Traffic-related air pollution and health co-benefits of alternative transport in Adelaide, South Australia

Air pollution and venous thromboembolism: current knowledge and future perspectives

Air pollution, comprising a variable mixture of gaseous and solid particulate material, represents a serious, unmet, global health issue. The Global Burden of Disease study reported that 12% of all deaths occurring in 2019 were related to ambient air pollution, with particulate matter often considered to be the leading cause of harm. As of 2024, over 90% of the world's population are exposed to excessive amounts of particulate matter, based on WHO maximum exposure level guidelines. A substantial body of evidence supports a link between air pollution and cardiovascular disease, with around half of ambient pollution-related deaths thought to be secondary to cardiovascular causes. A possible association between particulate matter and venous thromboembolism has been less clear, but in the past decade, several studies have added to the available literature. In this Review, we discuss the current epidemiological evidence linking air pollution to the development of venous thrombotic events. We consider mechanisms promoting a thromboinflammatory phenotype in these individuals, including platelet dysfunction, dysregulated fibrinolysis, and enhanced thrombin generation. Given the relevance to global health, we also discuss possible strategies required to mitigate the impact of air pollution on human health worldwide.

COVID-19 and working from home-related changes in physical activity in Sydney, Australia

ISSUES ADDRESSED

Evidence on how COVID-19 lockdowns impacted physical activity (PA) is mixed. This study explores changes in PA following initial mobility restrictions, and their subsequent relaxation, in a sample of Sydney (Australia) residents using a natural experiment methodology.

METHODS

Participants' health and travel behaviours were collected pre-pandemic in late 2019 (n = 1937), with follow-up waves during the pandemic in 2020 (n = 1706) and 2021 (n = 1514). Linear mixed-effects models were used to analyse changes in weekly duration of PA between the three waves.

RESULTS

Compared with pre-pandemic, average weekly PA increased in 2021 by 42.6 min total PA (p = .001), 16 min walking PA (p = .02), and 26.4 min moderate-vigorous PA (MVPA) (p = .003). However, average weekly sessions of PA decreased in 2020 and remained lower in 2021. For participants who were sufficiently active in 2019, weekly total PA (-66.3 min) MVPA (-43.8 min) decreased in 2020 compared to pre-pandemic. Conversely, among participants who were insufficiently active in 2019, average weekly PA increased in both 2020 (total PA, +99.1 min; walking PA, +46.4 min; MVPA +52.8 min) and 2021 (total PA, +117.8 min; walking PA, +58.4 min; MVPA +59.2 min), compared to 2019. Participants who did more work from home increased their average weekly total PA in 2021 compared to pre-pandemic (+45.3 min).

CONCLUSION

These findings reveal the complex variability in PA behaviour brought about by the pandemic. SO WHAT?: Strategies to support the population in achieving sufficient PA must focus on maintaining an appetite for PA as we move out of the pandemic and on promoting more frequent PA sessions.

Effects on child and adolescent health of climate change mitigation policies: A systematic review of modelling studies

There is a growing body of modelling evidence that demonstrates the potential for immediate and substantial benefits to adult health from greenhouse gas mitigation actions, but the effects on the health of younger age groups is largely unknown. We conducted a systematic review to identify the available published evidence of the modelled effects on child and adolescent health (≤18 years of age) of greenhouse gas mitigation. We searched six databases of peer-reviewed studies published between January 1, 1990 and July 27, 2022, screened 27,282 original papers and included 23 eligible papers. All included studies were set in high- and middle-income countries; and all studies modelled the effects of interventions that could mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality. Most of the available evidence suggests positive benefits for child and adolescent respiratory health from greenhouse gas mitigation actions that simultaneously reduce air pollution (specifically PM2.5 and nitrogen dioxide). We found scant evidence on child and adolescent health from regions more vulnerable to climate change, or on mitigation interventions that could affect exposures other than air pollution.

Impacts of net zero policies on air quality in a metropolitan area of the United Kingdom: Towards world health organization air quality guidelines

Climate change and air pollution are closely interlinked since carbon dioxide and air pollutants are co-emitted from fossil fuel combustion. Net Zero (NZ) policies aiming to reduce carbon emissions will likely bring co-benefits in air quality and associated health. However, it is unknown whether regional NZ policies alone will be sufficient to reduce air pollutant levels to meet the latest 2021 World Health Organisation (WHO) guidelines. Here, we carried out high resolution air quality modelling for in the West Midlands region, a typical metropolitan area in the UK, to quantify the effects of different NZ policies on air quality. Results show that NZ policies will significantly improve air quality in the West Midlands, with up to 6 μg m-3 (21%) reduction in annual mean NO2 (mostly through the electrification of vehicle fleet, EV) and up to 1.4 μg m-3 (12%) reduction in annual mean PM2.5 projected for 2030 relative to levels under a "business as usual" (BAU) scenario. Under BAU, 2030 PM2.5 concentrations in most wards would be below 10 μg m-3 whilst under the Net Zero scenario, those in all wards would be below 10 μg m-3. This means that the ward averages in the West Midlands would meet the UK PM2.5 of 10 μg m-3target a decade early under the Net Zero scenario. However, no ward-level-averaged annual mean PM2.concentrations meet the 2021 WHO Air Quality guideline level of 5 μg m-3 under any scenario. Similarly for NO2 only 18 wards (8% of the region's population) are predicted to have NO2 concentrations below the 2021 WHO guideline level (10 μg m-3). Decarbonisation policies linked to Net Zero deliver substantial regional air quality benefits, but are not in isolation sufficient to deliver clean air with air pollutant levels low enough to meet the 2021 WHO guidelines.

Air Pollution Health Literacy among Active Commuters in Hamilton, Ontario

The promotion of active transportation (AT), which has been broadly defined as a physical effort performed by the traveller to produce motion, has been a popular strategy to reduce vehicular emissions, improve air quality, and promote physical activity. However, individuals who engage in AT may incur increased exposure to air pollutants and thus potential health impacts. This research sought to determine how active commuters understand the health risks associated with air pollution during their commutes, and whether they engage in any behaviours to limit exposure. An online survey was adapted from the Environmental Health Literacy framework to assess air pollution health literacy among active commuters in Hamilton, ON, and generated a sample size of 192 AT users. Analyses involved the use of frequency tables and cross-tabulations for the quantitative data, and the Health Belief Model and thematic analysis to interpret the qualitative data. Results revealed that most AT users do not adopt behaviours that would limit air pollution exposure on commutes and exhibited low self-rated knowledge of the health impacts of air pollution exposure. Issues of perceived susceptibility and severity, barriers, cues to action, and self-efficacy all further impacted the likelihood of adopting health protective behaviours. Conclusively, air pollution is an often-neglected consideration among active commuters, with air pollution knowledge predicting the likelihood of behavioural modification.

Impact of air pollution on human health in different geographical locations of Nepal

According to a recent survey, Nepal's urban air quality has been classified as one of the worst in the globe. A large portion of the country's population is subjected to health risks caused by air pollution. As Nepal has a wide variation in altitude coupled with socio-cultural and biological diversities, it is important to understand the different health hazards in the different geographical regions - Terai, Hills and Mountains. Constantly increasing physical infrastructures (such as transport vehicles, open burning of plastics and other fuels) are the main reasons for the escalating air pollution in the country. This study aims to critically review the current air pollution status in different geographical locations along with its impacts on public health in the country. It has been revealed that irrespective of geographic location, the air pollutants interfere with different human physiological systems related to respiration as well as cardiovascular, ophthalmic, and gastrointestinal functioning. Further, the research findings highlighting the influence of prolonged exposure of the population to the air pollution leading to the significant number of deaths have been presented. A notable rise in the number of hospitalized patients suffering from illnesses related to above mentioned pollution borne cases has been reported.

