Two-year and multi-site field trials to evaluate soil amendments for controlling cadmium accumulation in rice grain

Mitigating Toxic Metal Exposure Through Leafy Greens: A Comprehensive Review Contrasting Cadmium and Lead in Spinach

Metals and metalloids (hereafter, metal(loid)s) in plant-based foods are a source of exposure to humans, but not all metal(loid)-food interactions are the same. Differences exist between metal(loid)s in terms of their behavior in soils and in how they are taken up by plants and stored in the edible plant tissue/food. Thus, there cannot be one consistent solution to reducing toxic metal(loid)s exposure to humans from foods. In addition, how metal(loid)s are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted by the human body differs based on both the metal(loid), other elements and nutrients in the food, and the nutritional status of the human. Initiatives like the United States Food and Drug Administration's Closer to Zero initiative to reduce the exposure of young children to the toxic elements cadmium, lead, arsenic, and mercury from foods warrant careful consideration of each metal(loid) and plant interaction. This review explores such plant-metal(loid) interactions using the example of spinach and the metals cadmium and lead. This review highlights differences in the magnitude of exposure, bioavailability, and the practicality of mitigation strategies while outlining research gaps and future needs. A focus on feasibility and producer needs, informed via stakeholder interviews, emphasizes the need for better analytical testing facilities and grower and consumer education. More research should focus on minimization of chloride inputs for leafy greens to lessen plant-availability of Cd and the role of oxalate in reducing Cd bioavailability from spinach. These findings are applicable to other leafy greens (e.g., kale, lettuce), but not for other plants or metal(loid)s.

Foliar Application of Nanoparticles Reduced Cadmium Content in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Grains via Long-Distance "Leaf-Root-Microorganism" Regulation

Foliar application of beneficial nanoparticles (NPs) exhibits potential in reducing cadmium (Cd) uptake in crops, necessitating a systematic understanding of their leaf-root-microorganism process for sustainable development of efficient nano-enabled agrochemicals. Herein, wheat grown in Cd-contaminated soil (5.23 mg/kg) was sprayed with different rates of four commonly used NPs, including nano selenium (SeNPs)/silica (SiO2NPs)/zinc oxide/manganese dioxide. SeNPs and SiO2NPs most effectively reduced the Cd concentration in wheat grains. Compared to the control, Cd concentration in grains was significantly decreased by 35.0 and 33.3% by applying 0.96 mg/plant SeNPs and 2.4 mg/plant SiO2NPs, and the grain yield was significantly increased by 33.9% with SeNPs application. Down-regulated gene expression of Cd transport proteins (TaNramp5 and TaLCT1) and up-regulated gene expression of vacuolar Cd fixation proteins (TaHMA3 and TaTM20) were observed with foliar SeNPs and SiO2NPs use. SeNPs increased the levels of leaf antioxidant metabolites. Additionally, foliar spray of SeNPs resulted in lower abundances of rhizosphere organic acids and reduced Cd bioavailability in rhizosphere soil, and soil microorganisms related to carbon and nitrogen (Solirubrobacter and Pedomicrobium) were promoted. Our findings underscore the potential of the foliar application of SeNPs and SiO2NPs as a plant and rhizosphere soil metabolism-regulating approach to reduce Cd accumulation in wheat grains.

Simultaneously decreasing arsenic and cadmium in rice by soil sulfate and limestone amendment under intermittent flooding

Water management in paddy soils can effectively reduce the soil-to-rice grain transfer of either As or Cd, but not of both elements simultaneously due to the higher mobility of As under reducing and Cd under oxidizing soil conditions. Limestone amendment, the common form of liming, is well known for decreasing Cd accumulation in rice grown on acidic soils. Sulfate amendment was suggested to effectively decrease As accumulation in rice, especially under intermittent soil flooding. To study the unknown effects of combined sulfate and limestone amendment under intermittent flooding for simultaneously decreasing As and Cd in rice, we performed a pot experiment using an acidic sandy loam paddy soil. We also included a clay loam paddy soil to study the role of soil texture in low-As rice production under intermittent flooding. We found that liming not only decreased rice Cd concentrations but also greatly decreased dimethylarsenate (DMA) accumulation in rice. We hypothesize that this is due to suppressed sulfate reduction, As methylation, and As thiolation by liming in the sulfate-amended soil and a higher share of deprotonated DMA at higher pH which is taken up less readily than protonated DMA. Decreased gene abundance of potential soil sulfate-reducers by liming further supported our hypothesis. Combined sulfate and limestone amendment to the acidic sandy loam soil produced rice with 43% lower inorganic As, 72% lower DMA, and 68% lower Cd compared to the control soil without amendment. A tradeoff between soil aeration and water availability was observed for the clay loam soil, suggesting difficulties to decrease As in rice while avoiding plant water stress under intermittent flooding in fine-textured soils. Our results suggest that combining sulfate amendment, liming, and intermittent flooding can help to secure rice safety when the presence of both As and Cd in coarse-textured soils is of concern.

