distinct structural features. Some of them have different biological activities with great potential in pharmaceutical applications. In this study, anionic macromolecules extracted from Codium fragile were investigated for their cooperative immune-enhancing activities with ARA. The cooperation between ARA and Codium resulted in increased, dose-dependent nitric oxide production and iNOS gene expression. In addition, co-treatment of ARA and Codium effectively increased pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α), compared with Codium alone. We also demonstrated that the expression of COX-2 mRNA was also increased, which is responsible for the production of inflammatory mediator prostaglandins and their metabolites. Compared to the Codium group, the co-treatment of Codium with ARA enhanced the phosphorylation of nuclear factor-κB p-65, p38, and extracellular signal-related kinase 1/2, indicating that this combination stimulated immune response through nuclear factor-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. These results indicated that the coordination of arachidonic acid with polysaccharide extracted from seaweed may be a potential source of immunomodulatory molecules.

Crude polysaccharides from the seeds of Vaccaria segetalis prevent the urinary tract infection through the stimulation of kidney innate immunity

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The seeds of Vaccaria segetalis (Neck.) Garcke is used for the treatment of urinary diseases in Traditional Chinese Medicine according to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Crude polysaccharides and the aqueous extract from the seeds of V. segetalis (SVCP) were proved to be effective on treating benign prostatic hyperplasia.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to test the effects of SVCP on urinary tract infection (UTI) induced by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) strain CFT073 in the rat model and to investigate the underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A rat UTI model was established with the infection of UPEC strain CFT073. After oral administration of SVCP, the urinalysis and histological examination were evaluated. The levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, procalcitonin (PCT) and polymeric Ig receptor (PIGR) were used to test the effects of SVCP on host immunity. The mRNA level of PapG in CFT073 was used to test the influence of SVCP on virulence factor. The effects of SVCP on the inhibition of bacterial adhesion were evaluated with mice UTI model.

RESULTS

In the rat UTI model, the levels of bacterial load, white blood cells (WBC) and red blood cells (RBC) in urine and the pathological injury in the bladder were significantly up-regulated, the expression of PIGR in kidney was down-regulated, no significant change was observed on the pro-inflammatory cytokines in urine. After oral administration of SVCP for 3 days, the levels of bacterial load, WBC and RBC in urine were significantly decreased, the pathological injury in the bladder were remarkably inhibited. The expression of IL-6, IL-8 in urine and PIGR in kidney were significantly up-regulated by SVCP (200 mg/kg). SVCP showed no effect on the concentration of PCT in serum. SVCP failed to down-regulate the mRNA level of PapG in CFT073. In the mice UTI model, pre-treatment of SVCP failed to inhibit the intracellular bacterial load in the bladder.

CONCLUSIONS

The therapeutic effects of SVCP on treating UTIs might result from the up-regulation of innate immunity in the kidney. SVCP can be used as an alternative therapeutic agent for UTIs.

Study of the antioxidant, immunomodulatory and antibacterial properties of Origanum majorana leaf acetone extract

Origanum majorana (OM) is known to have antioxidant properties. The present work was designed to evaluate, for the first time, the hepato/nephroprotective, immunomudulatory and antibacterial potentials of OM leaves acetone extract (OMLE). OML was collected from Al-Soudah, Aseer, Saudi Arabia, and OMLE was prepared. Active biomolecules were screened utilizing FT-IR spectroscopy, protein electrophoresis and HPLC. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured using ELISA. Male rats were treated with OMLE and livers, kidneys and sera were collected. Liver enzymes, kidney function markers, antioxidants in liver and kidney tissues and tumor markers were quantitated. OMLE immunomodulatory potentials were tested using rat splenocytes. Antimicrobial power was tested against Gram negative/positive bacteria. The extract contained many functional biomolecules and ROS but no sugars and proteins. OMLE treatment did not affect liver and kidney functions or the tumor markers. There were some changes in measured antioxidant biomolecules. The extract is not harmful to hepatocytes as indicated by levels of AST and ALT. It is not carcinogenic as it did not make any changes in tumor marker levels. The extract could modulate the splenocytes. The use of OMLE is useful in protecting normal vital organs from oxidative stress. It can also be used as immunostimulant.