Air pollution in Iran: The current status and potential solutions

Air pollution has been integrated into global challenges over the last few years due to its negative impact on the health of human beings, increasing socio-economic risks, and its contribution to climate change. This study attempts to evaluate the current status of Iran's air pollution with regard to the sources of emissions, control policies, and the health and climate consequences that have resulted through available data from monitoring stations reported in the literature, official documents, and previously published papers. Many large cities in Iran surpass the permissible concentration of air pollutants, particularly particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, black carbon, and ozone. Although regulations and policies are in place and enormous efforts are being made to address air pollution issues in the country, implementation and enforcement are not as effective as they could be. The significant challenges may be regarded as the inefficiency of regulation and supervision systems, the lack of air quality monitoring systems and technology, particularly in industrial cities rather than Tehran, and the lack of continual feedback and investigations on the efficiency of regulation. Providing such an up-to-date report can bring opportunities for international collaboration, which is essential in addressing air pollution worldwide. We suggest that a way forward could be more focused on conducting systematic reviews using scientometric methods to show an accurate picture and trend in air pollution and its association in Iran, implementing an integrated approach for both climate change and air pollution issues, collaborating with international counterparts to share knowledge, tools, and techniques.

Air pollution and child health impacts of decarbonization in 16 global cities: Modelling study

Most research on the air pollution-related health effects of decarbonization has focused on adults. We assess the potential health benefits that could be achieved in children and young people in a global sample of 16 cities through global decarbonization actions. We modelled annual average concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) at 1x1 km resolution in the cities using a general circulation/atmospheric chemistry model assuming removal of all global combustion-related emissions from land transport, industries, domestic energy use and power generation. We modelled the impact on childhood asthma incidence and adverse birth outcomes (low birthweight, pre-term births) using published exposure-response relationships. Removal of combustion emissions was estimated to decrease annual average PM_2.5 by between 2.9 μg/m³ (8.4%) in Freetown and 45.4 μg/m³ (63.7%) in Dhaka. For NO₂, the range was from 0.3 ppb (7.9%) in Freetown to 18.8 ppb (92.3%) in Mexico City. Estimated reductions in asthma incidence ranged from close to zero in Freetown, Tamale and Harare to 149 cases per 100,000 population in Los Angeles. For pre-term birth, modelled impacts ranged from a reduction of 135 per 100,000 births in Dar es Salaam to 2,818 per 100,000 births in Bhubaneswar and, for low birthweight, from 75 per 100,000 births in Dar es Salaam to 2,951 per 100,000 births in Dhaka. The large variations chiefly reflect differences in the magnitudes of air pollution reductions and estimated underlying disease rates. Across the 16 cities, the reduction in childhood asthma incidence represents more than one-fifth of the current burden, and an almost 10% reduction in pre-term and low birthweight births. Decarbonization actions that remove combustion-related emissions contributing to ambient PM_2.5 and NO₂ would likely lead to substantial but geographically-varied reductions in childhood asthma and adverse birth outcomes, though there are uncertainties in causality and the precision of estimates.

Co-Benefit Assessment of Active Transportation in Delhi, Estimating the Willingness to Use Nonmotorized Mode and Near-Roadway-Avoided PM2.5 Exposure

This study aims to estimate the avoided mortalities and morbidities and related economic impacts due to adopting the nonmotorized transportation (NMT) policy in Delhi, India. To this aim, an integrated quantitative assessment framework is developed to estimate the expected environmental, health, and economic co-benefits from replacing personal motorized transport with NMT in Delhi, taking into account the inhabitants' willingness to use NMT (walking and cycling) mode. The willingness to accept NMT is estimated by conducting a cross-sectional survey in Delhi, which is further used to estimate the expected health benefits from both increased physical activity and near-roadway-avoided PM_2.5 exposure in selected traffic areas in 11 major districts in Delhi. The value of a statistical life (VSL) and cost of illness methods are used to calculate the economic benefits of the avoided mortalities and morbidities from NMT in Delhi. The willingness assessment indicates that the average per capita time spent walking and cycling in Delhi is 11.054 and 2.255 min, respectively. The results from the application of the NMT in Delhi show the annual reduction in CO₂ and PM_2.5 to be 121.5 kilotons and 138.9 tons, respectively. The model estimates the expected co-benefits from increased physical activities and reduced PM_2.5 exposure at 17,529 avoided cases of mortality with an associated savings of about USD 4870 million in Delhi.

Goal-oriented possibilistic fuzzy C-Medoid clustering of human mobility patterns—Illustrative application for the Taxicab trips-based enrichment of public transport services

The discovery of human mobility patterns of cities provides invaluable information for decision-makers who are responsible for redesign of community spaces, traffic, and public transportation systems and building more sustainable cities. The present article proposes a possibilistic fuzzy c-medoid clustering algorithm to study human mobility. The proposed medoid-based clustering approach groups the typical mobility patterns within walking distance to the stations of the public transportation system. The departure times of the clustered trips are also taken into account to obtain recommendations for the scheduling of the designed public transportation lines. The effectiveness of the proposed methodology is revealed in an illustrative case study based on the analysis of the GPS data of Taxicabs recorded during nights over a one-year-long period in Budapest.

The neighbourhood environment and profiles of the metabolic syndrome

BACKGROUND

There is a dearth of studies on how neighbourhood environmental attributes relate to the metabolic syndrome (MetS) and profiles of MetS components. We examined the associations of interrelated aspects of the neighbourhood environment, including air pollution, with MetS status and profiles of MetS components.

METHODS

We used socio-demographic and MetS-related data from 3681 urban adults who participated in the 3rd wave of the Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle Study. Neighbourhood environmental attributes included area socio-economic status (SES), population density, street intersection density, non-commercial land use mix, percentages of commercial land, parkland and blue space. Annual average concentrations of NO₂ and PM_2.5 were estimated using satellite-based land-use regression models. Latent class analysis (LCA) identified homogenous groups (latent classes) of participants based on MetS components data. Participants were then classified into five metabolic profiles according to their MetS-components latent class and MetS status. Generalised additive mixed models were used to estimate relationships of environmental attributes with MetS status and metabolic profiles.

RESULTS

LCA yielded three latent classes, one including only participants without MetS ("Lower probability of MetS components" profile). The other two classes/profiles, consisting of participants with and without MetS, were "Medium-to-high probability of high fasting blood glucose, waist circumference and blood pressure" and "Higher probability of MetS components". Area SES was the only significant predictor of MetS status: participants from high SES areas were less likely to have MetS. Area SES, percentage of commercial land and NO₂ were associated with the odds of membership to healthier metabolic profiles without MetS, while annual average concentration of PM_2.5 was associated with unhealthier metabolic profiles with MetS.

CONCLUSIONS

This study supports the utility of operationalising MetS as a combination of latent classes of MetS components and MetS status in studies of environmental correlates. Higher socio-economic advantage, good access to commercial services and low air pollution levels appear to independently contribute to different facets of metabolic health. Future research needs to consider conducting longitudinal studies using fine-grained environmental measures that more accurately characterise the neighbourhood environment in relation to behaviours or other mechanisms related to MetS and its components.

The Effect of a School-Based Intervention on Children’s Cycling Knowledge, Mode of Commuting and Perceived Barriers: A Randomized Controlled Trial

The low rates of active commuting to/from school in Spain, especially by bike, and the wide range of cycling interventions in the literature show that this is a necessary research subject. The aims of this study were: (1) to assess the feasibility of a school-based cycling intervention program for adolescents, (2) to analyse the effectiveness of a school-based cycling intervention program on the rates of cycling and other forms of active commuting to/from school (ACS), and perceived barriers to active commuting in adolescents. A total of 122 adolescents from Granada, Jaén and Valencia (Spain) participated in the study. The cycling intervention group participated in a school-based intervention program to promote cycling to school during Physical Education (PE) sessions in order to analyse the changes in the dependent variables at baseline and follow up of the intervention. Wilcoxon, Signs and McNemar tests were undertaken. The association of the intervention program with commuting behaviour, and perceived barriers to commuting, were analysed by binary logistic regression. There were improvements in knowledge at follow-up and the cycling skill scores were medium-low. The rates of cycling to school and active commuting to/from school did not change, and only the “built environment (walk)” barrier increased in the cycling group at follow-up. School-based interventions may be feasibly effective tools to increase ACS behaviour, but it is necessary to implement a longer period and continue testing further school-based cycling interventions.

Lowering mortality risks in urban areas by containing atmospheric pollution

OBJECTIVES

Although studies collectively examining the traffic and residential heat pollutant emissions are abundant, research investigations dedicated to Cyprus are scarce. This investigation has simulated the levels of air pollutants, namely, CO, NO_x, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀ and reconciled them with actual air quality measurements in Nicosia, Cyprus, during a 9-month period at an hourly resolution. To this end, several scenarios and cases were formulated to tackle emissions and minimise human mortality risks in the city.