Temporal development of arsenic speciation and extractability in acidified and non-acidified paddy soil amended with silicon-rich fly ash and manganese- or zinc-oxides under flooded and drainage conditions

Oxides of silicon (Si), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn) have been used as soil amendments to reduce As mobility and uptake in paddy soil systems. However, these amendments are hypothesized to be affected differently depending on the soil pH and their effect on As speciation in rice paddy systems is not fully understood. Herein, we used a microcosm experiment to investigate the effects of natural Si-rich fly ash and synthetic Mn and Zn oxides on the temporal development of porewater chemistry, including aqueous As speciation (As(III), As(V), MMA, DMA, and DMMTA) and solid-phase As solubility, in a naturally calcareous soil with or without soil acidification (with sulfuric acid) during 28 days of flooding and subsequent 14 days of drainage. We found that soil acidification to pH 4.5 considerably increased the solubility of Si, Fe, Mn, and Zn compared to the non-acidified soil. Additions of Mn and Zn oxides decreased the concentrations of dissolved arsenite and arsenate in the non-acidified soil whereas additions of Zn oxide and combined Si-Zn oxides increased them in the acidified soil. The Si-rich fly ash did not increase dissolved Si and As in the acidified and non-acidified soils. Dimethylated monothioarsenate (DMMTA) was mainly observed in the acidified soil during the later stage of soil flooding. The initial 28 days of soil flooding decreased the levels of soluble and exchangeable As and increased As associated with Mn oxides, whereas the subsequent 14 days of soil drainage reversed the trend. This study highlighted that soil acidification considerably controlled the solubilization of Ca and Fe, thus influencing the soil pH-Eh buffering capacity, the solubility of Si, Mn, and Zn oxides, and the mobility of different As species in carbonate-rich and acidic soils under redox fluctuations.

High-resolution chemical imaging to understand Cd activation in rice rhizosphere of karstic soils

Cadmium (Cd) activation, especially at a high spatial resolution, in paddy soils with a high geogenic Cd background is yet to be understood. To investigate the temporal and spatial patterns of Cd activation in rice rhizosphere, pot and rhizotron experiments were conducted using four paddy soils with high geogenic Cd (0.11-3.70 mg kg-1) from Guangxi, southwestern China. The pot experiment results showed that porewater Cd concentrations initially decreased and then increased over the complete rice growth period, reaching its lowest value during the late-tillering and early-filling stages. Besides, correlation analysis identified organic matter and root manganese (Mn) content as the main factors affecting rice Cd uptake, with Mn having a negative effect and organic matter having a positive effect. Sub-millimeter two-dimensional chemical imaging revealed that the distribution of labile Cd in the rhizosphere (by diffusive gradients in thin-films, or DGT) was influenced by the root system and soil properties, such as pH (by planar optode) and acid phosphatase activity (by soil zymography). Soil acid phosphatase activity increased under Cd stress. The overall pH at rice rhizosphere decreased. Moreover, a close relationship was found between the spatial distributions of soil labile Mn and Cd at the rhizosphere, with higher Mn being associated with lower Cd lability. This study highlights Mn as a key element in regulating rice Cd uptake and enlightens future Mn-based strategies for addressing Cd pollution in rice paddy soils, especially in karst areas with high geochemical background.

Rice straw biochar and lime regulate the availability of heavy metals by managing colloid-associated- but dissolved-heavy metals

Heavy metal (HM) pollution has extensively spread in agricultural soils, posing potential threats to food safety and human health. Biochar and lime are two amendments used to remediate the soils contaminated with HMs. However, colloids have been shown to increase the mobility of HMs in paddy soils. Nevertheless, limited investigations have been made into the impact of biochar and lime on the formation of colloid-associated (colloidal) HMs in paddy soils. In this study, column and microcosm incubation experiments were conducted to examine how biochar and lime affected the availability of HMs (arsenic, cadmium, copper, iron, manganese, lead, and zinc) in different layers of paddy soils. The results revealed that biochar significantly inhibited the formation of colloidal HMs in the soil flooding phase, whereas the lime increased the colloidal HMs. These colloids containing HMs were identified as poorly dissolved metal sulfides. When the soil was drained, colloidal HMs transformed into dissolved forms, thereby improving the availability of HMs. Biochar decreased HM availability by reducing colloidal- but dissolved- HMs, whereas lime had the opposite effect. Hence, biochar demonstrated a stable and reliable remediation ability to decrease HM availability in paddy soil during flooding and drainage processes. In conclusion, this study highlighted that biochar efficiently reduced HM availability by mitigating the formation of colloidal HMs during flooding and their transformation into dissolved HMs during drainage in paddy soils.