Immunomodulatory and Antioxidant Effects of Polysaccharides from the Parasitic Fungus Cordyceps kyushuensis

The ascomycete Cordyceps genus has been used as valued traditional Chinese medicine. Cordyceps kyushuensis is a unique species of Cordyceps, which parasitizes on the larvae of Clanis bilineata Walker, and its major component cordycepin and aqueous extract are known to have many pharmacological effects. However, the physiological function of water-soluble polysaccharides has not been explored in detail. In this study, to resolve these doubts, we extracted and separated Cordyceps-derived polysaccharides and then evaluated the immunomodulatory and antioxidant activities. Four polysaccharide fractions were purified from Cordyceps-cultured stroma by DEAE-cellulose 23 and Sephadex G-150 column chromatography. Basic structural information was elucidated on the basis of physicochemical property and spectroscopic evidences. The antioxidant activities were evaluated by a 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical method and protective effect of DNA damage. The qualified immunologic activities were also determined in vivo and in vitro. The polysaccharides could stimulate the proliferation of mouse splenocytes whether concanavalin A (ConA) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) existed or not, strengthen peritoneal macrophages to devour neutral red, and increase the content of interleukin-2 (IL-2) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in serum. The research provides the corresponding evidence for Cordyceps polysaccharides as a potential candidate for functional foods and therapeutic agents.

Therapeutic potential of lipids obtained from γ-irradiated PBMCs in dendritic cell-mediated skin inflammation

BACKGROUND

Since numerous pathological conditions are evoked by unwanted dendritic cell (DC) activity, therapeutic agents modulating DC functions are of great medical interest. In regenerative medicine, cellular secretomes have gained increasing attention and valuable immunomodulatory properties have been attributed to the secretome of γ-irradiated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Potential effects of the PBMC secretome (PBMCsec) on key DC functions have not been elucidated so far.

METHODS

We used a hapten-mediated murine model of contact hypersensitivity (CH) to study the effects of PBMCsec on DCs in vivo. Effects of PBMCsec on human DCs were investigated in monocyte-derived DCs (MoDC) and ex vivo skin cultures. DCs were phenotypically characterised by transcriptomics analyses and flow cytometry. DC function was evaluated by cytokine secretion, antigen uptake, PBMC proliferation and T-cell priming.

FINDINGS

PBMCsec significantly alleviated tissue inflammation and cellular infiltration in hapten-sensitized mice. We found that PBMCsec abrogated differentiation of MoDCs, indicated by lower expression of classical DC markers CD1a, CD11c and MHC class II molecules. Furthermore, PBMCsec reduced DC maturation, antigen uptake, lipopolysaccharides-induced cytokine secretion, and DC-mediated immune cell proliferation. Moreover, MoDCs differentiated with PBMCsec displayed diminished ability to prime naïve CD4+T-cells into TH1 and TH2 cells. Furthermore, PBMCsec modulated the phenotype of DCs present in the skin in situ. Mechanistically, we identified lipids as the main biomolecule accountable for the observed immunomodulatory effects.

INTERPRETATION

Together, our data describe DC-modulatory actions of lipids secreted by stressed PBMCs and suggest PBMCsec as a therapeutic option for treatment of DC-mediated inflammatory skin conditions.

FUNDING

This research project was supported by the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (Vienna, Austria; grant "APOSEC" 862068; 2015-2019) and the Vienna Business Agency (Vienna, Austria; grant "APOSEC to clinic" 2343727).

Natural Bioactive Compounds from Fungi as Potential Candidates for Protease Inhibitors and Immunomodulators to Apply for Coronaviruses

The inhibition of viral protease is an important target in antiviral drug discovery and development. To date, protease inhibitor drugs, especially HIV-1 protease inhibitors, have been available for human clinical use in the treatment of coronaviruses. However, these drugs can have adverse side effects and they can become ineffective due to eventual drug resistance. Thus, the search for natural bioactive compounds that were obtained from bio-resources that exert inhibitory capabilities against HIV-1 protease activity is of great interest. Fungi are a source of natural bioactive compounds that offer therapeutic potential in the prevention of viral diseases and for the improvement of human immunomodulation. Here, we made a brief review of the current findings on fungi as producers of protease inhibitors and studies on the relevant candidate fungal bioactive compounds that can offer immunomodulatory activities as potential therapeutic agents of coronaviruses in the future.

Daphne giraldii Nitsche (Thymelaeaceae): Phytochemistry, pharmacology and medicinal uses

Daphne giraldii Nitsche., a member of the genus Daphne (Thymelaeaceae), is a deciduous shrub with mild toxicity. Its rhizome bark, generally called 'Zushima' in Chinese, has many medicinal folkloric uses and good therapeutic effects. Previous studies investigating the chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of D. giraldii have focused on several major classes of compounds, such as coumarins, lignans and flavonoids, especially the interesting enantiomeric flavans. Extracts and pure compounds of D. giraldii were found to possess anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive, cytotoxicity, antimalarial, immunomodulating, sedative and hypnotic effects. They have also been reported to influence the cardiovascular functions and blood activities. This comprehensive review will describe the advances in the phytochemistry, pharmacology, medicinal uses and clinical applications of D. giraldii and its formulations covering the literature published from 1970 to 2018. Almost half of the reviewed studies were originally published in non-English languages (mainly in Chinese). Collectively, the aim of this article is to open new avenues for further in-depth pharmacological studies on D. giraldii.