METHODS

The GRAL dispersion model was used to project pollution levels. Nine different traffic scenarios were devised to estimate variations in concentration of PM_2.5 and NO_x under various policies, such as banning diesel passenger vehicles (PV), light duty vehicles (LDV), non-Euro 6 standards vehicles, stringent speed limits and a ubiquitous roll-out of electric passenger vehicles. Moreover, 4 distinct cases were analysed to year 2030 considering a fluctuation in traffic of ±20% whereas all vehicles conform to Euro 6 standards. Three additional policies examined the prohibition of diesel PV and LDV, 80% electric PV and outlawing fireplaces. Drawing on the findings of these scenarios and cases, the total cardiovascular and respiratory mortality rates at the capital of Cyprus, Nicosia, were deduced.

RESULTS

The most promising scenario in terms of curbing emissions was to ban non-Euro 6 vehicles and diesel PV and LDV which could contain average NO_x concentration, in Nicosia, from 52.9 μg/m³ to 15.0 μg/m³. If this policy were to be implemented, it could have saved 70% of the premature deaths tied to NO_x emissions. For particulate matter, banning fireplaces and abandoning non-Euro 6 vehicles could lower average concentrations from 18.3 μg/m³ to 13.1 μg/m³, saving at least 30% of the people poised to lose their lives from particulate matter risks.

CONCLUSION

Traffic and residential heat policies are not easy to implement. However, our study has demonstrated that the most effective policies for curbing NO_x emissions would be to ensure that all vehicles abide with the Euro 6 standards and, concurrently, ban diesel passenger and light duty vehicles. Lastly, phasing out domestic fireplaces appears to be the most promising solution for containing particulate matter, in 2030.

Health benefits from cleaner vehicles and increased active transportation in Seattle, Washington

BACKGROUND

Climate mitigation policies that focus on the transportation sector yield near-term health co-benefits that could motivate policy action.

OBJECTIVE

We quantified CO₂ emission reductions as well as the air pollution and health benefits of urban transportation policies promoting electric vehicles (EV) and walking and bicycling in Seattle, Washington.

METHODS

We compared a business-as-usual scenario projected to 2035 with intervention scenarios in which 35% of gasoline vehicles were switched to EV, and 50% of car trips less than 8 kilometers were replaced by walking or bicycling. We modeled changes in primary traffic-generated oxides of nitrogen (NO_x) and fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) as well as walking and bicycling activity, CO₂ emissions from traffic, and fatal traffic injuries due to the transportation policy scenarios. We estimated the impacts of these changes on annual cases of asthma and premature mortality in the Seattle population.

RESULTS

Increasing the use of EV, walking, and bicycling is estimated to reduce CO₂ emissions by 744 tons/year (30%) and lower annual average concentrations of primary traffic-generated NO_x and PM_2.5 by 0.32 ppb (13%) and 0.08 μg/m³ (19%), respectively. In Seattle, the lower air pollutant concentrations, greater active transportation, and lower fatal traffic injuries would prevent 13 (95% CI: -1, 28), 49 (95% CI: 19, 71), and 5 (95% CI: 0, 14) premature deaths per year, respectively and 20 (95% CI: 8, 27) cases of asthma per year.

SIGNIFICANCE

Moving towards cleaner vehicles and active transportation can reduce CO₂ emissions, improve air quality, and population health. The resulting public health benefits provide important motivation for urban climate action plans.

IMPACT STATEMENT

Using key components of the health impact assessment framework, we quantify the environmental and health benefits of urban transportation policy scenarios that promote electric vehicle use and replace short car trips with walking and bicycling as compared with a business as usual scenario in 2035. Our findings demonstrate that transportation scenarios promoting cleaner vehicles and active transportation can reduce CO₂ emissions, improve air quality, and increase physical activity levels, resulting in significant public health benefits.

Perceptions of air quality and concern for health in relation to long-term air pollution exposure, bushfires, and COVID-19 lockdown: A before-and-after study

BACKGROUND

Air pollution is a major health burden and the leading environmental risk factor for non-communicable diseases worldwide. People's perceptions and concerns about air pollution are important as they may predict protective behaviour or support for climate change mitigation policies.

METHODS

This repeat cross-sectional study uses survey data collected from participants in Sydney, Australia in September-November 2019 (n = 1,647) and October-December 2020 (n = 1,458), before and after the devastating 2019/2020 bushfires and first COVID-19 lockdown restrictions in Sydney in 2020. Participants' perceptions of air quality and concerns for health in relation to air quality were modeled against estimates of annual average NO₂ and PM_2.5 concentrations in their neighbourhood.

RESULTS

Participants in suburbs with higher estimated air pollution concentrations generally perceived poorer air quality and were more concerned for health in relation to air quality. A 5 µg/m³ increase in NO₂ was associated with perceived poorer air quality (OR 1.32, 95%CI 1.18-1.47). A 1 µg/m³ increase in estimated PM_2.5 was associated with perceived poorer air quality (OR 1.37, 95%CI 1.24-1.52) and greater concern for health (OR 1.18, 95%CI 1.05-1.32). Air quality was perceived as better in 2020 than in 2019 in both NO₂ and PM_2.5 models (p<0.001). Air quality concern increased in 2020 in both models.

DISCUSSION

This study provides the first Australian data on the association between estimated air quality exposure and air quality perceptions and concerns, contributing new evidence to inform public health approaches that increase awareness for air pollution and reduce the health burden.

Surrounding road density of child care centers in Australia

High surrounding road density could increase traffic-related air pollution, noise and the risk of traffic injuries, which are major public health concerns for children. We collected geographical data for all childcare centers (16,146) in Australia and provided the data on the road density surrounding them. The road density was represented by the child care center's nearest distance to main road and motorway, and the length of main road/motor way within 100~1000-meter buffer zone surrounding the child care center. We also got the data of PM2.5 concentration from 2013 to 2018 and standard Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data from 2013 to 2019 according to the longitude and latitude of the child care centers. This data might help researchers to evaluate the health impacts of road density on child health, and help policy makers to make transportation, educational and environmental planning decisions to protect children from exposure to traffic-related hazards in Australia.

Particulate Matter in an Urban–Industrial Environment: Comparing Data of Dispersion Modeling with Tree Leaves Deposition

Particulate matter represents a serious hazard to human health, and air quality models contribute to the understanding of its dispersion. This study describes particulate matter with a ≤10 μm diameter (PM10) dynamics in an urban–industrial area, through the comparison of three datasets: modeled (TAPM—The Air Pollution Model), measured concentration (environmental control stations—ECS), and leaf deposition values. Results showed a good agreement between ECS and TAPM data. A steel plant area was used as a PM10 emissions reference source, in relation to the four sampling areas, and a distance/wind-based factor was introduced (Steel Factor, SF). Through SF, the three datasets were compared. The SF was able to describe the PM10 dispersion values for ECS and leaf deposition (r2 = 0.61–0.94 for ECS; r2 = 0.45–0.70 for leaf); no relationship was found for TAPM results. Differences between measured and modeled data can be due to discrepancies in one district and explained by a lack of PM10 inventory for the steel plant emissions. The study suggests the use of TAPM as a suitable tool for PM10 modeling at the urban scale. Moreover, tree leaves are a low-cost tool to evaluate the urban environmental quality, by providing information on whether and when data from leaf deposition can be used as a proxy for air pollution concentration. Further studies to include the re-suspension of particles as a PM10 source within emission inventories are suggested.

It's more than climate change and active transport-physical activity's role in sustainable behavior

Considering the interdependence of human's and nature's health within the planetary health concept, we evaluated how physical activity (PA) can be conceptualized as sustainable behavior (SuB) and how PA relates to other types of SuBs within the United Nations' sustainable development goal (SDG) framework. Regarding social SDGs, PA contributes to improving malnutrition (SDG 2), health behaviors (SDG 3), education (SDG 4), reducing inequalities (SDG 10), sustainable cities (SDG 12), and peace (SDG 16). For ecological SDGs, PA contributes to sustainable consumption (SDG 11) and combating climate change (SDG 13). Therefore, PA is more than a health behavior, it contributes to planetary health and sustainable development. However, caution is warranted as PA also has the potential to contribute and reinforce unsustainability. Thus, PA as a SuB requires an own research agenda, investigating (a) PA as social and ecological SuB, (b) sustainable PA promotion, (c) sustainable PA measurement, (d) common underlying constructs of PA and SuB, and (e) technology's role to assess and promote PA and SuB.

