Triptolide inhibits murine-inducible nitric oxide synthase expression by down-regulating lipopolysaccharide-induced activity of nuclear factor-kappa B and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase

Factors Associated With Negative Life Changes due to COVID-19 Among Older Adults Residing in an Urban Low-Income Neighborhood in Korea: Focused on Gendered Differences

This study examined negative life changes due to coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) and its correlates in a sample of community-dwelling older adults from a low-income urban city in Korea, focusing on gendered differences. Negative life changes due to COVID-19 were categorized into four domains: behavioral/physical, psychosocial, goal-seeking, and control/freedom. Being female, not receiving basic livelihood security, and dissatisfaction with housing situation were significantly associated with negative life changes during the pandemic. Gender-stratified analyses revealed that most within-gender social disparities associated with changes due to COVID-19 occurred in older women. The odds of experiencing negative changes were higher among working women and those receiving security income aid. In low-income urban communities, those who were previously socially and economically active perceived more negative changes owing to the pandemic. The contribution of gender to negative life changes should be considered to effectively alleviate concerns among older adults during pandemics.

Tripterygium hypoglaucum (Lévl.) Hutch and Its Main Bioactive Components: Recent Advances in Pharmacological Activity, Pharmacokinetics and Potential Toxicity

Tripterygium hypoglaucum (Lévl.) Hutch (THH) is believed to play an important role in health care and disease treatment according to traditional Chinese medicine. Moreover, it is also the representative of medicine with both significant efficacy and potential toxicity. This characteristic causes THH hard for embracing and fearing. In order to verify its prospect for clinic, a wide variety of studies were carried out in the most recent years. However, there has not been any review about THH yet. Therefore, this review summarized its characteristic of components, pharmacological effect, pharmacokinetics and toxicity to comprehensively shed light on the potential clinical application. More than 120 secondary metabolites including terpenoids, alkaloids, glycosides, sugars, organic acids, oleanolic acid, polysaccharides and other components were found in THH based on phytochemical research. All these components might be the pharmacological bases for immunosuppression, anti-inflammatory and anti-tumour effect. In addition, recent studies found that THH and its bioactive compounds also demonstrated remarkable effect on obesity, insulin resistance, fertility and infection of virus. The main mechanism seemed to be closely related to regulation the balance of immune, inflammation, apoptosis and so on in various disease. Furthermore, the study of pharmacokinetics revealed quick elimination of the main component triptolide. The feature of celastrol was also investigated by several models. Finally, the side effect of THH was thought to be the key for its limitation in clinical application. A series of reports indicated that multiple organs or systems including liver, kidney and genital system were involved in the toxicity. Its potential serious problem in liver was paid specific attention in recent years. In summary, considering the significant effect and potential toxicity of THH as well as its components, the combined medication to inhibit the toxicity, maintain effect might be a promising method for clinical conversion. Modern advanced technology such as structure optimization might be another way to reach the efficacy and safety. Thus, THH is still a crucial plant which remains for further investigation.

Anti‑inflammatory activity of 3,5,6,7,3',4'‑hexamethoxyflavone via repression of the NF‑κB and MAPK signaling pathways in LPS‑stimulated RAW264.7 cells

Citrus peel has been used as a Traditional medicine in Asia to treat coughs, asthma and bronchial disorders. Therefore, the anti-inflammatory effects of 3,5,6,7,3′,4′-hexamethoxyflavone (quercetogetin, QUE) isolated from Citrus unshiu peel were investigated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. The results showed that QUE repressed the production of prostaglandin E2 and nitric oxide by suppressing LPS-induced expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase. It also suppressed the production of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α cytokines, and decreased the nuclear translocation of NF-κB by interrupting the phosphorylation of NF-κB inhibitor α in macrophage cells. Based on the finding that QUE inhibited the phosphorylation of ERK protein expression in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells, it was confirmed that inhibition of inflammatory responses by QUE was mediated via the ERK pathway. Therefore, this study suggests that QUE has strong anti-inflammatory effects, making it a promising compound for use as a therapeutic agent in treating inflammatory lung diseases, such as emphysema.

Tripterygium Glycosides Combined with Leflunomide for Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Objective

To undertake an overview on the overall effects of Tripterygium glycosides (TG) combined with Leflunomide (LEF) for rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

Methods

We searched electronic databases from database establishment time to December 1, 2019. The clinical trial data of TG combined with LEF (trial group) and control group in the treatment of RA were collected. The Cochrane system was used to evaluate the quality of the literature. RevMan 5.3 software was used to conduct a meta-analysis of the eligible studies.

Results

A total of 12 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) involving 834 patients with RA were included in this study. The meta-analysis results showed that morning stiffness (mean difference (MD) = −0.29, 95% confidential interval (CI) (−0.45, −0.12), P=0.0005), tender joint count (MD = −1.51, 95% CI (−2.20, −0.83), P=0.0001), swollen joint count (MD = -1.24, 95% CI (−1.59, −0.88), P=0.0001), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (MD = −7.26, 95% CI (−9.92, −4.61), P=0.0001), C-reactive protein (MD = −4.04, 95% CI (−4.93, −3.14), P=0.0001), and rheumatoid factor (MD = −50.88, 95% CI (−72.30, −29.45), P = 0.0001) in the trial groups were lower than those in the control groups. The total effective rate in the trial group was better than that in the control group (risk ratio (RR) = 1.20, 95% CI (1.13, 1.28), P=0.00001). However, there was no significant difference of adverse events (RR = 0.83, 95% CI (0.61, 1.13), P=0.23) while comparing the trial groups with the control groups.

Conclusion

Our results were found to be superior but limited evidence on the effectiveness of TG combined with LEF in the treatment of RA is available.

Resveratrol alleviates obesity-induced skeletal muscle inflammation via decreasing M1 macrophage polarization and increasing the regulatory T cell population

Resveratrol was reported to inhibit inflammatory responses; however, the role of this polyphenol in obesity-induced skeletal muscle inflammation remains unknown. Mice fed a high fat diet (HFD) were treated with resveratrol for 16 weeks. Resveratrol treatment decreased macrophage infiltration into skeletal muscle of HFD-fed mice. Resveratrol also led to the polarization of macrophages to the M2 direction, as well as decreasing the expression of a number of M1 pro-inflammatory cytokines [tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1 β (IL-1β) and interleukin 6 (IL-6)]. In addition, increased infiltration of regulatory T cells (Treg cells) was found following resveratrol treatment in skeletal muscle of mice. Decreased intramyocellular lipid deposition was associated with reduced expression levels of toll-like receptors 2 (TLR2) and TLR4 in resveratrol treated mice. We also found that diminished inflammation in skeletal muscle following resveratrol treatment was accompanied by increasing phosphorylation of 5'-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and decreasing phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). Taken together, these findings suggest that resveratrol ameliorates inflammation in skeletal muscle of HFD-induced model of obesity. Therefore, resveratrol might represent a potential treatment for attenuation of inflammation in skeletal muscle tissue.