Terpenoid-lupeol of red dragon fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus) and its immunomodulatory activity

Red dragon fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus, (F.A.C. Weber) Britton and Rose) has been reported to have various biological activities such as antimicrobial, anti-hypercholesterolemia, anti-diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular risk reduction, health supplement, and melanoma cell inhibitory. The red thick peel of this fruit is just practically a waste that is possibly utilized to maintain health, therefore this research aimed to isolate and identify active compounds of H. Polyrhizus peels which can improve the immune system of body. In order to simplify methanol extract was partition and fractionation. The active compounds of petroleum ether fraction were separated and purified using preparative thin layer chromatography. The identification of the compounds structure was conducted through spectroscopic techniques, including UV, FT-IR, ¹³CNMR and 1HNMR spectroscopy. The data of spectra revealed that the isolate is lupeol. The statistical analysis of macrophage activity showed that the isolate with concentrations of 100, 50, 25, 12.5 and 6.25μg/mL could activate the macrophages higher than control negative. Terpenoid generated from the isolation of Hylocereus polyrhizus was identified as lupeol (1-isopropenyl-3a,5a,5b,8,8,11a-hexamethyl-eicosahydrocyclopenya [α] chrysen-9ol. In vitro test shows that the isolated compound had an immunomodulatory activity by increases macrophage phagocytosis of latex beads.

Hapalindoles from the Cyanobacterium Hapalosiphon sp. Inhibit T Cell Proliferation

Novel immunomodulating agents are currently sought after for the treatment of autoimmune diseases and cancers. In this context, a screening campaign of a collection of 575 cyanobacteria extracts for immunomodulatory effects has been conducted. The screening resulted in several active extracts. Here we report the results of subsequent studies on an extract from the cyanobacterium Hapalosiphon sp. CBT1235. We identified 5 hapalindoles as the compounds responsible for the observed immunomodulatory effect. These indole alkaloids are produced by several strains of the cyanobacterial family Hapalosiphonaceae. They are known for their anti-infective, cytotoxic, and other bioactivities. Modulation of the activity of human immune cells has not yet been described. The immunomodulatory activity of the hapalindoles was characterized in vitro using flow cytometry-based measurements of T cell proliferation after carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester staining, and apoptosis and necrosis induction after annexin V/propidium iodide staining. The most potent compound, hapalindole A, reduced T cell proliferation with an IC₅₀ of 1.56 µM, while relevant levels of apoptosis were measurable only at 10-fold higher concentrations. Hapalindole A-formamide and hapalindole J-formamide, isolated for the first time from a natural source, had much lower activity than the nonformylated derivatives while, at the same time, being less selective for antiproliferative over apoptotic effects.

ArtinM: Purification and Evaluation of Biological Activities

The immunomodulatory activity of plant lectins has been evaluated because of their high selectivity for glycans linked to receptors on innate and adaptative immune cells. ArtinM is a mannosyl-binding lectin, obtained from the seeds of Artocarpus heterophyllus, that induces the differentiation of CD4⁺ T cells and macrophages by interacting with CD3 and TLR2/CD14, respectively. This ArtinM property ultimately favors the combat of intracellular pathogens, opening new perspectives on the lectins application as immunomodulatory agents. The current section describes protocols for purification and evaluation of ArtinM biological activity. The purification is based on the ArtinM-D-mannose affinity. The effect of inducing IL-12 production by murine macrophages cell line is adopted to evaluate the ArtinM biological activity.

Silk peptide treatment potentiates natural killer cell activity in vitro and induces natural killer cell maturation and activation in mouse splenocytes

Context: Silk peptide from cocoons of silkworm (Bombyx mori L., Bombycidae) has been employed as a biomedical material and exhibits various bioactivities, including immune-modulating activity. Objective: We analyzed whether silk peptide exerts direct modulating effects on NK cells using an NK cell line in vitro and ex vivo splenocytes. We also attempted to delineate the mechanism underlying the modulation. Material and methods: In vitro activity of silk peptide on NK cells was determined by measurement of cytolytic activity against K562 cells at an effector-to-target ratio of 5:1 after incubation of NK-92MI cells with silk peptide (0-2000 μg/mL) for 48 and 72 h. Ex vivo activity of silk peptide on mouse splenic NK cells was determined similarly by using YAC-1 cells. Results: Treatment of NK-92MI NK cells with silk peptide (500-2000 μg/mL) significantly increased cytolytic activity on target cells by 2- to 4-fold. The same concentrations (500-2000 μg/mL) of silk peptide treatment also significantly enhanced the cytolytic activity of splenic NK cells against YAC-1 cells. Silk peptide treatment of IL-2-stimulated splenocytes induced enhanced expression of Th1, 2 and 17 cytokines including TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-4 and IL-17. Finally, ex vivo treatment with silk peptide on mouse splenocytes significantly enhanced the degree of NK cell maturation in a dose-dependent manner from 3.49 to 23.79%. Discussion and conclusions: These findings suggest that silk peptide stimulates NK cells, thereby influencing systemic immune functions and improving natural immunity. Thus, silk peptide could be useful as a complementary therapy in cancer patients.