Probabilistic total PM2.5 emissions from vehicular sources in Australian perspective

Motor vehicles operating on the road are a significant source of Particulate Matter (PM) emissions depending on the fuels used in the vehicles. Gasoline and Diesel vehicles are directly responsible for the tailpipe PM emissions (specifically PM_2.5: particles ≤ 2.5 µm), known as primary PM_2.5 emissions. The other major direct emissions from the vehicles, which include volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) contribute to the formation of secondary organic PM, also known as secondary organic aerosols (SOA), through some inter-related chemical reactions. The SOAs are highly toxic and contribute to a portion of total PM emissions. In this research, emission scenarios of both primary PM_2.5 and SOA for a car-dependent expanding Australian city (Adelaide) were analyzed. The variability of traffic characteristics on road was considered and conducted a probabilistic emissions inventory for tailpipe primary PM_2.5 and precursors, while statistical analysis of the probable chemical conversion ratios was considered for the SOA inventory. It was found that the tailpipe emissions from the vehicles were higher than the air quality standard, while the SOA contribution from the vehicles was not significantly high but contributed to the increase of total PM concentration. The analysis of the chemical transformation of SOA precursors justified the importance of conducting more detailed emissions modelling for sustainable urban air quality planning.

Public Transport Network Vulnerability and Delay Distribution among Travelers

Methodologies and approaches for assessing the vulnerability of a public transport network are generally based on quantifying the average delay generated for passengers by some type of disruption. In this work, a novel methodology is proposed, which combines the traditional approach, based on the quantitative evaluation of averaged disruption effects, with the analysis of the asymmetry of effects among users, by means of Lorenz curves and Gini index. This allows evaluating whether the negative consequences of disruptions are equally spread among passengers or if differences exist. The results obtained show the potential of the proposed method to provide better knowledge about the effects of a disruption on a public transport network. Particularly, it emerged that disrupted scenarios that appear similar in terms of average impacts are actually very different in terms of the asymmetry of effects among users.

Assessment of Outdoor Lighting: Methods for Capturing the Pedestrian Experience in the Field

This study assessed whether methods for capturing the pedestrian experience of outdoor lighting, previously evaluated in a full-scale laboratory, were applicable in a real-world setting. It applied an approach capturing the human response to outdoor lighting in a systematic way, by assessing perception, evaluation and behaviour in the lit environment. The study involved 81 participants from two age groups (Young—n: 48, mean age: 26, 63% women; Elderly—n: 33, mean age: 69, 67% women) and was carried out on a pedestrian path in a park in the centre of Malmö, Sweden, in the evenings during wintertime. Two LED lighting applications, differing in light distribution, uniformity and horizontal illuminance, were presented, and the pedestrians’ perception (facial expression recognition and sign reading), evaluation (arousal, valence and perceived outdoor lighting quality) and behaviour (pedestrian flow) were assessed. The results from the perceptual tasks differed significantly between the lighting applications, in favour of the lighting application with greatest uniformity and horizontal illuminance. There was a significant difference in sign reading distance between the two age groups. The methods applied in this study are feasible to administer and could be used to assess lighting solutions in order to capture the needs of vulnerable groups.

Smart-Mobility Services for Climate Mitigation in Urban Areas: Case Studies of Baltic Countries and Germany

The transport sector is one of the largest contributors of CO2 emissions and other greenhouse gases. In order to achieve the Paris goal of decreasing the global average temperature by 2 °C, urgent and transformative actions in urban mobility are required. As a sub-domain of the smart-city concept, smart-mobility-solutions integration at the municipal level is thought to have environmental, economic and social benefits, e.g., reducing air pollution in cities, providing new markets for alternative mobility and ensuring universal access to public transportation. Therefore, this article aims to analyze the relevance of smart mobility in creating a cleaner environment and provide strategic and practical examples of smart-mobility services in four European cities: Berlin (Germany), Kaunas (Lithuania), Riga (Latvia) and Tartu (Estonia). The paper presents a systematized literature review about the potential of smart-mobility services in reducing the negative environmental impact to urban environments in various cities. The authors highlight broad opportunities from the European Union and municipal documents for smart-mobility initiatives. The theoretical part is supplemented by socioeconomic and environmental descriptions, as well as experience, related to smart-mobility services in the four cities selected.

Climate Change, Physical Activity and Sport: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Climate change impacts are associated with dramatic consequences for human health and threaten physical activity (PA) behaviors.

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this systematic review were to present the potential bidirectional associations between climate change impacts and PA behaviors in humans and to propose a synthesis of the literature through a conceptual model of climate change and PA.

METHODS

Studies published before October 2020 were identified through database searches in PubMed, PsycARTICLES, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, GreenFILE, GeoRef, Scopus, JSTOR and Transportation Research Information Services. Studies examining the associations between PA domains and climate change (e.g., natural disasters, air pollution, and carbon footprint) were included.

RESULTS

A narrative synthesis was performed and the 74 identified articles were classified into 6 topics: air pollution and PA, extreme weather conditions and PA, greenhouse gas emissions and PA, carbon footprint among sport participants, natural disasters and PA and the future of PA and sport practices in a changing world. Then, a conceptual model was proposed to identify the multidimensional associations between climate change and PA as well as sport practices. Results indicated a consistent negative effect of air pollution, extreme temperatures and natural disasters on PA levels. This PA reduction is more severe in adults with chronic diseases, higher body mass index and the elderly. Sport and PA communities can play an important mitigating role in post-natural disaster contexts. However, transport related to sport practices is also a source of greenhouse gas emissions.

CONCLUSION

Climate change impacts affect PA at a worldwide scale. PA is observed to play both a mitigation and an amplification role in climate changes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

PROSPERO CRD42019128314.

Improving knowledge of cyclist crashes based on hospital data including crash descriptions from open text fields

INTRODUCTION

In this study we explore the added value of bicycle crash descriptions from open text fields in hospital records from the Aarhus municipality in Denmark. We also explore how bicycle crash data from the hospital complements crash data registered by the police in the same area and time period.

METHOD

The study includes 5,313 Danish bicycle crashes, of which 4,205 were registered at the hospital and 1,078 by the police. All crashes occurred from 2010 to 2015. We performed an in-depth analysis of the open text fields on hospital records to identify factors associated with each crash using four categories: bicyclist, road, bicycle, and the other party. We employed the chi-squared test to compare the distribution of variables between crashes registered at the hospital and by the police. A binary logit model was used to estimate the probability that a crash factor is identified, and that each crash factor is associated with a single-bicycle crash.

RESULTS

The open-ended text fields in hospital records provide detailed information about crash factors not available in police records, including riding speed, inattention, clothing, specific road conditions, and bicycle defects. The factors alcohol and curb had the highest odds of being identified in relation to a single-bicycle crash. Crash data registered at the hospital included a larger number of bicycle crashes, particularly single-bicycle crashes and crashes with slight injuries only.

CONCLUSION

Crash information registered at the hospital in Aarhus Municipality contributes to a better understanding of bicycle crashes due to detailed information about crash-associated factors as well as information about a larger number of bicycle crashes, particularly single-bicycle crashes. Practical implication: Efforts to improve access to detailed information about bicycle crashes are needed to provide a better basis for bicycle crash prevention.

Sustainability Assessment of Public Transport, Part II—Applying a Multi-Criteria Assessment Method to Compare Different Bus Technologies

Many Swedish regional transport authorities want bus fleets driven on renewable fuels. However, it may be difficult to know what technology, or combination of technologies, to choose. There is a need for improved knowledge and supportive methods for sustainability assessments that can support public procurement processes. In the companion article (Part I), a multi-criteria assessment (MCA) method for assessments of public bus technologies’ sustainability was established, consisting of four key areas and 12 indicators. In this article, the purpose is to apply the method established in part I on different bus technologies by looking at a general Swedish case and assessing buses driven on diesel, Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO), Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME), ethanol, natural gas, biomethane and electricity. Each technology is assessed on a scale from Very Poor to Very Good according to the indicators: technical maturity, daily operational availability, total cost of ownership, need for investments in infrastructure, cost stability, non-renewable primary energy efficiency, greenhouse gas emission savings, air pollution, noise, local/regional impact on land and aquatic environments, energy security and sociotechnical systems services. The results show the strengths and weaknesses of each technology, which are later discussed. We also critically reflect upon the usefulness and accuracy of the MCA method.