Application and Mechanisms of Triptolide in the Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases-A Review

Bioactive compounds from medicinal plants with anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects have been emerging as important sources of drugs for the treatment of inflammatory disorders. Triptolide, a diterpene triepoxide, is a pharmacologically active compound isolated from Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F (TwHF) that is used as a remedy for inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. As the most promising bioactive compound obtained from TwHF, triptolide has attracted considerable interest recently, especially for its potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive activities. Over the past few years, an increasing number of studies have been published emphasizing the value of triptolide in the treatment of diverse inflammatory disorders. Here, we systematically review the mechanism of action and the therapeutic properties of triptolide in various inflammatory diseases according to different systematic organs, including lupus nephritis, inflammatory bowel disease, asthma, and rheumatoid arthritis with pubmed and Embase. Based on this review, potential research strategies might contribute to the clinical application of triptolide in the future.

Molecular mechanism underlying anti-inflammatory activities of lirioresinol B dimethyl ether through suppression of NF-κB and MAPK signaling in in vitro and in vivo models

The aim of the present study is to explore the anti-inflammatory mechanism of lirioresinol B dimethyl ether via inhibition of multiple signaling pathways in both in vitro and in vivo pharmacological models. To determine the anti-inflammatory activity of the lirioresinol B dimethyl ether, RAW 264.7 macrophages challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were treated with various concentrations of lirioresinol B dimethyl ether (5, 15, 25, and 50 μM). The results indicated that pretreatment with lirioresinol B dimethyl ether significantly suppressed nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation, nitric oxide (NO) production, the protein expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Lirioresinol B dimethyl ether inhibited LPS-induced activation of production of pro-inflammatory cytokines as well as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) release. The results obtained by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) demonstrated a concentration dependent reduction of the LPS-stimulated activation of NF-κB and activator protein-1 (AP-1) by lirioresinol B dimethyl ether in in vitro and in vivo models. Moreover, lirioresinol B dimethyl ether also reduced the expression of toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 protein and myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88) as well as promoted the degradation of IκBα. Lirioresinol B dimethyl ether also significantly down-regulated the phosphorylation of Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), p-38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Furthermore, the results of acute and chronic inflammation demonstrated that lirioresinol B dimethyl ether (10 and 50 mg per kg) reduced paw edema and mechanical hyperalgesia in carrageenan- and Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA)-induced in vivo mouse models, respectively. Hence, the current results indicate that lirioresinol B dimethyl ether either act by inhibiting pro-inflammatory mediators through down-regulation of mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signaling pathways and reduction of NF-κB activation.

3-Methoxy-catalposide inhibits inflammatory effects in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages

Pseudolysimachion rotundum var. subintegrum is utilized as a traditional herbal remedy to treat cough, bronchitis, and asthma in Korea, Russia, China, and Europe. Here, we show that 3-methoxy-catalposide, a novel iridoide glycoside isolated from P. rotundum var. subintegrum has the anti-inflammatory activity in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages. The chemical structure of 3-methoxy-catalposide was determined by NMR, optical rotation and HRESIMS. In in vitro experiment, RAW264.7 cells were treated with 3-methoxy-catalposide for 2h before exposure to LPS for different times. Inflammatory gene and protein expressions were assayed using RT-PCR and ELISA. Activities of signal proteins were examined using western analysis. Our results demonstrated that 3-methoxy-catalposide significantly inhibits the expression of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in RAW264.7 cells stimulated by LPS, thereby suppressing the release of prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂) and nitric oxide (NO). Moreover, 3-methoxy-catalposide markedly reduced the LPS-induced expression of pro-inflammatory genes, such as interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α. Further, 3-methoxy-catalposide inhibited both LPS-induced activation of three MAP kinases (ERK 1/2, JNK, and p38) and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB and AP-1. These results support that 3-methoxy-catalposide may be a promising candidate for inflammation treatment.

Oryza sativa (Rice) Hull Extract Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Response in RAW264.7 Macrophages by Suppressing Extracellular Signal-regulated Kinase, c-Jun N-terminal Kinase, and Nuclear Factor-κB Activation

Background:

Rice (Oryza sativa) is a major cereal crop in many Asian countries and an important staple food source. Rice hulls have been reported to possess antioxidant activities.

Materials and Methods:

In this study, we evaluated the antiinflammatory effects of rice hull extract and associated signal transduction mechanisms in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Results:

We found that rice hull extract inhibited nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ by suppressing the expression of inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2, respectively. The release of interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α was also reduced in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, rice hull extract attenuated the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), as well as the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells.

Conclusion:

This suggests that rice hull extract decreases the production of inflammatory mediators by downregulating ERK and JNK and the NF-κB signal pathway in RAW 264.7 cells.

SUMMARY

Rice hull extract inhibits the lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory response in RAW264.7 macrophages.

Rice hull extract inhibited nitric oxide and prostaglandin E₂ by suppressing the expression of inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2, respectively.

Rice hull extract exerted anti-inflammatory effect through inhibition of nuclear factor-kappa B, extracellular signal-regulated kinase and c-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling pathways.

Rice hull extract may provide a potential therapeutic approach for inflammatory diseases.

Abbreviations used: COX-2: cyclooxygenase-2, ERK: extracellular signal-regulated kinase, IκB: inhibitory kappa B, IL-1β: interleukin-1β, iNOS: inducible NO synthase, JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase, LPS: lipopolysaccharide, MAPKs: mitogen-activated protein kinases, NF-κB: nuclear factor-κB, NO: nitric oxide, PGE2: prostaglandin E2, RHE: rice hull extract, ROS: reactive oxygen species, TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α

Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Ethyl Acetate Fraction of Moringa oleifera in Downregulating the NF-κB Signaling Pathway in Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Macrophages

In the present investigation, we prepared four different solvent fractions (chloroform, hexane, butanol, and ethyl acetate) of Moringa oleifera extract to evaluate its anti-inflammatory potential and cellular mechanism of action in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 cells. Cell cytotoxicity assay suggested that the solvent fractions were not cytotoxic to macrophages at concentrations up to 200 µg/mL. The ethyl acetate fraction suppressed LPS-induced production of nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines in macrophages in a concentration-dependent manner and was more effective than the other fractions. Immunoblot observations revealed that the ethyl acetate fraction effectively inhibited the expression of inflammatory mediators including cyclooxygenase-2, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and nuclear factor (NF)-κB p65 through suppression of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Furthermore, it upregulated the expression of the inhibitor of κB (IκBα) and blocked the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. These findings indicated that the ethyl acetate fraction of M. oleifera exhibited potent anti-inflammatory activity in LPS-stimulated macrophages via suppression of the NF-κB signaling pathway.