A circular economy approach to drinking water treatment residue management in a catchment impacted by historic metal mines

Drinking water treatment residues (DWTR) from mining areas which remove and contain potentially toxic elements (PTE) could still potentially be used as a soil amendment to restore contaminated sites in the same catchment, thus eliminating waste and reducing the chemical and physical mobility of the pollutants. To assess this restorative and regenerative approach to DWTR management, field and pot trials were established with soils from a historic Pb-Zn mine site in the North East of England, amended with either local DWTR or the nearest available municipal green waste compost (GWC). Soils from the mine site were found to have very low levels of nutrients and very high levels of PTE (Pb and Zn > 13, 000 mg/kg). The perennial grass species Phalaris arundinacea, known for many ecosystem service benefits including soil stabilization, was used throughout this study. The application of the BCR sequential extraction to soils amended with the DWTR in the pot trials found a significant decrease in the bioavailability of Pb and Cu (p < 0.05) after plant growth when compared with an unamended control. The field trial involved 648 pre-grown grass plants planted-out into mine soils amended with either DWTR, GWC or a mixture (MIX) of the two, all at rates of 25-30% w/w. Both amendments and the MIX had significant positive effects on biomass production compared to the unamended control in the following order GWC > MIX > DWTR (p < 0.05). Results of the elemental analysis of biomass from the field trial were generally ambiguous and did not reflect the decreased bioavailability noted in the pot trials using the BCR procedure. Pot trials, however, showed increases in plant growth and decreases in concentrations of Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn in above ground biomass following the application of both amendments. Further work should involve the testing of a mixture of DWTR and other soil amendments to enhance plant growth. The success of these trials should provide confidence for those working in drinking water treatment and catchment management to reuse the waste residues in a circular economy and a sustainable way that could improve water quality over time.

Preparation and application of biochar from co-pyrolysis of different feedstocks for immobilization of heavy metals in contaminated soil

Co-pyrolysis is a potentially effective method for both biomass waste management and multi-functional biochar-based product design. It involves the thermochemical decomposition of biomass waste under anoxic conditions, which can reduce the cost of disposal and produce biochar with beneficial properties. Herein, this study aimed to investigate the properties and environmental applications of biochar from single- and mixed- feedstocks of wheat straw, rice husk, pig manure, and oyster shell at 450 ℃, respectively. A pot experiment with Chinese cabbage was carried out to compare the effects of biochars with limestone on soil Cd and Pb immobilization at two harvest periods. The results indicated that co-pyrolysis of various biomasses exhibited synthetic effects on promoting the calorific value of syngas and enhancing the quality of produced biochar. The pot experiment revealed a significant promotion on soil pH, soil organic matter, cation exchange capacity, and soluble Ca, which consequently reduced Cd and Pb availability. In contrast with limestone treatment, soil amendment with single biomass-derived and co-pyrolysis-derived (COPB) biochars had a significant positive impact on soil fertility and microbial biomass. Application of COPB at a 0.5% dosage consistently and most effectively enhanced the shoot biomass, increased leaf Vitamin C content but reduced leaf content of nitrate and heavy metals in both harvests. Using COPB for soil remediation would be financially visible due to the enhancement of crop yield. Therefore, this study proposes a strategy for targeted enhancement of the functions of biochar derived from co-pyrolysis of selected biomass waste for soil remediation and agricultural production.

Decreasing arsenic in rice: Interactions of soil sulfate amendment and water management

Accumulation of inorganic arsenic (iAs) and dimethylarsenate (DMA) in rice threatens human health and rice yield, respectively. We studied the yet unclear interactions of soil sulfate amendment and water management for decreasing As accumulation in rice grain in a pot experiment. We show that soil sulfate amendment (+200 mg S/kg soil) decreased grain iAs by 44% without clearly increasing grain DMA under intermittent flooding from booting stage to maturation. Under continuous flooding during this period, sulfate amendment decreased grain iAs only by 25% but increased grain DMA by 68%. The mechanisms of sulfate amendment effects on grain iAs were not explained by porewater composition or in-planta As sequestration but were allocated to the rhizosphere. Grain iAs closely correlated with As in the root iron-plaque (r = 0.92) which was effectively decreased by sulfate amendment and may have acted as an iAs source for rice uptake. Although both sulfate amendment and intermittent flooding substantially increased porewater DMA concentrations, it was the continuous flooding, irrespective of sulfate amendment, that resulted in rice straighthead disease with 47-55% less yield and 258-320% more DMA in grains than intermittent flooding. This study suggests that combining soil sulfate amendment and intermittent flooding can help to secure the quantity and quality of rice produced in As-affected areas. Our results also imply the key role of rhizosphere processes in controlling both iAs and DMA accumulation in rice which should be elucidated in the future.