Estimating Health Impacts Due to the Reduction of Particulate Air Pollution from the Household Sector Expected under Various Scenarios

Emissions from the household sector are the most significant source of air pollution in Poland, one of the most polluted countries in the EU. Estimated health impacts of the reduction of these emissions under three scenarios are presented. The EMEP4PL model and base year emission inventory were used to estimate average annual PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations with spatial resolution of 4 km × 4 km. The change in emissions under each of the scenarios was based on data from a survey on household boilers and insulation. Scenario 1 included replacement of all poor-quality coal-fired boilers with gas boilers; Scenario 2 included replacement of all poor-quality coal-fired boilers with low-emission boilers but still using solid fuels; and Scenario 3 included the thermal refurbishment of houses with the worst insulation. Impacts on the following health parameters were estimated: premature deaths (PD), Chronic Bronchitis (CB), Bronchitis in Children (BiC) and Work Days Lost (WDL). The concentration–response functions recommended by the WHO HRAPIE project were used. The analysis was conducted for two regions: Lower Silesia and Lodzkie province. The largest reduction of health impact was observed for Scenario 1. For Lower Silesia, the annual PD decreased by 1122 (34.3%), CB by 1516 (26.6%), BiC by 9602 (27.7%) and WDL by 481k (34.7%). For Lodzkie province, the largest impacts were estimated as decreases in PD by 1438 (29.9%), CB by 1502 (25.3%), BiC by 9880 (26.8%) and WDL by 669k (30.4%).

Transit environments for physical activity: Relationship between micro-scale built environment features surrounding light rail stations and ridership in Houston, Texas

INTRODUCTION

Health professionals promote transport-related physical activity because travelers oftentimes walk or bike to and from transit stops or stations. Although previous studies have examined the associations between macro-scale built environment features surrounding light rail transit (LRT) stations (e.g., density) and LRT ridership, this study examined the associations between numerous micro-scale features (e.g., street-level noise pollution) and ridership.

METHODS

This analysis originated from the Houston Travel-Related Activity in Neighborhoods (TRAIN) Study, a project evaluating how an LRT extension impacted adult physical activity in Houston, Texas. In 2014, researchers used the Analytic Audit Tool to quantify 58 micro-scale built environment features within six categories: Land Use Environment, Transportation Environment, Facilities, Aesthetics, Signage, and Social Environment. Feature data were obtained from 590 street segments within 0.25 miles of 22 LRT stations. For each station, separate composite indices were created per category by averaging the computed feature scores (1-7) within each category, with higher scores signifying more physical activity-promoting features. Station-level LRT ridership data were obtained from monthly ridership reports for the 12 months following station opening. Linear mixed models were constructed to examine the associations of the six built environment categories with ridership, adjusting for season, weekday vs. weekend day, and station as a random intercept.

RESULTS

Holding all other variables constant, every one-unit increase in composite index scores for Transportation Environment and Social Environment was associated with an increase in daily ridership by 425 and 488 riders, respectively (p < 0.05). Every one-unit increase in composite index score for Signage was associated with a decrease of 722 riders daily (p < 0.05). The relations of Land Use Environment, Facilities, and Aesthetics with ridership were statistically null (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Enhancements to the Transportation Environment and Social Environment may slightly increase overall LRT ridership, and consequently, utilitarian physical activity.

Assessment of personal exposure to particulate air pollution in different microenvironments and traveling by several modes of transportation in Bogotá, Colombia: protocol for a mixed-methods study. (Preprint)

Background

Air pollution in most countries exceeds the levels recommended by the World Health Organization, causing up to one-third of deaths due to noncommunicable diseases. Fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and black carbon (BC) from mobile sources are the main contaminants.

Objective

The aim of this study is to assess the relationship of exposure to air pollutants (PM_2.5 and BC) in microenvironments according to respiratory health and physical activity in users traveling by different types of transportation in Bogotá, Colombia.

Methods

A mixed methods study based on a convergent parallel design will be performed with workers and students. The sample will include 350 healthy transport users traveling by different urban transportation modes in three main routes in Bogotá. The study is broken down into two components: (1) a descriptive qualitative component focused on assessing the individual perception of air pollution using semistructured interviews; and (2) a cross-sectional study measuring the individual exposure to PM_2.5 and BC using portable instruments (DustTrak and microAeth, respectively), pulmonary function by spirometry, and physical activity with accelerometry. The analysis will include concurrent triangulation and logistic regression.

Results

The findings will be useful for the conception, design, and decision-making process in the sectors of health and mobility from public, academy, and private perspectives. This study includes personal measurements of PM_2.5 and BC during typical trips in the city to assess the exposure to these contaminants in the major roadways in real time. The study further compares the performance of two different lung tests to identify possible short-term respiratory effects. As a limitation, the protocol will include participants from different institutions in the city, which are not necessarily representative of all healthy populations in Bogotá. In this sense, it is not possible to draw causation conclusions. Moreover, a convergent parallel design could be especially problematic concerning integration because such a design often lacks a clear plan for making a connection between the two sets of results, which may not be well connected. Nevertheless, this study adopts a procedure for how to integrate qualitative and quantitative data in the interpretation of the results and a multilevel regression. The time that participants must live in the city will be considered; this will be controlled in the stratified analysis. Another limitation is the wide age range and working status of the participants. Regional pollution levels and episodes (PM_2.5) will be handled as confounding variables. The study is currently in the enrollment phase of the participants. Measurements have been made on 300 participants. Pandemic conditions affected the study schedule; however, the results are likely to be obtained by late 2022.

Conclusions

This study investigates the exposure to air pollutants in microenvironments in Bogotá, Colombia. To our knowledge, this is the first mixed methods study focusing on PM_2.5, BC, and respiratory health effects in a city over 2 meters above sea level. This study will provide an integration of air pollution exposure variables and respiratory health effects in different microenvironments.

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

PRR1-10.2196/25690

Participatory quantitative health impact assessment of urban transport planning: A case study from Eastern Africa

BACKGROUND

High rates of motorization in urban areas of Africa have adverse effects on public health. Transport-related mortality will increase as a result of inadequate transport infrastructure, air pollution and sedentary lifestyles. Health Impact Assessments (HIAs) have proven to be a successful tool to predict and mitigate negative health impact of urban transport planning policies, programmes or projects. Yet, there is a gap of evidence on transport and health in African countries. The aim of this study is assessing the health impacts of transport scenarios in Port Louis (city of 119,018 inhabitants in Mauritius) using a full chain participatory HIA model.

METHODS

We estimated health and economic impacts associated to transport scenarios with qualitative data and quantitative comparative risk assessment methods. The health impact modeling was based on differences between the baseline and three transport scenarios (worse, good, ideal), estimating the averted deaths per year and economic outcomes by assessing health determinants of air pollution (AP), traffic deaths and physical activity (PA). Data on air pollution and traffic fatalities were obtained from public data sources. Data used to construct scenarios, establish baseline travel mode shares and physical activity were collected through (a) open-ended individual interviews (IDIs) with 14 stakeholders (b) closed-ended survey questions to 600 citizens and (c) 2 focus group discussions (FGDs) with the same 14 stakeholders from (a).

RESULTS

In Port Louis, the worse-case transport scenario (doubling in car trips and a reduction in walking, motorcycle, and public transport), resulted in a total increment of 3.28 premature deaths per year. The good-case scenario (reducing car trips by half and increasing walking, motorcycle, and public transport trips) resulted in a total increment of 0.79 premature deaths per year. The ideal-case scenario (reduction in car and motorcycle trips and an increase in walking and public transport trips) resulted in a total reduction of 13.72 premature deaths per year. We estimated USD 23 millions of economic benefits related to mortality if the ideal-case was achieved.