Astragalus saponins Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation in Mouse Macrophages

Excessive nitric oxide (NO) and pro-inflammatory cytokines are produced during the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases and cancer. It has been demonstrated that anti-inflammation contributes Astragalus membranaceus saponins (AST)’s beneficial effects in combination of conventional anticancer drugs. However, the immunomodulating property of AST has not been well characterized. In this study, we found that AST suppressed lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced generation of NO without causing cytotoxicity in the mouse macrophage RAW264.7. The gene and protein overexpression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) as well as the production of tumor necrosis factor-[Formula: see text], evoked by LPS, was consistently down-regulated by AST. AST also inhibited the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and suppressed nuclear factor (NF)-[Formula: see text]B activation and the associated I[Formula: see text]B[Formula: see text] degradation during LPS insult. Furthermore, AST induced growth inhibition in promyelocytic leukemic HL-60 cells and T-lymphocyte leukemic Jurkat cells, but exerted no cytotoxic effects in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). It is known that the chemotherapeutic drug 5-FU can suppress the immune system, which can be identified by a reduced white blood cell count and decreased hematocrit, while the combination of AST and 5-FU can reverse the above hematologic toxicities. To summarize, non-cytotoxic concentrations of AST suppress LPS-induced inflammatory responses via the modulation of p38 MAPK signaling and the inhibition of NO and cytokine release. Importantly, AST can alleviate the hematologic side effects of current chemotherapeutic agents. These findings can facilitate the establishment of AST in the treatment of inflammatory diseases and inflammation-mediated tumor development.

Comparison of tripterygium wilfordii multiglycosides and tacrolimus in the treatment of idiopathic membranous nephropathy: a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN) is a major cause of nephrotic syndrome among adults. Considering the natural course of IMN, when to treat and with which immunosuppressive treatment need to be carefully considered in such patients. A combination of tripterygium wilfordii multiglycosides (TWG) and prednisone may be an effective option for treating patients with IMN.

METHODS

In this prospective cohort study, we enrolled patients with biopsy-proven IMN at our kidney centre. One cohort received TWG combined with prednisone, whereas another cohort received tacrolimus (TAC) combined with prednisone, for 36 weeks. The primary outcome was the remission rate, whereas the secondary outcomes included the time to remission, relapse rate, changes in serum albumin levels and daily urinary protein levels, estimated glomerular filtration rate, and adverse events.

RESULTS

A total of 53 patients with IMN met the criteria for enrollment, and all patients completed the therapy. At the end of the 36-week therapy, remission (either partial remission [PR] or complete remission [CR]) was observed in 20 patients (86.9 %) receiving TWG and in 27 patients (90.0 %) receiving TAC (p > 0.05), whereas CR was noted in 12 patients (52.2 %) receiving TWG and 14 patients (46.7 %) receiving TAC (p > 0.05). The probability of remission was similar for both the TWG and TAC groups (p > 0.05, by log-bank test). The mean time for achieving remission was 11.8 ± 12.5 weeks in the TWG group and 8.5 ± 9.1 weeks in the TAC group (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of TWG and predisone is an effective and safe therapy for IMN.

Attenuation of the macrophage inflammatory activity by TiO₂ nanotubes via inhibition of MAPK and NF-κB pathways

Biomaterial implantation in a living tissue triggers the activation of macrophages in inflammatory events, promoting the transcription of pro-inflammatory mediator genes. The initiation of macrophage inflammatory processes is mainly regulated by signaling proteins of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and by nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathways. We have previously shown that titania nanotubes modified Ti surfaces (Ti/TiO2) mitigate the immune response, compared with flat Ti surfaces; however, little is known regarding the underlying mechanism. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the mechanism(s) by which this nanotopography attenuates the inflammatory activity of macrophages. Thus, we analyzed the effects of TiO2 nanotubes on the activation of MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways in standard and lipopolysaccharide-evoked conditions. Results showed that the Ti/TiO2 significantly reduce the expression levels of the phosphorylated forms of p38, ERK1/2, c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK), IKKβ, and IkB-α. Furthermore, a significant reduction in the p65 nuclear accumulation on the nanotubular surface was remarked. Following, by using specific MAPK inhibitors, we observed that lipopolysaccharide-induced production of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and nitric oxide was significantly inhibited on the Ti/TiO2 surface via p38 and ERK1/2, but not via JNK. However, the selective inhibitor for JNK signaling pathway (SP600125) was effective in reducing tumor necrosis factor alpha release as well as monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and nitric oxide production. Altogether, these data suggest that titania nanotubes can attenuate the macrophage inflammatory response via suppression of MAPK and NF-κB pathways providing a potential mechanism for their anti-inflammatory activity.

Characterization and immunomodulatory activities of polysaccharides from Spirogyra neglecta (Hassall) Kützing

Sulfated polysaccharides (SP) isolated from freshwater green algae, Spirogyra neglecta (Hassall) Kützing, and fractionated SPs were examined to investigate their molecular characteristics and immunomodulatory activity. The crude and fractionated SPs (F1, F2, and F3) consisted mostly of carbohydrates (68.5-85.3%), uronic acids (3.2-4.9%), and sulfates (2.2-12.2%) with various amounts of proteins (2.6-17.1%). D-galactose (23.5-27.3%), D-glucose (11.5-24.8%), L-fucose (19.0-26.7%), and L-rhamnose (16.4-18.3%) were the major monosaccharide units of these SPs with different levels of L-arabinose (3.0-9.4%), D-xylose (4.6-9.8%), and D-mannose (0.4-2.3%). The SPs contained two sub-fractions with molecular weights (Mw) ranging from 164 × 10(3) to 1460 × 10(3) g/mol. The crude and fractionated SPs strongly stimulated murine macrophages, producing considerable amounts of nitric oxide and various cytokines via up-regulation of their mRNA expression by activation of nuclear factor-kappa B and mitogen-activated protein kinases pathways. The main backbone of the most immunoenhancing SP was (1→3)-L-Fucopyranoside, (1→4,6)-D-Glucopyranoside, and (1→4)-D-Galactopyranoside.

Anti-inflammatory effect of Artemisiae annuae herba in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 Cells

Background:

Artemisiae annuae herba (AAH) has been traditionally used as a drug for the treatment of malaria, heat stroke, bacterial infection, and fever in East-Asia. Although AAH has been used for the treatment of inflammation-related symptoms, the underlying mechanism of antiinflammatory activity of AAH is still unknown.

Objective:

We investigated whether AAH have an inhibitory effect on the production of pro-inflammatory mediators in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells.

Materials and Methods:

The investigation was forced on the inhibitory effect of AAH on the production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, nitric oxide (NO), and inducible NO synthase (iNOS) in macrophages. Furthermore, we examined the effect of AAH on the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) pathways.

Results:

We found that AAH suppresses NO production and TNF-α, IL-6, and iNOS gene expression. Moreover, AAH inhibited the nuclear translocation of p65 and IκBα degradation in NF-κB pathway and decreased the extracellular signal-regulated kinase, p38, c-Jun NH₂-terminal kinase phosphorylation in MAPK signaling pathway.

Conclusions:

Consequently, these results indicate that AAH contains antiinflammatory activity and this effect is derived from the repression on the activation of NF-κB and MAPKs pathways. We first demonstrated that antiinflammatory effect of AAH and its underlying mechanism in macrophage cells.