Immunomodulatory Effect of Structurally Characterized Mushroom Sclerotial Polysaccharides Isolated from Polyporus rhinocerus on Bone Marrow Dendritic Cells

This study evaluated the immunomodulatory effects of two high-molecular-weight and structurally different mushroom polysaccharides, an alkali-soluble polysaccharide (mPRSon) and a water-soluble polysaccharide-protein complex (PRW), isolated previously from the sclerotia of Pleurotus rhinocerus, on the maturation of murine bone-marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs). The effects of mPRSon and PRW on the expression of morphological change, surface molecules, phagocytic activity, and cytokine release in BMDCs were determined by flow cytometry and a mouse cytokine array. The results showed that both mPRSon and PRW could induce phenotypic and functional maturation of BMDCs. At the same time, mPRSon upregulated the expression of membrane phenotypic marker CD86 and PRW markedly upregulated CD40, CD80, and CD86. In addition, mPRSon could bind to the dectin-1 receptor and stimulate the release of MIP-1α, MIP-2, and IL-2, while PRW could bind to complement receptor 3 and toll-like receptor 2 with an upregulation of the expression of IL-2, IL-6, MIP-1α, MIP-2, RANTES, IL-12p40p70, IL-12p70, TIMP-1, IFN-γ, KC, MCP-1, and GCSF. The study provides additional information on how structural differences in sclerotial polysaccharides influence their immunomodulatory activities on BMDCs involving different PAMP receptors. It is anticipated that more understanding of the interactions between the sclerotial polysaccharides and their receptors in immune cells can facilitate their future application for cancer immunotherapy.

Extraction, Characterization, Antitumor and Immunological Activities of Hemicellulose Polysaccharide from Astragalus radix Herb Residue

Astragalus radix (radix) have been frequently used for clinical application in China, and the herb residues of radix turn out to be a waste of resources. To escape from this, the medicine value of radix herb residues is mined in this article. We isolated hemicellulose polysaccharide AX-I-3b from radix herb residues by fractional extraction. Monosaccharide-composition analysis revealed that AX-I-3b consisted of arabinose, xylose, and glucose with a molar ratio of 10.4:79.3:1.1. Methylation, NMR and FT-IR analyses showed that AX-I-3b monosaccharide residue was linked as follows: →2,3,4)-β-d-Xylp-(1→, →4)-β-d-Arap-(1→, →4)-β-d-Glcp-(1→. Then, we found that AX-I-3b exhibited antitumor activity against lung cancer in vitro and vivo through MTT assay and xenograft tumor model. Mechanistically, AX-I-3b induced apoptosis in lung cancer cells and xenograft tumors, which is evidenced by the up-regulation of p53, Bax and cleaved caspase-3, and the down-regulation of Bcl-2. Moreover, AX-I-3b synergistically improved the therapeutic ability of cisplatin in xenograft tumors model. Furthermore, AX-I-3b treatment effectively improved the immune organ index, the percentage of spleen lymphocyte subsets and serum cytokine levels in lung cancer mice, supporting that AX-I-3b showed immunomodulatory activity. In conclusion, our results identified AX-I-3b as an antitumor and immunomodulatory agent, providing a new insight into the reutilization of radix herb residue.

Structure and Immunomodulatory Activity of Microparticulate Mushroom Sclerotial β-Glucan Prepared from Polyporus rhinocerus

In this study, an immunologically active novel microparticulate mushroom β-glucan (PRA-1p) was prepared using an alkali-soluble glucan PRA-1 by an emulsification and cross-linking method. PRA-1 was a hyperbranched (1→3),(1→6)-β-d-glucan with a degree of branching of 0.89, isolated from the sclerotia of Polyporus rhinocerus. PRA-1 had a rod-like conformation, while PRA-1p exhibited a monodisperse and homogeneous spherical conformation with a diameter ranging from 0.3 to 2.0 μm in water. PRA-1p significantly induced nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species production as well as morphological changes of murine macrophages (RAW 264.7 cells) and upregulated their phagocytic activity. Furthermore, PRA-1p treatment markedly enhanced the secretion of cytokines, including cutaneous T cell-attracting chemokine 27, granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, macrophage inflammatory protein 1α, macrophage inflammatory protein 2, regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted, soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor 1, and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases. Activation of RAW 264.7 cells triggered by PRA-1p was associated with activation of inducible nitric oxide synthase, nuclear factor κB, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, and protein kinase B. This work suggests that novel PRA-1p derived from the mushroom sclerotia of P. rhinocerus has potential application as an immunostimulatory agent.