CONCLUSION

Participatory HIA shows that implementing transport policies aiming for less than an ideal situation may not be adequate or sufficient to avoid negative transport-related mortality in Mauritius. Urban transport planning is an opportunity to encourage physical activity in rapidly urbanizing settings of Africa. Transport policies should aim to restrict all forms of private motorized vehicles and promote active and public transport to support public health. We highly recommend the use of participatory approaches in quantitative HIA to ensure context specificity and policy relevance.

Personal strategies to minimise effects of air pollution on respiratory health: advice for providers, patients and the public

As global awareness of air pollution rises, so does the imperative to provide evidence-based recommendations for strategies to mitigate its impact. While public policy has a central role in reducing air pollution, exposure can also be reduced by personal choices. Qualified evidence supports limiting physical exertion outdoors on high air pollution days and near air pollution sources, reducing near-roadway exposure while commuting, utilising air quality alert systems to plan activities, and wearing facemasks in prescribed circumstances. Other strategies include avoiding cooking with solid fuels, ventilating and isolating cooking areas, and using portable air cleaners fitted with high-efficiency particulate air filters. We detail recommendations to assist providers and public health officials when advising patients and the public regarding personal-level strategies to mitigate risk imposed by air pollution, while recognising that well-designed prospective studies are urgently needed to better establish and validate interventions that benefit respiratory health in this context.

Mitigation strategies for reducing air pollution

Today, it is increasingly recognized that air pollution hurts human health. Consequently, efficient mitigation strategies need to be implemented for substantial environmental and health co-benefits. A valid approach to reducing the air pollution effects on the environment and human health is proposed. Specific guidelines have been elucidated by differentiating them on the base of the final stakeholders (citizens, enterprises, and public authorities), of the emission sources (transport, household energy, industry, and energy generation sector, agriculture, and shipping area), and of the field of implementation (urban and extra-urban context). This paper can provide useful information for governments for the implementation of a strategic plan focused on emphasizing multi-pollutant emission reductions and overall air pollution-related risk.

Health economic assessment of a shift to active transport

Active transportation (walking or cycling) as a substitute for car trips still represents a small percentage of all daily travels in many European cities. This study aimed to estimate the health and economic co-benefits for the adult population of modal shift from driving to active travel in urban environments. Three scenarios were modelled for the case study, the city of Porto, Portugal, by comparing travel patterns of 2013 to hypothetical scenarios of modal shifts from driving to active transport, namely: i) SC1 - conservative scenario, with a change of 5% from driving to cycling and 10% from driving to walking; ii) SC2 - moderate scenario, with a shift of 10% and 15%, respectively; and iii) SC3 - optimistic scenario, with a shift of 15% and 20%, respectively. The mortality risk reduction for five health outcomes (colon and breast cancers, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease) was assessed, including an estimation of traffic injury and air pollution exposure risks. Results were presented in Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) avoided. Economic valuation for each scenario was performed using a Willingness-to-Pay approach for morbimortality and a Cost of Illness approach for 2013 hospitalizations and work absenteeism. Significant health benefits were found in all modelled scenarios, ranging from 1657 (16%) to 2881 (28%) DALYs avoided. Total costs averted ranged from €3894 to €6769 million through the scenarios. Cardio and cerebrovascular diseases mortality presented the largest benefit, accounting for about 3/4 of all avoidable DALYs in all scenarios. Reductions in CO₂ and PM₁₀ emissions were calculated, showing a decrease from 31.6 to 73.7 kt of CO₂ and 7 to 16 t for PM₁₀, respectively. A modal shift towards active transportation could lead to significant health and economic benefits, indicating that the evaluation of health impacts should be included in the analysis of active transport interventions.

Quantifying the handprint-Footprint balance into a single score: The example of pharmaceuticals

Life Cycle Assessment typically focuses on the footprint of products and services, expressed on three Areas of Protection (AoP): Human Health, Ecosystems and Resources. While the handprint is often expressed qualitatively, quantified handprints have recently been compared directly to the footprint concerning one AoP: Human Health. We propose to take this one step further by simultaneously comparing the quantified handprint and footprint on all AoPs through normalization and weighting of the results towards a single score. We discuss two example cases of a pharmaceutical treatment: mebendazole to treat soil-transmitted helminthiases and paliperidone palmitate to treat schizophrenia. Each time, treatment is compared to 'no treatment'. The footprint of health care is compared to the handprint of improved patient health. The handprint and footprint were normalized separately. To include sensitivity in the normalization step we applied four sets of external normalization factors for both handprint (Global Burden of Disease) and footprint (ReCiPe and PROSUITE). At the weighting step we applied 26 sets of panel weighting factors from three sources. We propose the Relative Sustainability Benefit Rate (RSBR) as a new metric to quantify the relative difference in combined handprint and footprint single score between two alternatives. When only considering the footprint, the first case study is associated with an increased single score burden of treatment compared to 'no treatment', while in the second case study treatment reduces the single score burden by 41.1% compared to 'no treatment'. Also including the handprint provided new insights for the first case study, now showing a decrease of 56.4% in single score burden for treatment compared to 'no treatment'. For the second case study the reduction of single score burden was confirmed as the handprint burden was also decreased because of treatment by 9.9%, reinforcing the findings.

Short-Term Impact of Traffic-Related Particulate Matter and Noise Exposure on Cardiac Function

Exposure to traffic-related air pollution and noise exposure contributes to detrimental effects on cardiac function, but the underlying short-term effects related to their simultaneous personal exposure remain uncertain. The aim is to assess the impact of total inhaled dose of particulate matter and total noise exposure on the variations of electrocardiogram (ECG) parameters between pre-cycling and post-cycling periods. Mid-June 2019, we collected four participants' personal exposure data related to traffic-related noise and particulate matter (PM_2.5 and PM₁₀) as well as ECG parameters. Several Bayesian linear models were built to examine a potential association between air pollutants and noise exposure and ECG parameters: heart rate (HR), standard deviation of the normal-to-normal intervals (SDNN), percentage of successive RR intervals that differ by more than 50 ms (pNN50), root mean square of successive RR interval differences (rMSSD), low-frequency power (LF), high-frequency power (HF), and ratio of low- to high-frequency power (LF/HF). We analyzed in total 255 5-min segments of RR intervals. We observed that per 1 µg increase in cumulative inhaled dose of PM_2.5 was associated with 0.48 (95% CI: 0.22; 15.61) increase in variation of the heart rate, while one percent of total noise dose was associated with 0.49 (95% CI: 0.17; 0.83) increase in variation of heart rate between corresponding periods. Personal noise exposure was no longer significant once the PM_2.5 was introduced in the whole model, whilst coefficients of the latter that were significant previously remained unchanged. Short-term exposure to traffic-related air and noise pollution did not, however, have an impact on heart rate variability.

Effect of Zirconia on Hydrothermally Synthesized Co3O4/TiO2 Catalyst for NOx Reduction from Engine Emissions

Effect of zirconia on the 6 wt.% Co3O4/TiO2 catalyst for NOx reduction is investigated in this paper. Co3O4/TiO2 catalyst was prepared by using hydrothermal method and then was promoted with zirconia by impregnation to get 8% wt. ZrO2-Co3O4/TiO2 catalyst. Catalysts were characterized by using XRD, SEM, and TGA. Catalysts real time activity was tested by coating them on stainless steel wire meshes, containing them in a mild steel shell and mounting them at the exhaust tailpipe of a 72 cm3 motorcycle engine. Zirconia promoted catalyst showed higher conversion efficiency of NOX than the simple Co3O4/TiO2 catalyst due to small crystalline size, fouling inhibition and thermal stability.