Significance of glioma-associated oncogene homolog 1 (GLI1) expression in claudin-low breast cancer and crosstalk with the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB) pathway

Introduction

The recently identified claudin-low subtype of breast cancer is enriched for cells with stem-like and mesenchymal-like characteristics. This subtype is most often triple-negative (lacking the estrogen and progesterone receptors (ER, PR) as well as lacking epidermal growth factor 2 (HER2) amplification) and has a poor prognosis. There are few targeted treatment options available for patients with this highly aggressive type of cancer.

Methods

Using a high throughput inhibitor screen, we identified high expression of glioma-associated oncogene homolog 1 (GLI1), the effector molecule of the hedgehog (Hh) pathway, as a critical determinant of cell lines that have undergone an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT).

Results

High GLI1 expression is a property of claudin-low cells and tumors and correlates with markers of EMT and breast cancer stem cells. Knockdown of GLI1 expression in claudin-low cell lines resulted in reduced cell viability, motility, clonogenicity, self-renewal, and reduced tumor growth of orthotopic xenografts. We observed non-canonical activation of GLI1 in claudin-low and EMT cell lines, and identified crosstalk with the NFκB pathway.

Conclusions

This work highlights the importance of GLI1 in the maintenance of characteristics of metastatic breast cancer stem cells. Remarkably, treatment with an inhibitor of the NFκB pathway reproducibly reduces GLI1 expression and protein levels. We further provide direct evidence for the binding of the NFκB subunit p65 to the GLI1 promoter in both EMT and claudin-low cell lines. Our results uncover crosstalk between NFκB and GLI1 signals and suggest that targeting these pathways may be effective against the claudin-low breast cancer subtype.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13058-014-0444-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Triptolide: progress on research in pharmacodynamics and toxicology

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tripterygium wilfordii Hook. f. (Tripterygium wilfordii), also known as Huangteng and gelsemium elegan, is a traditional Chinese medicine that has been marketed in China as Tripterygium wilfordii glycoside tablets. Triptolide (TP), an active component in Tripterygium wilfordii extracts, has been used to treat various diseases, including lupus, cancer, rheumatoid arthritis and nephritic syndrome. This review summarizes recent developments in the research on the pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, pharmacy and toxicology of TP, with a focus on its novel mechanism of reducing toxicity. This review provides insight for future studies on traditional Chinese medicine, a field that is both historically and currently important.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We included studies published primarily within the last five years that were available in online academic databases (e.g., PubMed, Google Scholar, CNKI, SciFinder and Web of Science).

RESULTS

TP has a long history of use in China because it displays multiple pharmacological activities, including anti-rheumatism, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor and neuroprotective properties. It has been widely used for the treatment of various diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, nephritic syndrome, lupus, Behcet׳s disease and central nervous system diseases. Recently, numerous breakthroughs have been made in our understanding of the pharmacological efficacy of TP. Although TP has been marketed as a traditional Chinese medicine, its multi-organ toxicity prevents it from being widely used in clinical practice.

CONCLUSIONS

Triptolide, a biologically active natural product extracted from the root of Tripterygium wilfordii, has shown promising pharmacological effects, particularly as an anti-tumor agent. Currently, in anti-cancer research, more effort should be devoted to investigating effective anti-tumor targets and confirming the anti-tumor spectrum and clinical indications of novel anti-tumor pro-drugs. To apply TP appropriately, with high efficacy and low toxicity, the safety and non-toxic dose range for specific target organs and diseases should be determined, the altered pathways and mechanisms of exposure need to be clarified, and an early warning system for toxicity needs to be established. With further in-depth study of the efficacy and toxicity of TP, we believe that TP will become a promising multi-use drug with improved clinical efficacy and safety in the future.

Oryeongsan inhibits LPS-induced production of inflammatory mediators via blockade of the NF-kappaB, MAPK pathways and leads to HO-1 induction in macrophage cells

BACKGROUND

Oryeongsan (OR) is an herbal medication used in east-Asian traditional medicine to treat dysuresia, such as urinary frequency, hematuria, and dysuria due to renal disease and chronic nephritis. Recent studies showed that protective effect against acute gastric mucosal injury and an inhibitory effect on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway of OR. However, its effect on inflammation still remains unknown. In this study, to provide insight into the biological effects of OR, we investigated their effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated inflammation in the RAW 264.7 macrophage cells.

METHODS

We investigated the pharmacological and biological effects of OR on the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, inflammatory mediators, and related products through Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot analysis. Also, we examined the activation and suppression of nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) pathways in LPS-stimulated macrophages via Western blot analysis in order to explore inhibitory mechanism of OR.

RESULTS

OR had anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the production of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1 beta. In addition, it strongly suppressed cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), NO synthesizing enzymes. It also induced heme oxygenase (HO)-1 expression and inhibited NF-kappaB signaling pathway activation and phosphorylation of MAPKs.

CONCLUSIONS

We further demonstrate the anti-inflammatory effects and inhibitory mechanism of OR in LPS-stimulated macrophages for the first time. OR contains strong anti-inflammatory activity and affects various mechanism pathways including NF-kappaB, MAPKs and HO-1. Our results suggest that OR has potential value to be developed as an inflammatory therapeutic agent from a natural substance.

Immunomodulatory of selenium nano-particles decorated by sulfated Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides

In this study, we employed a one-step method to prepare selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) decorated by the water-soluble derivative of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (SPS). The SeNPs-SPS complexes were stable, and the diameter of the SeNPs was homogeneous at around 25 nm. We investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of SeNPs-SPS against murine Raw 264.7 macrophage cells induced by LPS. SeNPs-SPS were found to significantly inhibit LPS-stimulated nitric oxide (NO) production against Raw 264.7 macrophages. RT-PCR results reveal the down-regulation of mRNA gene expressions for pro-inflammatory cytokines, including inducible NO synthase (iNOS), interleukin (IL)-1 and TNF-α in a dose-dependent manner. However, the anti-inflammation cytokine IL-10 was markedly increased. In the NF-κB signal pathway, SeNPs-SPS significantly inhibited the phosphorylation of Iκ-Bα. Similar results were observed for inhibition of the phosphorylation of JNK1/2 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase(MAPKs), whereas ERK1/2 MAPK was not apparently affected by SeNPs-SPS. All of these results suggest that SeNPs-SPS complexes have anti-inflammatory potential modulating pro-/anti-inflammation cytokine secretion profiles, and that the mechanism is partially due to inhibition of activations of NF-κB, JNK1/2 and p38 MAPKs.

Triptolide improves early survival of mesenchymal stem cells transplanted into rat myocardium

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether triptolide can prolong the survival of rat mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) transfected with the mouse hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel 4 (mHCN4) gene in the myocardium.

METHODS

Grafted cell survival was determined using a sex-mismatched cell transplantation model and analysis of Y chromosome-specific Sry gene expression from hearts harvested at different time points after cell transplantation. ELISA and RT-PCR were used to measure protein and mRNA levels, respectively, of nuclear factor (NF)-κB, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α.