Immunomodulatory and Antioxidant Activities of Sulfated Polysaccharides from Laminaria ochroleuca, Porphyra umbilicalis, and Gelidium corneum

Seaweeds of the genera Laminaria, Gelidium, and Porphyra have been used in both food and non-food industries due to their unique properties and characteristic biological activity. This study assesses the antioxidant activity and immunomodulatory properties of the acidic polysaccharides extracted from Laminaria ochroleuca, Porphyra umbilicalis, and Gelidium corneum collected in the Atlantic coast of Tarifa (Cadiz, Spain). The proliferation of murine cell line RAW 264 decreased with increasing concentration of polysaccharides of the three algal species. The highest both antioxidant (25.69 μmol TE g-1 DW) and immunomodulatory activities were observed in the sulfated polysaccharides of L. ochroleuca compared to that of P. umbilicalis and G. corneum. Sulfated polysaccharides of L. ochroleuca presented high potential anticancer activity in cell lines of human colon cancer HTC-116 (IC50 = 0.44 mg mL-1), human malignant melanoma G-361 (IC50 = 5.42 mg mL-1), breast adenocarcinoma human MCF-7 (IC50 = 8.32 mg mL-1), and human leukemia U-937 (IC50 = 3.72 mg mL-1). It is concluded that metabolites of L. ochroleuca can offer significant advantages for the pharmaceutical industry, particularly when macrophage activation is required.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Monascus spp.-Fermented Sacccharina japonica Extracts on the Cytokine Gene Expression of THP-1 Cells

The immunomodulatory effects of Monascus-fermented Saccharina japonica extract on anti- and pro-inflammatory cytokines gene expression of THP-1 cells were evaluated. Extracts of fermented samples showed higher phenolic, flavonoid, protein, and reducing sugar contents than unfermented one. Fermented samples were rich in many bioactive compounds determined by GC-MS analyses and showed cell viability greater than 85% in MTS assay. Regarding the anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory activities of the different samples, Q-PCR analyses revealed that IL-10 gene expression in THP-1 cells was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in cells treated with the SjMp or SjMk sample than those treated with the unfermented sample. Cells treated with the SjMp extract or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher relative gene expression of IL-4 cytokine than cells treated with SjMk or SjU extracts. The relative gene expression of IFN-α was higher in cells treated with SjMp followed by LPS, SjMk, and SjU. TGF-β expression was higher in LPS-stimulated cells followed by SjMk and other samples. Cells treated with SjMp exhibited significantly higher pro-inflammatory (IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, and NF-κB) cytokine gene expression than cells treated with SjU. These results revealed that extracts from S. japonica fermented with Monascus spp. regulate cytokine gene expression. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Refinement strategy for antivenom preparation of high yield and quality

Antivenoms from hyperimmune animal plasma are the only specific pharmaceuticals against snakebites. The improvement of downstream processing strategies is of great interest, not only in terms of purity profile, but also from yield-to-cost perspective and rational use of plasma of animal origin. We report on development of an efficient refinement strategy for F(ab')2-based antivenom preparation. Process design was driven by the imperative to keep the active principle constantly in solution as a precautionary measure to preserve stability of its conformation (precipitation of active principle or its adsorption to chromatographic stationary phase has been completely avoided). IgG was extracted from hyperimmune horse plasma by 2% (V/V) caprylic acid, depleted from traces of precipitating agent and digested by pepsin. Balance between incomplete IgG fraction breakdown, F(ab')2 over-digestion and loss of the active principle's protective efficacy was achieved by adjusting pepsin to substrate ratio at the value of 4:300 (w/w), setting pH to 3.2 and incubation period to 1.5 h. Final polishing was accomplished by a combination of diafiltration and flow-through chromatography. Developed manufacturing strategy gave 100% pure and aggregate-free F(ab')2 preparation, as shown by size-exclusion HPLC and confirmed by MS/MS. The overall yield of 75% or higher compares favorably to others so far reported. This optimised procedure looks also promising for large-scale production of therapeutic antivenoms, since high yield of the active drug and fulfillment of the regulatory demand considering purity was achieved. The recovery of the active substance was precisely determined in each purification step enabling accurate estimation of the process cost-effectiveness.

Immunomodulatory activities of proteins from Astragalus membranaceus waste

BACKGROUND

Astragalus membranaceus is a traditional Chinese medicine that has a long history of medical applications. It is of interest to investigate the functional components of A. membranaceus waste with regard to its development and utilization and increasing resource utilization.