A Study of the Socioeconomic Forces Driving Air Pollution Based on a DPSIR Model in Henan Province, China

The 3D spatiotemporal distribution (spatial and annual-month-daily temporal) features of the air quality index (AQI), air pollutants (PM2.5, PM10, SO2, NO2, CO, and O3-8h), and air pollution risks (R) from 2003 to 2018 were investigated to understand the severity of air pollution in Henan province. The multiyear ascending trends for AQI and R values, with a peak in 2015, were observed in 2003 to 2018 since the annual population-weighted average concentrations of PM2.5, PM10, NO2, and O3-8h were always higher than the CAAQs II from 2013 to 2017 in Henan province. Changes in the monthly moving average AQI values in Henan province conformed to a U-shaped pattern, with the highest values in the winter (from December to February) and the lowest in the summer (from June to August). Triple peaks for AQI values of 8:00‒10:00 a.m., 6:00‒8:00 p.m., and 2:00‒4:00 p.m. in the representative municipalities corresponded with the morning and evening traffic tendencies and photochemical process. A spatial analysis indicated that there were decreasing trends for air pollution from northwest to southeast in Henan province. Data on 48 concrete parameters were collected from 2003 to 2017 to construct a driving force‒pressure‒state‒influence‒response (DPSIR) model for assessing the socioeconomic forces driving air pollution in this province. It was the too-rapid growth of the driving force index (DFI), induced by urban development and population growth (UDPG), economic growth and change of industrial structure (EGCIS), and energy consumption growth and structure change (ECGSC), that led to a direct increase in the atmospheric pollution burden, i.e., total emissions from air pollution and industrial emissions, which are linearly correlated to values of UDPG and ECGSC, respectively (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the prediction models for AQI and R values in Henan province, with the growth rates being 4.251 DFI−1 and 0.0816 DFI−1, respectively, were simulated by multiple linear regression analysis. Therefore, the integrated risks of air pollution in Henan province were originally driven by DFI.

Towards a Low Emission Transport System: Evaluating the Public Health and Environmental Benefits

Climate change mitigation strategies offer significant societal co-benefits such as improvement in public health, air quality, local economy, and even safety. By considering these co-benefits during the transportation planning process, local governments would be able to link their local appreciate mitigation actions into the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), where diverse objectives should be achieved simultaneously. This study first clarifies the co-benefits approach to climate change mitigation in the transport system, by introducing an integrated multiple-impact framework known as A-S-I (Avoid-Shift-Improve) to evaluate the co-benefits. Thereafter, it applies the quantitative modeling approach to assess public health and environmental co-benefits of the implementation of the Tehran Transportation Master Plan, “the TTMP” in the city of Tehran, Iran, which includes targeted interventions such as shifting from private vehicles to the urban transport system, improving vehicle technologies and introducing alternative fuels. The results from the application of “the TTMP” reveal a significant reduction of CO2 and other local air pollutant emissions by 12.9 and 1.4 million tons, respectively, prevention of about 10,000 mortality cases, and more than USD 35 million savings by 2030.

The MJA-Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: Australian policy inaction threatens lives

Climate plays an important role in human health and it is well established that climate change can have very significant impacts in this regard. In partnership with The Lancet and the MJA, we present the inaugural Australian Countdown assessment of progress on climate change and health. This comprehensive assessment examines 41 indicators across five broad sections: climate change impacts, exposures and vulnerability; adaptation, planning and resilience for health; mitigation actions and health co-benefits; economics and finance; and public and political engagement. These indicators and the methods used for each are largely consistent with those of the Lancet Countdown global assessment published in October 2017, but with an Australian focus. Significant developments include the addition of a new indicator on mental health. Overall, we find that Australia is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change on health, and that policy inaction in this regard threatens Australian lives. In a number of respects, Australia has gone backwards and now lags behind other high income countries such as Germany and the United Kingdom. Examples include the persistence of a very high carbon-intensive energy system in Australia, and its slow transition to renewables and low carbon electricity generation. However, we also find some examples of good progress, such as heatwave response planning. Given the overall poor state of progress on climate change and health in Australia, this country now has an enormous opportunity to take action and protect human health and lives. Australia has the technical knowhow and intellect to do this, and our annual updates of this assessment will track Australia's engagement with and progress on this vitally important issue.

Physical activity-related health and economic benefits of building walkable neighbourhoods: a modelled comparison between brownfield and greenfield developments

BACKGROUND

A consensus is emerging in the literature that urban form can impact health by either facilitating or deterring physical activity (PA). However, there is a lack of evidence measuring population health and the economic benefits relating to alternative urban forms. We examined the issue of housing people within two distinct types of urban development forms: a medium-density brownfield development in an established area with existing amenities (e.g. daily living destinations, transit), and a low-density suburban greenfield development. We predicted the health and economic benefits of a brownfield development compared with a greenfield development through their influence on PA.

METHODS

We combined a new Walkability Planning Support System (Walkability PSS) with a quantitative health impact assessment model. We used the Walkability PSS to estimate the probability of residents' transport walking, based on their exposure to urban form in the brownfield and greenfield developments. We developed the underlying algorithms of the Walkability PSS using multi-level multivariate logistic regression analysis based on self-reported data for transport walking from the Victorian Integrated Survey of Transport and Activity 2009-10 and objectively measured urban form in the developments. We derived the difference in transport walking minutes per week based on the probability of transport walking in each of the developments and the average transport walking time per week among those who reported any transport walking. We then used the well-established method of the proportional multi-cohort multi-state life table model to translate the difference in transport walking minutes per week into health and economic benefits.

RESULTS

If adult residents living in the greenfield neighbourhood were instead exposed to the urban development form observed in a brownfield neighbourhood, the incidence and mortality of physical inactivity-related chronic diseases would decrease. Over the life course of the exposed population (21,000), we estimated 1600 health-adjusted life years gained and economic benefits of A$94 million.

DISCUSSION

Our findings indicate that planning policies that create walkable neighbourhoods with access to shops, services and public transport will lead to substantial health and economic benefits associated with reduced incidence of physical inactivity related diseases and premature death.

Rzeszow as a City Taking Steps Towards Developing Sustainable Public Transport

The paper discusses problems related to the functioning of passenger transport in Rzeszow. The dynamic development of the city and the increase in the income of its inhabitants have led to significantly increased traffic within the city, which is detrimental both to the environment and the city’s inhabitants. It limits the quality of life in the city and in the end generates additional costs for businesses and people in urban areas due to the congestion. In compliance with the policies of the European Union, this harmful tendency needs to be limited. Developing sustainable transportation should largely contribute to this objective. With the city of Rzeszow as example, this article discusses selected actions and measures taken as part of the development of sustainable transportation and demonstrates changes in the functioning of public transport based on the author’s own research as well as data provided by the city’s authorities. The analyses show that the actions taken so far have had a positive impact.

Socioeconomic inequalities in urban and transport planning related exposures and mortality: A health impact assessment study for Bradford, UK

BACKGROUND

Cities have unique geographic, environmental and sociocultural characteristics that influence the health status of their citizens. Identification and modification of these characteristics may help to promote healthier cities.

OBJECTIVE

We estimated premature mortality impacts of breaching international exposure guidelines for physical activity (PA), air pollution, noise and access to green space for Bradford (UK) adult residents (n = 393,091).

METHODS

We applied the Urban and TranspOrt Planning Health Impact Assessment (UTOPHIA) methodology and estimated mortality, life expectancy (LE) and economic impacts of non-compliance with recommended exposure levels. We also investigated the distribution of the mortality burden among the population, focusing on socioeconomic position (SEP) as defined by deprivation status and ethnicity.

RESULTS

We estimated that annually almost 10% of premature mortality (i.e. 375 deaths, 95% CI: 276-474) in Bradford is attributable to non-compliance with recommended exposure levels. Non-compliance was also estimated to result in over 300 days of LE lost (95% CI: 238-432), which translated in economic losses of over £50,000 per person (95% CI: 38,518-69,991). 90% of the premature mortality impact resulted from insufficient PA performance. Air and noise pollution and the lack of green space had smaller impacts (i.e. 48 deaths). Residents of lower SEP neighborhoods had the highest risks for adverse exposure and premature death. A larger number of deaths (i.e. 253 and 145, respectively) could be prevented by reducing air and noise pollution levels well below the guidelines.

DISCUSSION

Current urban and transport planning related exposures result in a considerable health burden that is unequally distributed among the Bradford population. Improvements in urban and transport planning practices including the reduction of motor traffic and the promotion of active transport together with greening of the district, particularly in areas of lower SEP, are promising strategies to increase PA performance and reduce harmful environmental exposures.