RESULTS

Donor cell numbers decreased over time. Pretreatment with triptolide improved graft survival both 24 (29.3 ± 0.9%) and 72 h (17.5 ± 1.2%) after transplantation of MSCs and resulted in a 2.5-fold increase in the total cell number 72 h after cell transplantation. The mRNA expression and protein content of NF-κB, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α were significantly reduced in the triptolide-treated group compared with the control groups. In addition, triptolide downregulated Bax but upregulated Bcl-2 in the injected region.

CONCLUSIONS

Transient treatment with triptolide may significantly improve the early survival of MSCs in vivo. The mechanism underlying this effect involves attenuating the inflammatory response via inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway.

Desoxyrhapontigenin, a potent anti-inflammatory phytochemical, inhibits LPS-induced inflammatory responses via suppressing NF-κB and MAPK pathways in RAW 264.7 cells

This study investigates the anti-inflammatory effects of a stilbene compound, desoxyrhapontigenin, which was isolated from Rheum undulatum. To determine the anti-inflammatory effects of this compound, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages were treated with different concentrations of six stilbene derivatives. The results indicated that compared with other stilbene compounds, desoxyrhapontigenin (at 10, 30 and 50μM concentrations) significantly inhibited nitric oxide (NO) production, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation, the protein expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression. Therefore, the anti-inflammatory mechanism of desoxyrhapontigenin was investigated in detail. The results of this investigation demonstrated that desoxyrhapontigenin suppressed not only LPS-stimulated pro-inflammatory cytokine secretions, including the secretions of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), but also PGE2 release. As assayed by electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs), desoxyrhapontigenin also produced the dose-dependent inhibition of the LPS-induced activation of NF-κB and AP-1. Moreover, desoxyrhapontigenin inhibited the protein expression of myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88), IκB kinase (IKK) phosphorylation and the degradation of IκBα. Activations of p-JNK1 and p-Akt were also significantly inhibited, and phosphorylation of p38 and ERK was down-regulated. A further study revealed that desoxyrhapontigenin (5 and 25mg/kg, i.p.) reduced paw swelling in carrageenan-induced acute inflammation model in vivo. On the whole, these results indicate that desoxyrhapontigenin showed anti-inflammatory properties by the inhibition of iNOS and COX-2 expression via the down-regulation of the MAPK signaling pathways and the inhibition of NF-κB and Akt activation.

Immunostimulatory activities of β-d-glucan from Ganoderma Lucidum

A water-insoluble β-(1 → 3)-D-glucan (GLPs) with few branches at C-6 and C-2 positions was extracted from the fruit body of Ganoderma Lucidum by 1M NaOH at 40 °C. By the striking inhibition of NO and TNF-α production, GLPs showed significant anti-inflammation activity against LPS induced Raw 264.7 cells. Results of RT-PCR revealed the down regulation of iNOS and TNF-α mRNA gene expression. GLPs severely inhibited the phosphorylation of IκBα and JNK1/2, while the ERK1/2 and p38 were not apparently affected by GLPs. The neutralizing antibodies against dectin-1 and TLR-4, respectively, did not affect GLPs-mediated inhibition of NO production. But neutralizing of TLR2 affected the inhibition of NO. All of these results revealed that GLPs can inhibit the inflammation of Raw 264.7 cell induced by LPS at least partially attributed to the blocking of NF-κB and JNK MAPK, and TLR2 plays a major role in GLPs anti-inflammation activity.

(E)-2,4-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butenal has an antiproliferative effect on NSCLC cells induced by p38 MAPK-mediated suppression of NF-κB and up-regulation of TNFRSF10B (DR5)

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The Maillard Reaction Products (MRPs) are known to be effective in chemoprevention. Here we focused on the anticancer effects of (E)-2,4-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butenal (a MRP) on human non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells and its mechanism of action.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

We analysed the activity of (E)-2,4-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butenal on NSCLC cells (NCI-H460 and A549) by use of Western blot analysis for major apoptotic proteins, MAPK, NF-κB and death receptor expression. We also used RT-PCR to determine its effects on death receptor mRNA expression, EMSA for effects on NF-κB DNA binding activity and colony formation assay for effects of inhibitors on (E)-2,4-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butenal's actions.

KEY RESULTS

(E)-2,4-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butenal induced a concentration (10-40 μg·mL⁻¹)- and time (30 min-72 h)-dependent inhibitory effect on the growth of NSCLC cells due to induction of apoptosis. Concomitantly, it significantly increased the expression of apoptotic proteins such as cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-9, Bax and p53, but down-regulated the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2, cIAP1 and cIAP2. This effect was induced by up-regulation of MAPK and death receptor proteins TNFRSF12, TNFRSF10B and TNFRSF21, but suppression of NF-κB. Of the death receptors activated, only TNFRSF10B knock down with siRNA reversed the effect of (E)-2,4-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butenal. Even though all the MAPKs were activated, only pretreatment with a p38 MAPK inhibitor reversed (E)-2,4-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butenal-induced cell growth inhibition, increase in cleaved caspase-3, -9 and TNFRSF10B expression, and NF-κB inactivation.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

(E)-2,4-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butenal induces apoptosis in NSCLC cells by p38 MAPK-mediated suppression of NF-κB and activation of TNFRSF10B, which then activates the caspase-3 and caspase-9 pathways.

Triptolide markedly attenuates albuminuria and podocyte injury in an animal model of diabetic nephropathy

Triptolide is a major active component of Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F, which exerts marked immunosuppressive, anti-inflammatory and podocyte-protective effects. In this study, the ability of triptolide to inhibit inflammation and attenuate podocyte injury was examined in a rat model of diabetic nephropathy (DN). Type II diabetic rats with DN were treated with triptolide at a dose of 100 μg.kg⁻¹.day⁻¹. Following 8 weeks of triptolide treatment, the urine albumin level, kidney weight/body weight and the number of cells positive for ED-1 (a marker for rat mononuclear macrophages) in the kidney were assessed. The effects of triptolide on podocyte injury and chronic inflammation were analyzed using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), western blotting and immunohistochemistry. Following triptolide treatment, the albuminuria in the type II diabetic rats was significantly reduced. Furthermore, the glomerular hypertrophy and foot process effacement were improved, and there was a recovery of the slit diaphragm associated with nephrin and podocin expression. The inflammation in the kidneys was also attenuated. Furthermore, triptolide significantly reduced the expression of transforming growth factor-β1 and osteopontin, and the infiltration of ED-1-positive cells into the kidney. The results demonstrated that triptolide markedly attenuated albuminuria and podocyte injury in the rat model of DN, which may have been correlated with the inhibition of inflammation and macrophage infiltration in the kidneys.