RESULTS

The protein AMWP was isolated from the A. membranaceus waste. This protein was further purified by DEAE-cellulose-52 chromatography and Sephadex G-200 size-exclusion chromatography to obtain three fractions, named AMWPDG2, AMWPDG4 and AMWPDG6. Then, their immunomodulatory activities were evaluated by using cell model experiments. The results indicated that the protein fractions could significantly increase the proliferation of splenic lymphocytes, peritoneal macrophages and bone-marrow-derived cells (BMDCs). AMWPDG2 showed the highest immunocompetence. AMWPDG2, AMWPDG4 and AMWPDG6 not only significantly improved the phagocytosis and immunomodulatory factors (interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, nitric oxide, hydrogen peroxide) secretion of peritoneal macrophages, but also promoted the expression of inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-12 p40, IL-1β, IL-1α) and chemokines (CXCL1, CCL3) in BMDCs.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, these results indicated that three protein fractions from the A. membranaceus waste might be a potential natural immunomodulator. Moreover, it also provided the theoretical basis for further researching the mechanism of AMWPDG2, AMWPDG4 and AMWPDG6 on improving the immune response. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Influence of traditionally used Nepalese plants on wound healing and immunological properties using primary human cells in vitro

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The improvement of wound healing has always been an important issue for both ethnopharmacological and modern medical research. In this study, we used state-of-the-art methods to investigate extracts of plants used traditionally in Nepal for more than 1000 years to treat inflammatory injuries.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We focused on the potential of the plant extracts to ameliorate wound healing and to influence immune modulatory properties.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Nine Nepalese plant extracts in three different solvents (methanol, ethyl acetate, petroleum ether) were immunologically characterised. Water-soluble tetrazolium (WST-1) assays and scratch assays were performed to determine their impact on viability and wound healing capacity of human keratinocytes and fibroblasts. Effects on proliferation, viability and function of physiologically relevant anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 stimulated primary human T lymphocytes were assessed using carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE), annexin V/propidium iodide staining assays and flow cytometry-based surface receptor characterisation. The secretion level of interleukin-2 (IL-2) was analysed with the ELISA technique. Dendritic cells were generated out of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) by CD14⁺ magnetic bead selection. Flow cytometry-based surface receptor characterisation and ELISA-based technique were used to evaluate the DC activation state and the interleukin-8 (IL-8) secretion level.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that an ethyl acetate extract of Bassia longifolia and of Gmelina arborea have anti-inflammatory capacities, indicated by reduced proliferation, inhibition of IL-2 secretion and degranulation capacity of activated human T cells, when compared with adequate concentrations of synthetic positive drug controls. Furthermore, Gmelina arborea improved the wound healing of keratinocytes and fibroblasts and has tendency to increase the secretion of IL-8 by human primary dendritic cells.

CONCLUSION

With this preliminary screening, we offer a scientific basis for the immunomodulatory properties of the two Nepalese medicinal plants Bassia longifolia and Gmelina arborea. However, further detailed studies regarding the responsible compounds are necessary.

Subcritical water extraction as an efficient technique to isolate biologically-active fucoidans from Nizamuddinia zanardinii

A sulfated polysaccharide (fucoidan) has been isolated from Nizamuddinia zanardinii using subcritical water extraction method (SCWE), and extraction conditions were optimised using the response surface methodology. The optimum extraction conditions were found to be: extraction time of 29 min, extraction temperature of 150 °C, and raw material-to-water ratio of 21 g/mL. The fucoidan yield under these optimum conditions was 25.98%, which was considerably higher than that of conventional solvent extraction (5.2%). Extraction time and temperature were the extraction variables that most significantly affected fucoidan yield. Chemical and monosaccharide composition, molecular weight, and the antioxidant, anticancer and immunomodulatory activities of the extract have also been investigated. The monosaccharide composition of fucoidan included fucose (34.13%), mannose (30.70%), galactose (23.19%), xylose (9.35%) and glucose (2.65%). The average molecular weight of the extracted fucoidan was 694 kDa. Antioxidant results revealed that SCWE-extracted fucoidan had appreciable ABTS radical scavenging (70.35%) and reducing power (0.182 Abs). The anticancer activity of fucoidan ranged from 24.60 to 49.46% for HeLa cells and from 23.95 to 46.78% for HepG2 cells. The NO production of RAW264.7 cells was observed to be dose-dependent, while maximum NO production was found to be 34.82 μmol at a 50 μg/mL fucoidan concentration.

A polyvalent coral snake antivenom with broad neutralization capacity

Coral snakes of the genus Micrurus have a high diversity and wide distribution in the Americas. Despite envenomings by these animals being uncommon, accidents are often severe and may result in death. Producing an antivenom to treat these envenomings has been challenging since coral snakes are difficult to catch, produce small amounts of venom, and the antivenoms produced have shown limited cross neutralization. Here we present data of cross neutralization among monovalent antivenoms raised against M. dumerilii, M. isozonus, M. mipartitus and M. surinamensis and the development of a new polyvalent coral snake antivenom, resulting from the mix of monovalent antivenoms. Our results, show that this coral snake antivenom has high neutralizing potency and wide taxonomic coverage, constituting a possible alternative for a long sought Pan-American coral snake antivenom.