Review of modelling air pollution from traffic at street-level - The state of the science

Traffic emissions are a complex and variable cocktail of toxic chemicals. They are the major source of atmospheric pollution in the parts of cities where people live, commute and work. Reducing exposure requires information about the distribution and nature of emissions. Spatially and temporally detailed data are required, because both the rate of production and the composition of emissions vary significantly with time of day and with local changes in wind, traffic composition and flow. Increasing computer processing power means that models can accept highly detailed inputs of fleet, fuels and road networks. The state of the science models can simulate the behaviour and emissions of all the individual vehicles on a road network, with resolution of a second and tens of metres. The chemistry of the simulated emissions is also highly resolved, due to consideration of multiple engine processes, fuel evaporation and tyre wear. Good results can be achieved with both commercially available and open source models. The extent of a simulation is usually limited by processing capacity; the accuracy by the quality of traffic data. Recent studies have generated real time, detailed emissions data by using inputs from novel traffic sensing technologies and data from intelligent traffic systems (ITS). Increasingly, detailed pollution data is being combined with spatially resolved demographic or epidemiological data for targeted risk analyses.

Greenhouse gas emissions reduction in different economic sectors: Mitigation measures, health co-benefits, knowledge gaps, and policy implications

To date, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, mitigation strategies and the accompanying health co-benefits in different economic sectors have not been fully investigated. The purpose of this paper is to review comprehensively the evidence on GHG mitigation measures and the related health co-benefits, identify knowledge gaps, and provide recommendations to promote further development and implementation of climate change response policies. Evidence on GHG emissions, abatement measures and related health co-benefits has been observed at regional, national and global levels, involving both low- and high-income societies. GHG mitigation actions have mainly been taken in five sectors: energy generation, transport, food and agriculture, household and industry, consistent with the main sources of GHG emissions. GHGs and air pollutants to a large extent stem from the same sources and are inseparable in terms of their atmospheric evolution and effects on ecosystem; thus, GHG reductions are usually, although not always, estimated to have cost effective co-benefits for public health. Some integrated mitigation strategies involving multiple sectors, which tend to create greater health benefits. The pros and cons of different mitigation measures, issues with existing knowledge, priorities for research, and potential policy implications were also discussed. Findings from this study can play a role not only in motivating large GHG emitters to make decisive changes in GHG emissions, but also in facilitating cooperation at international, national and regional levels, to promote GHG mitigation policies that protect public health from climate change and air pollution simultaneously.

Estimating the costs of air pollution to the National Health Service and social care: An assessment and forecast up to 2035

BACKGROUND

Air pollution damages health by promoting the onset of some non-communicable diseases (NCDs), putting additional strain on the National Health Service (NHS) and social care. This study quantifies the total health and related NHS and social care cost burden due to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in England.

METHOD AND FINDINGS

Air pollutant concentration surfaces from land use regression models and cost data from hospital admissions data and a literature review were fed into a microsimulation model, that was run from 2015 to 2035. Different scenarios were modelled: (1) baseline 'no change' scenario; (2) individuals' pollutant exposure is reduced to natural (non-anthropogenic) levels to compute the disease cases attributable to PM2.5 and NO2; (3) PM2.5 and NO2 concentrations reduced by 1 μg/m3; and (4) NO2 annual European Union limit values reached (40 μg/m3). For the 18 years after baseline, the total cumulative cost to the NHS and social care is estimated at £5.37 billion for PM2.5 and NO2 combined, rising to £18.57 billion when costs for diseases for which there is less robust evidence are included. These costs are due to the cumulative incidence of air-pollution-related NCDs, such as 348,878 coronary heart disease cases estimated to be attributable to PM2.5 and 573,363 diabetes cases estimated to be attributable to NO2 by 2035. Findings from modelling studies are limited by the conceptual model, assumptions, and the availability and quality of input data.

CONCLUSIONS

Approximately 2.5 million cases of NCDs attributable to air pollution are predicted by 2035 if PM2.5 and NO2 stay at current levels, making air pollution an important public health priority. In future work, the modelling framework should be updated to include multi-pollutant exposure-response functions, as well as to disaggregate results by socioeconomic status.

Public health co-benefits of greenhouse gas emissions reduction: A systematic review

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Public health co-benefits from curbing climate change can make greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation strategies more attractive and increase their implementation. The purpose of this systematic review is to summarize the evidence of these health co-benefits to improve our understanding of the mitigation measures involved, potential mechanisms, and relevant uncertainties.

METHODS

A comprehensive search for peer-reviewed studies published in English was conducted using the primary electronic databases. Reference lists from these articles were reviewed and manual searches were performed to supplement relevant studies. The identified records were screened based on inclusion criteria. We extracted data from the final retrieved papers using a pre-designed data extraction form and a quality assessment was conducted. The studies were heterogeneities, so meta-analysis was not possible and instead evidence was synthesized using narrative summaries.

RESULTS

Thirty-six studies were identified. We identified GHG mitigation strategies in five domains - energy generation, transportation, food and agriculture, households, and industry and economy - which usually, although not always, bring co-benefits for public health. These health gains are likely to be multiplied by comprehensive measures that include more than one sectors.

CONCLUSIONS

GHG mitigation strategies can bring about substantial and possibly cost-effective public health co-benefits. These findings are highly relevant to policy makers and other stakeholders since they point to the compounding value of taking concerted action against climate change and air pollution.

Economic impacts from PM2.5 pollution-related health effects in China's road transport sector: A provincial-level analysis

Economic impact assessments of air pollution-related health effects from a sectoral perspective in China is still deficient. This study evaluates the PM_2.5 pollution-related health impacts of the road transport sector on China's economy at both national and provincial levels in 2030 under various air mitigation technologies scenarios. Health impacts are estimated using an integrated approach that combines the Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies (GAINS) model, a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model and a health model. Results show that at a national level, the road transport sector leads to 163.64 thousand deaths per year, increases the per capita risk of morbidity by 0.37% and accounts for 1.43 billion Yuan in health care expenditures. We estimate 442.90 billion Yuan of the value of statistical life loss and 2.09 h/capita of work time loss in 2015. Without additional control measures, air pollution related to the transport sector will cause 177.50 thousand deaths in 2030, a 0.40% per capita increase in the risk of morbidity, accounting for 4.12 billion Yuan in health care expenditures, 737.15 billion Yuan of statistical life loss and 2.23 h/capita of work time loss. Based on our model, implementing the most strict control strategy scenario would decrease mortality by 42.14%, morbidity risk by 42.14%, health care expenditures by 41.94%, statistical life loss by 26.22% and hours of work time loss by 42.65%, comparing with the no control measure scenario. In addition, PM_2.5 pollution from the road transport sector will cause 0.68% GDP loss in 2030. At a provincial level, GDP losses in 14 out of 30 provinces far exceed the national rate. Henan (1.20%), Sichuan (1.07%), Chongqing (0.99%), Hubei (0.94%), and Shandong (0.90%) would experience the highest GDP loss in 2030. Implementing control strategies to reduce PM_2.5 pollution in the road transport sector could bring positive benefits in half of the Chinese provinces especially in provinces that suffer greater health impacts from the road transport sector (such as Henan and Sichuan).

Air pollution as a risk factor in health impact assessments of a travel mode shift towards cycling

BACKGROUND

Promotion of active commuting provides substantial health and environmental benefits by influencing air pollution, physical activity, accidents, and noise. However, studies evaluating intervention and policies on a mode shift from motorized transport to cycling have estimated health impacts with varying validity and precision.

OBJECTIVE

To review and discuss the estimation of air pollution exposure and its impacts in health impact assessment studies of a shift in transport from cars to bicycles in order to guide future assessments.

METHODS

A systematic database search of PubMed was done primarily for articles published from January 2000 to May 2016 according to PRISMA guidelines.

RESULTS

We identified 18 studies of health impact assessment of change in transport mode. Most studies investigated future hypothetical scenarios of increased cycling. The impact on the general population was estimated using a comparative risk assessment approach in the majority of these studies, whereas some used previously published cost estimates. Air pollution exposure during cycling was estimated based on the ventilation rate, the pollutant concentration, and the trip duration. Most studies employed exposure-response functions from studies comparing background levels of fine particles between cities to estimate the health impacts of local traffic emissions. The effect of air pollution associated with increased cycling contributed small health benefits for the general population, and also only slightly increased risks associated with fine particle exposure among those who shifted to cycling. However, studies calculating health impacts based on exposure-response functions for ozone, black carbon or nitrogen oxides found larger effects attributed to changes in air pollution exposure.

CONCLUSION

A large discrepancy between studies was observed due to different health impact assessment approaches, different assumptions for calculation of inhaled dose and different selection of dose-response functions. This kind of assessments would improve from more holistic approaches using more specific exposure-response functions.