Vorinostat, a HDAC inhibitor, showed anti-osteoarthritic activities through inhibition of iNOS and MMP expression, p38 and ERK phosphorylation and blocking NF-κB nuclear translocation

Overproduction of nitric oxide (NO) and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA). In present study, we investigated whether vorinostat can inhibit the catabolic effects of IL-1β in vitro, especially the inhibition of MMPs and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) through the attenuation of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) and mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways in human chondrocytes. Human OA chondrocytes were either left untreated or treated with various concentrations of vorinostat followed by incubation with IL-1β (5ng/mL). Effects of vorinostat on IL-1β-induced gene and protein expression of iNOS, MMP-1, MMP-13 and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) were verified by quantitative real time-PCR and Western blot analysis. Production of NO, MMP-1, MMP-13 and TIMP-1 released in culture supernatant was estimated using commercially available kits. The roles of NF-κB and MAPK pathways in the regulation of targeted genes and the mechanism involved in vorinostat mediated modulation of these genes were determined by Western blot using specific antibodies. We found that vorinostat down-regulated iNOS, MMP-1 and MMP-13 expression and up-regulated TIMP-1 expression in human OA chondrocytes. In addition, the release of NO, MMP-1 and MMP-13 secreted from IL-1β stimulated chondrocytes was also suppressed by vorinostat. Interestingly, vorinostat selectively inhibited IL-1β-induced p38 and ERK1/2 activation without affecting JNK activation. Furthermore, we observed that vorinostat inhibited NF-κB pathway by suppressing the degradation of I-κBα and attenuating NF-κB p65 translocation to the nucleus. These results suggest that vorinostat may be a promising therapeutic agent for the prevention and treatment of OA.

Inhibitory effects of sulfated 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 on the release of pro-inflammatory mediators in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells

Ginsenoside Rh2 is one of the most important ginsenosides in ginseng with anti-inflammatory and antitumor effects. However, the extremely poor oral bioavailability induced by its low water solubility greatly limits the potency of Rh2 in vivo. In the previous study, we sulfated 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 with chlorosulfonic acid and pyridine method, and got one novel derivative, Rh2-B1, with higher water solubility and greater immunologic enhancement than Rh2. However, the anti-inflammatory effect of Rh2-B1 remains unclear. We therefore investigated the effects of Rh2-B1 on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced proinflammatory mediators in RAW 264.7 macrophages. We found that Rh2-B1 dramatically inhibited LPS-induced overproduction of nitric oxide, prostaglandin E2, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6. Consistently, the protein and mRNA expression levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 were remarkably decreased by Rh2-B1. In addition, Rh2-B1 significantly suppressed the phosphorylations of p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and extracellular signal receptor-activated kinase 1/2 induced by LPS. Rh2-B1 was further shown to inhibit NF-κB p65 translocation into the nucleus by suppressing IκBα degradation. In conclusion, we demonstrate that Rh2-B1 inhibits the release of LPS-induced pro-inflammatory mediators through blocking mitogen-activated protein kinases and NF-κB signaling pathways, suggesting that sulfated ginsenosides could be potential agents for anti-inflammatory therapies.

Molecular mechanism of capillarisin-mediated inhibition of MyD88/TIRAP inflammatory signaling in in vitro and in vivo experimental models

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Artemisia capillaris Thunberg (Compositae) have been used as traditional medicine as a diuretic, liver protective agent, and for amelioration of inflammatory and analgesic disorders. The present study was carried out to establish the scientific rationale for treating inflammation and to find active principles from A. capillaris. The aim of the present study is to investigate the possible anti-inflammatory mechanism of the major component (capillarisin) isolated from A. capillaris via inhibition of MyD88/TIRAP inflammatory signaling both in vitro and in vivo models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The nitrite, PGE(2), and TNF-α productions were evaluated by Griess reagent and ELISA kits. The protein and mRNA expression levels were investigated by Western blot and RT-PCR. The NF-κB and AP-1 DNA-binding was performed by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. The CFA- and carrageenan-induced paw edema was performed in ICR mice in which 20 and 80 mg/kg body weight of capillarisin was administered intraperitoneally (i.p.).

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that pretreatment with capillarisin effectively inhibited the LPS-induced activation of NF-κB, Akt, and MAP kinase-activated inflammatory genes, which is mediated by MyD88 and TIRAP. Treatment with capillarisin reduced the mRNA and protein levels of iNOS and COX-2 in RAW 264.7 cells as assessed by RT-PCR and Western blot. Capillarisin suppressed LPS-induced inhibitory kappa kinase (IKK) phosphorylation and the degradation of inhibitory kappa B (IκBα) and prevented the nuclear translocation of p65 and p50. Capillarisin also exhibited a promising inhibitory effect on the LPS-induced NF-κB and AP-1 DNA binding activity based on an electrophoretic mobility shift assay. The LPS-induced activation of p-JNK, p-p38, p-ERK, and p-Akt was significantly inhibited. In addition, the TNF-α level in the media was effectively reduced by capillarisin. In vivo experimental analysis revealed that capillarisin (20 and 80 mg/kg, i.p.) inhibited complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-and carrageenan-induced paw edema, nitrite production in plasma, and TNF-α, a pro-inflammatory cytokine production.

CONCLUSION

The results presented here demonstrate that capillarisin has consistent anti-inflammatory properties and acts by inhibiting inflammatory mediators in in vitro and in vivo experimental models, and suggest its potential utility in the control of inflammatory disorders.

Triptolide in the treatment of psoriasis and other immune-mediated inflammatory diseases

Apart from cancer chronic (auto)immune-mediated diseases are a major threat for patients and a challenge for physicians. These conditions include classic autoimmune diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus, systemic sclerosis and dermatomyositis and also immune-mediated inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis. Traditional therapies for these conditions include unspecific immunosuppressants including steroids and cyclophosphamide, more specific compounds such as ciclosporin or other drugs which are thought to act as immunomodulators (fumarates and intravenous immunoglobulins). With increasing knowledge about the underlying pathomechanisms of the diseases, targeted biologic therapies mainly consisting of anti-cytokine or anti-cytokine receptor agents have been developed. The latter have led to a substantial improvement of the induction of long term remission but drug costs are high and are not affordable in all countries. In China an extract of the herb Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F. (TwHF) is frequently used to treat autoimmune and/or inflammatory diseases due to its favourable cost-benefit ratio. Triptolide has turned out to be the active substance of TwHF extracts and has been shown to exert potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects in vitro and in vivo. There is increasing evidence for an immunomodulatory and partly immunosuppressive mechanism of action of triptolide. Thus, compounds such as triptolide or triptolide derivatives may have the potential to be developed as a new class of drugs for these diseases. In this review we summarize the published knowledge regarding clinical use, pharmacokinetics and the possible mode of action of triptolide in the treatment of inflammatory diseases with a particular focus on psoriasis.