Impact of dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans from Schisandra chinensis on the redox status and activation of human innate immune system cells

Redox signaling has been established as an essential component of inflammatory responses, and redox active compounds are of interest as potential immunomodulatory agents. Dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans isolated from Schisandra chinensis, a medicinal plant with widespread use in oriental medicine, have been implicated to possess immunomodulatory properties but their effects on the human innate immune system cells have not been described. In this contribution, data are presented on the impact of schisandrin, schisandrin B and schisandrin C on human monocytic cell redox status, as well as their impact on dendritic cell maturation and T cell activation capacity and cytokine production. In THP-1 cells, levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were elevated after 1 h exposure to schisandrin. Schisandrin B and schisandrin C decreased cellular glutathione pools, which is a phenotype previously reported to promote anti-inflammatory functions. Treatment of human primary monocytes with the lignans during their maturation to dendritic cells did not have any effect on the appearance of surface markers HLA-DR and CD86 but schisandrin B and schisandrin C suppressed the secretion of cytokines interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10 and IL-12 by the mature dendritic cells. Dendritic cells maturated in presence of schisandrin C were further cocultured with naïve CD4+ T cells, resulting in reduced IL-12 production. In THP-1 cells, schisandrin B and schisandrin C reduced the IL-6 and IL-12 production triggered by E. coli lipopolysaccharide and IL-12 production induced by an infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae. In conclusion, the studied lignans act as immunomodulatory agents by altering the cytokine secretion, but do not interfere with dendritic cell maturation. And the observed effects may be associated with the ability of the lignans to alter cellular redox status.

Purification, structural analysis and mechanism of murine macrophage cell activation by sulfated polysaccharides from Cystoseira indica

Sulfated polysaccharides were isolated and purified from the water extract of Cystoseira indica using DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow column to evaluate their structure and macrophage stimulating capacity. Crude and fractionated polysaccharides, CIF1 and CIF2, were mostly composed of neutral sugars (73.1%-78.6%) with relatively lower amounts of acidic sugars (1.3%-9.0%) and sulfate esters (6.9%-9.7%). The polymer chains of polysaccharides were mainly built of different levels of glucose (2.1%-30.8%), fucose (17.2%-24.4%), mannose (17.8%-20.6%) and galactose (16.7%-17.3%). The weight average molecular weight (Mw) of polysaccharides varied between 573.1 × 103 g/mol to 1146.6 × 103 g/mol. The CIF2 polysaccharide, as the most immunostimulating polysaccharide, remarkably induced the release of nitric oxide and inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 from RAW264.7 murine macrophage cells through NF-κB and PAMKs transduction signaling pathways via cell surface TLR4. The interconnections of sugars in CIF2 polysaccharide were complex with (1→3)-fucopyranose, (1→2,3,4)-glucopyranose, (→1)-galactopyranose, (→1)-xylopyranose, (1→2)-rhamnopyranose and (1→2,3)-mannopyranose units being the most predominant residues.

Three-Phase Partitioning for the Extraction and Purification of Polysaccharides from the Immunomodulatory Medicinal Mushroom Inonotus obliquus

Polysaccharides from the immunomodulatory medicinal mushroom Inonotus obliquus (IOPS) were extracted and purified using three-phase partitioning (TPP), which is an efficient, fast, safe, and green purification technique. An optimal extraction procedure that gave a good 2.2% isolated yield was identified, using the following protocol: a solid-liquid ratio of 1 g to 12 mL; mass fraction of (NH₄)₂SO₄ 20% (w/v); 11 mL t-butanol; pH 8.0; temperature 30 °C; and extraction time 30 min. The purified IOPS was shown to be a proteoglycan of 40 kDa molecular weight comprising of d-galactose, d-glucose, d-xylose, and d-mannose in a molar ratio of 2.0:3.5:1.0:1.5. The purified IOPS displayed strong free-radical scavenging abilities, antioxidant activities, and immunological activity in vitro. IOPS’ Trolox antioxidant equivalent capacity and ferric-reducing ability of plasma were 251.2 μmol Trolox/g sample and 1040.5 μmol Fe²⁺/g sample, respectively, with the activity of its immunomodulatory behavior shown to be gradient dependent.