Anti-inflammatory effect of Sosihotang via inhibition of nuclear factor-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinases signaling pathways in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells

Sosihotang (SO) is an herbal medication, which has been widely used to treat fever, chill and vomiting due to common cold in east-Asian countries. In this study, to provide insight into the effects of SO on inflammation, we investigated its effect on pro-inflammatory mediator production in RAW 264.7 cells and mouse peritoneal macrophages using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. SO significantly inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6 as well as gene expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), its synthesizing enzyme. In addition, SO inhibited nuclear factor (NF)-κB activation and suppressed extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38 and c- Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) phosphorylation. Furthermore, we found SO suppresses the production of NO and IL-6 in LPS-stimulated peritoneal macrophage cells. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed SO contains many active anti-inflammatory constituents such as liquiritigenin, baicalin, baicalein, glycyrrhizin and wogonin. We first elucidated the inhibitory mechanism of SO on inflammation induced by LPS in macrophage cells. Our results suggest SO has potential to be developed as a therapeutic agent for various inflammatory diseases.

A Novel Herbal Medicine KIOM-MA Exerts an Anti-Inflammatory Effect in LPS-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Macrophage Cells

KIOM-MA was recently reported as a novel herbal medicine effective for atopic dermatitis and asthma. In this study, we have demonstrated the inhibitory effect of KIOM-MA on proinflammatory mediator produced in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. KIOM-MA significantly inhibited the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) as well as nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)). Consistent with the inhibitory effect on PGE(2), KIOM-MA suppresses the LPS-induced migration of macrophages and gelatinase activity and the expression of matrix metalloprotease-9 (MMP-9) in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, KIOM-MA showed a strong suppressive effect on the inflammatory cytokines production such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). We also found that KIOM-MA inhibits the activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and represses the activity of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). Taken together, we elucidated the mechanism of anti-inflammatory effect of KIOM-MA using RAW 264.7 cells stimulated by LPS.

Fermentation improves anti-inflammatory effect of sipjeondaebotang on LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells

Sipjeondaebotang (SJ) has been used as a traditional drug in east-Asian countries. In this study, to provide insight into the biological effects of SJ and SJ fermented by Lactobacillus, we investigated their effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated inflammation in macrophages. The investigation was focused on whether SJ and fermented SJ could inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandin (PG) E(2) and nitric oxide (NO) as well as the expressions of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor (NF)-κB in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. We found that SJ modestly inhibited LPS-induced PGE(2), NO and TNF-α production as well as the expressions of COX-2 and iNOS. Interestingly, fermentation significantly increased its inhibitory effect on the expression of all pro-inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, fermented SJ exhibited increased inhibition of p38 MAPK and c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) MAPK phosphorylation as well as NF-κB p65 translocation by reduced IκBα degradation compared with either untreated controls or unfermented SJ. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed fermentation by Lactobacillus increases liquiritigenin and cinnamyl alcohol contained in SJ, which are known for their anti-inflammatory activities. Finally, SJ fermented by Lactobacillus exerted potent anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting MAPK and NF-κB signaling in RAW 264.7 cells.

Anti-inflammatory effect of Citrus Unshiu peel in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells

Citrus Unshiu peel (CUP) has been traditionally used in East Asia as a drug for the treatment of vomiting and dyspepsia. However, its effects on inflammation remain unknown. In this study, we investigated the effects of CUP on the production of pro-inflammatory mediators in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. The research focused on determining whether CUP could inhibit the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and the activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), as well as the secretion of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin (PG) E(2), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-6 in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. We found that CUP represses LPS-induced iNOS and COX-2 gene expression as well as NO, PGE(2), TNF-α and IL-6 production. Additionally, CUP inhibited the LPS-induced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) MAPK, and suppressed IκBα degradation and nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Collectively, our results indicate that CUP inhibits the production of various inflammatory mediators via blockade of MAPK phosphorylation pursuant to the inhibition of IκBα degradation and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. These findings are the first to clarify the mechanism underlying the anti-inflammatory effect exerted by CUP in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells stimulated by inflammatory agents.

Ethanol extract of Elaeocarpus petiolatus inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in macrophage cells

Elaeocarpus petiolatus is known to exert active oxygen scavenging, anti-aging, and whitening actions. However, the biological effects of E. petiolatus on inflammation and the underlying mechanisms are yet to be established. In the present study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of the ethanol extract from E. petiolatus (EPE) bark in murine Raw264.7 macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). EPE inhibited the production of PGE(2), TNF-α, and IL-1β in a dose-dependent manner in Raw264.7 cells stimulated with LPS. The decrease in PGE(2) production was correlated with reduced COX-2 expression. Furthermore, EPE suppressed the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-related kinases (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38 as well as translocation of the NF-κB p65 subunit from the cytosol to nucleus. Our results suggest that EPE exerts anti-inflammatory activity through inhibition of inflammatory mediators, such as PGE(2), TNF-α, and IL-1β, and downregulation of COX-2 via suppression of NF-κB translocation and phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and p38 in LPS-stimulated Raw264.7 cells.

Effects of taraxasterol on inflammatory responses in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages

AIM OF THE STUDY

Taraxasterol, a pentacyclic-triterpene, was isolated from the Chinese medicinal herb Taraxacum officinale. In the present study, we investigated the in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of taraxasterol in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 murine macrophages.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RAW 264.7 cells were pretreated with 2.5, 5, or 12.5μg/ml of taraxasterol 1h prior to treatment with 1μg/ml of LPS. Nitric oxide (NO) level in supernatants from cells was examined by Griess reaction, the concentrations of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were measured by ELISA. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation was evaluated by immunocytochemical analysis.

RESULTS

We found that taraxasterol inhibited NO, PGE(2), TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 production in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages in a dose-dependent manner. Further studies revealed that taraxasterol prevented the LPS-induced NF-κB translocation from cytoplasm into nuclear.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that taraxasterol has anti-inflammatory effect by blocking NF-κB pathway.

Anti-inflammatory effect of Lycium Fruit water extract in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells

Lycium Fruit has been used as a traditional drug for low back pain and chronic cough in east-Asian countries. However, inhibitory effects of Lycium Fruit water extract (LFWE) on inflammation remain unknown. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effects of LFWE on pro-inflammatory mediator production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. LFWE inhibited LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin (PG) E₂, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6 production as well as their synthesizing enzyme inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 gene expression. Furthermore, LFWE inhibited phosphorylations of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38 and c-Jun NH₂-terminal kinase (JNK) mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) as well as suppression of IκBα degradation and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB upon LPS stimulation. In addition, LFWE suppressed NO, PGE₂, TNF-α and IL-6 production in LPS-stimulated peritoneal macrophage cells. Taken together, our results suggest that LFWE inhibits the production of various inflammatory mediators via blockade on the MAPKs and NF-κB pathways. This finding first explains the mechanism of anti-inflammatory effect by LFWE in LPS-stimulated macrophage cells.

Fermentation by Lactobacillus enhances anti-inflammatory effect of Oyaksungisan on LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage cells

BACKGROUND

Oyaksungisan (OY) has been used as a traditional drug in east-Asian countries. However, its effect on inflammation still remains unknown. In this study, to provide insight into the biological effects of OY and OY fermented by Lactobacillus, we investigated their effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated inflammation in the RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells.

METHODS

The investigation was focused on whether OY and fermented OYs could inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin (PG) E2 as well as the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, nuclear factor (NF)-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells.