Therapeutic potentials of ginger for treatment of Multiple sclerosis: A review with emphasis on its immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterized by chronic inflammatory response-induced demyelination of the neurons and degeneration of the axons within the central nervous system (CNS). A complex network of immunopathological-, inflammatory- and oxidative parameters involve in the development and advancement of MS. The anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and anti-oxidative characteristics of the ginger and several of its components have been indicated in some of experimental and clinical investigations. The possible therapeutic potentials of ginger and its ingredients in the treatment of MS may exert mainly through the regulation of the Th1-, Th2-, Th9-, Th17-, Th22- and Treg cell-related immune responses, down-regulation of the B cell-related immune responses, modulation of the macrophages-related responses, modulation of the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, down-regulation of the arachidonic acid-derived mediators, interfering with the toll like receptor-related signaling pathways, suppression of the inflammasomes, down-regulation of the oxidative stress, reduction of the adhesion molecules expression, and down-regulation of the expression of the chemokines and chemokine receptors. This review aimed to provide a comprehensive knowledge regarding the immunomodulatory-, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties of ginger and its components, and highlight novel insights into the possible therapeutic potentials of this plant for treatment of MS. The review encourages more investigations to consider the therapeutic potentials of ginger and its effective components for managing of MS.

Protective effects of Butea frondosa leaves against stress induced immune impairment in sprague dawley rats

Stress is thought to impair immune function through emotional or behavioral manifestations thus the present study was done to assessed the effect of ethanolic extract of Butea frondosa (BF) leaves on behaviour, immunomodulatory activity and brain acetyl cholinesterase activity in normal and stress induced male rats. Neuroprotective effects of BF, doses (100,200,400mg/kg p.o) were measured by assessing the changes in the behaviour and the immunity of the rats. In stress control, the results indicated that the retention transfer latency, time spent in a closed arm, agglutination, total leukocytes counts (TLC), total paw edema ,size of spleen , decreased significantly (p<0.01) while glucose level, size of the kidney and the liver, AChE activity increased significantly (p<0.01) in comparison with normal control. In BF (200mg/kg) treated rats, the results indicated that the time spent in a closed arm (p<0.01), agglutination (p<0.01), TLC (p<0.01), total paw edema (p<0.05), size of spleen(p<0.01), increased significantly while glucose level (p<0.01), size of the kidney and the liver (p<0.01), AChE activity (p<0.01) decreased significantly in comparison with stress control. This study therefore concluded that the ethanolic extract of BF (200mg/kg) showed a protective effect against the stress induced impaired immune system and the psychological disorders.

Debaryomyces hansenii CBS 8339 β-glucan enhances immune responses and down-stream gene signaling pathways in goat peripheral blood leukocytes

Debaryomyces hansenii-derived β-glucan has shown immunostimulant effect on aquaculture species and recently on goat peripheral blood leukocytes. Moreover, the marine yeast D. hansenii CBS 8339 has demonstrated to enhance fish immune response. Nonetheless, the associated immune signaling pathways induced by β-glucan from this marine yeast have not been characterized yet. This study described the effects of β-glucan from D. hansenii CBS 8339 against challenge with Escherichia coli and activation of possible mechanisms on goat peripheral blood leukocytes. The proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectra showed that D. hansenii had β-(1,3)(1,6)-glucan. The phagocytic ability enhanced after E. coli challenge, and nitric oxide production increased before and after challenge in leukocytes stimulated with D. hansenii β-glucan. In addition, an early gene expression stimulation was found related to β-glucan recognition by TLR2 and Dectin-1 receptors, intracellular regulation by Syk, TRAF6, MyD88 and transcription factor NFκB, and effector functions of pro-inflammatory cytokine, such as IL-1β and TNF-α. Interestingly, simulation with D. hansenii-derived β-glucan increased leukocyte viability after E. coli challenge. In conclusion, β-glucan from D. hansenii CBS 8339 reduced cytotoxic effects of E. coli and modulated signaling pathways and innate immune response in goat peripheral blood leukocytes.

A novel moonlight function of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) for immunomodulation

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is an energy metabolism-related enzyme, which generates NADH in glycolysis. Our previous study revealed a novel role of exogenous GAPDH in the amelioration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced sepsis-related, severe acute lung injury (ALI) in mice. Here, we show the effect of extracellular GAPDH on the physiological functions of macrophages, which play an important role in the onset of sepsis and ALI. GAPDH has no effect on cell viability, while it strongly suppressed cell adhesion, spreading, and phagocytic function of LPS-stimulated macrophages. GAPDH treatment significantly reduced tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, while it induced interleukin (IL)-10 production from LPS-stimulated macrophages in a dose-dependent manner. It is noteworthy that heat inactivation of GAPDH lost its immunomodulatory activity. Correspondingly, NADH significantly inhibited TNF-α and enhanced IL-10 production with elevation of both M1/M2 macrophage markers. These data suggest that extracellular GAPDH induces intermediate M1/M2 macrophages for termination of inflammation, partly through its enzyme activity for generation of NADH. © 2018 BioFactors, 44(6):597-608, 2018.