RESULTS

We found that OY inhibits a little LPS-induced NO, PGE2, TNF-α and IL-6 productions as well as the expressions of iNOS and COX-2. Interestingly, the fermentation significantly increased its inhibitory effect on the expression of all pro-inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, the fermented OYs exhibited elevated inhibition on the translocation of NF-κB p65 through reduced IκBα degradation as well as the phosphorylations of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38 and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) MAPKs than untreated control or original OY.

CONCLUSIONS

Finally, the fermentation by Lactobacillus potentiates the anti-inflammatory effect of OY by inhibiting NF-κB and MAPK activity in the macrophage cells.

Triptolide attenuate the oxidative stress induced by LPS/D-GalN in mice

Triptolide, a diterpene triepoxide, is one of the major components of most functional extracts of Tripterygium wilfordii Hook f, which is known to have various biological effects, including immunosuppressive, anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor functions. We studied the inhibitory effect of triptolide on endotoxemia (ETM)-induced oxidative stress, which was induced in C57BL/6 mice by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and D-galactosamine (D-GalN). Pretreatment with triptolide decreased the reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, mortality rate and liver injury after LPS/D-GalN injection. We utilized comprehensive proteomics to identify alterations in liver protein expression during pretreatment with triptolide or N-acetylcysteine (NAC) after LPS/D-GalN injection, 44 proteins were found to be related to oxidative stress, mitochondria, metabolism and signal transduction, and 23 proteins of them seemed to be significantly up- or down-regulated. Furthermore, both triptolide and NAC inhibited activation of c-jun NH2-terminal kinases (JNK) and mitogen-activated protein kinase p38 (p38), phosphorylation of inhibitor of nuclear factor-kappa B (IκB) and activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). These results demonstrated that triptolide inhibited the activation of JNK and p38 by decreasing ROS levels, which in turn inhibited the hepatic injury. In addition, we set and validated the phosphorylation model of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and proposed that triptolide probably induced ERK phosphorylation through inhibiting its dephosphorylation rates. These results showed that triptolide can effectively reduce the oxidative stress and partially rescue the damage in the liver induced by LPS/D-GalN.

Anti-inflammatory mechanism of 15,16-epoxy-3α-hydroxylabda-8,13(16),14-trien-7-one via inhibition of LPS-induced multicellular signaling pathways

Phytochemical investigation of Leonurus japonicus has led to the isolation of a labdane diterpene derivative, 15,16-epoxy-3α-hydroxylabda-8,13(16),14-trien-7-one (1), which was tested for its in vitro anti-inflammatory effects. The results demonstrated that 1 exhibits an inhibitory effect on LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. The anti-inflammatory action shown by 1 suppressed LPS-induced NF-κB activation, resulting in the down-regulation of iNOS and COX-2 protein expression, attributable to the inhibitory action of LPS-induced NO and PGE(2) production. Compound 1 inhibited LPS-induced phosphorylation and the degradation of inhibitory kappa B (IκBα) and decreased the nuclear translocation of p50 and p65. In addition, 1 exhibited an inhibitory effect on LPS-induced NF-κB-DNA and AP-1-DNA binding activity, using an electrophoretic mobility shift assay with NF-κB- and AP-1-specific (32)P-labeled probes. The LPS-induced mitogen-activated protein kinases (p-JNK, p-p38, and p-ERK) and p-Akt were inhibited after 30 and 10 min of LPS stimulation, respectively. In addition, TNF-α production was suppressed by 1.

Triptolide exhibits anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic as well as anabolic effects and suppresses TLR expression and MAPK activity in IL-1β treated human intervertebral disc cells

INTRODUCTION

Increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines seem to play a pivotal role in the development of back pain in a subpopulation of patients with degenerative intervertebral disc (IVD) disease. As current treatment options are mostly limited to surgical interventions or conservative treatment, anti-inflammatory substances might offer a novel, more target-orientated therapeutic approach. Triptolide (TPL), a natural substance found in the Chinese medicinal herb Tripterygium wilfordii Hook, has been demonstrated to possess anti-inflammatory effects in various cells, but no studies exist so far for the IVD. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effects of TPL on human IVD cells by analyzing changes in gene expression and underlying molecular mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to investigate the anti-inflammatory, anabolic and anti-catabolic effect of TPL, dose-dependency experiments (n = 5) and time course experiments (n = 5) were performed on IL-1β prestimulated human IVD cells and changes in gene expression of IL-6/-8, TNF-α, PGE2S, MMP1/2/3/13, aggrecan and collagen-I/-II were analyzed by real-time RT-PCR. The molecular mechanisms underlying the effects observed upon TPL treatment were investigated by analyzing involvement of Toll-like receptors TLR2/4 (real-time RT-PCR, n = 5), NF-κB, MAP kinases p38, ERK and JNK (immunoblotting and immunocytochemistry, n = 4) as well as RNA polymerase II (immunoblotting, n = 3).

RESULTS

Results showed that 50 nM TPL exhibited an anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and anabolic effect on the mRNA level for IL-6/-8, PGE2S, MMP1/2/3/13, aggrecan, collagen-II and TLR2/4, with most pronounced changes after 18 h for proinflammatory cytokines and MMPs or 30 h for TLRs and matrix proteins. However, we also observed an up-regulation of TNF-α at higher concentrations. The effects of TPL did not seem to be mediated via an inhibition of NF-κB or a decrease of RNA polymerase II levels, but TPL influenced activity of MAP kinases p38 and ERK (but not JNK) and expression of TLR2/4.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, TPL may possess promising potential for the treatment of inflammation-related discogenic back pain in vitro, but its analgetic effect will need to be confirmed in an appropriate in vivo animal model.

Methyl-1-hydroxy-2-naphthoate, a novel naphthol derivative, inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory response in macrophages via suppression of NF-κB, JNK and p38 MAPK pathways

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN

The anti-inflammatory effect of methyl-1-hydroxy-2-naphthoate (MHNA), a novel naphthol derivative, was evaluated in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory response in murine macrophages.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The release of nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were detected by the Griess reagent and ELISA methods. The protein expressions of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) were examined by Western blotting. The mRNA expressions of IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS and COX-2 were determined by real-time PCR. Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathways were detected by Western blotting, reporter gene assay and electrophoretic mobility shift assay.

RESULTS

MHNA significantly inhibited the release of NO, IL-1β and IL-6 as well as the protein expression of iNOS and COX-2 in LPS-stimulated macrophages. It also inhibited the mRNA expression of iNOS, COX-2, IL-1β and IL-6. Further studies indicated that MHNA inhibited LPS-induced increases in NF-κB DNA-binding activity and NF-κB transcriptional activity as well as IκB-α degradation and NF-κB translocation in a dose-dependent manner. Meanwhile, the activation of p38 MAPK and c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) induced by LPS were decreased by MHNA.

CONCLUSIONS

MHNA inhibits the LPS-induced inflammatory response in murine macrophages via suppression of NF-κB and MAPKs signaling pathways activation.