Soil addition of MnSO4 reduces wheat Cd accumulation by simultaneously increasing labile Mn and decreasing labile Cd concentrations in calcareous soil: A two-year pot study

Cadmium (Cd) pollution of wheat fields is a serious environmental and health problem that warrants attention. Manganese (Mn)-containing materials are considered effective for inhibiting Cd accumulation in Cd-contaminated acidic soils. However, information on the long-term remediation effects of Mn fertilizers on Cd accumulation in wheat and on the microbial community in calcareous soils remain limited. Here, a two-year pot experiment was conducted to assess the performance of 0.05-0.2% MnSO₄ addition in Cd-contaminated calcareous soils (total Cd concentration: 3.65 mg/kg) on Cd accumulation in wheat as well as on the soil bacterial community. The formation of Mn oxides and transformation of exchangeable Cd to stable Cd fractions confirmed that the application of MnSO₄ significantly decreased CaCl₂-extractable Cd concentrations in soil (0-47.08%). In addition, MnSO₄ addition improved the antagonistic effect of Cd and Mn ions in the wheat rhizosphere by increasing the available Mn concentration in the soil (1.04-3.52 times), thereby significantly reducing wheat Cd accumulation by 24.66-54.70%. Notably, the addition of MnSO₄ did not affect the richness and diversity (P > 0.05) but altered the composition and function of bacterial communities, especially those involved in metabolism and genetic information processing. Importantly, the effects of MnSO₄ on Cd immobilization in soil (10.66-47.08%) and the inhibition of Cd accumulation in wheat (12.13-54.30%) can last for two years after one addition. Furthermore, the maximum decrease in Cd concentration in grains was found in the low-Cd wheat cultivar, with values of 31.39-54.70% and 19.94-54.30% in the first and second years, respectively. Based on the present findings, the combination of MnSO₄ with a low-Cd wheat cultivar is effective for the safe utilization of Cd-contaminated calcareous soils.

Reduction of cadmium bioavailability in paddy soil and its accumulation in brown rice by FeCl3 washing combined with biochar: A field study

Cadmium (Cd) removal from paddy soil to reduce Cd accumulation in brown rice is essential for agroecology, food safety, and human health. In this study, we demonstrate that ferric chloride (FeCl₃) washing combined with biochar treatment efficiently remediates Cd-contaminated paddy soil in field trials. Our results showed that 30.9 % of total Cd and 41.6 % of bioavailable Cd were removed by the addition of 0.03 M FeCl₃ at a liquid/soil ratio of 1.5:1. The subsequent addition of 1 % biochar further reduced bioavailable Cd by 36.5 and 41.5 %, compared with FeCl₃ washing or biochar treatment alone. The principal component regression analysis showed that the Cd content in brown rice was primarily affected by the bioavailable Cd in soil. The combined remediation contributed to the decreased Cd contents in brown rice by 45.5-62.5 %, as well as a 2.7-11.8 % increase in rice yield. The Cd contents in brown rice decreased to 0.12 and 0.04 mg kg^-1 in two cultivars of rice (Zhuliangyou189 and Zhuliangyou929), lower than the national food safety standard limit value of China (0.2 mg kg^-1). Meanwhile, the combined remediation promoted the restoration of soil pH and organic matter as well as the improvement of available nutrients. This finding suggests that the combination of FeCl₃ washing and biochar is an effective remediation strategy to minimize Cd bioavailability in paddy soil, and improves soil quality, thus contributing to food safety.

OsNRAMP5 Is a Major Transporter for Lead Uptake in Rice

Lead (Pb) is one of the most toxic metals affecting human health globally. Food is an important source of chronic Pb exposure in humans. How Pb is taken up by rice, a staple food for over half of the global population, remains unknown. In the present study, we investigated the role of OsNRAMP5, a member of the NRAMP (Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Protein) transporter family, in Pb uptake by rice roots. Heterologous expression of OsNRAMP5 in yeast increased Pb uptake and sensitivity toward Pb. Knockout of OsNRAMP5 in rice by CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing resulted in significant decreases in root uptake of Pb and accumulation in rice shoots. The maximum influx velocity (V_max) for Pb uptake of the knockout mutants was 70% lower than that of wild-type plants. When grown in Pb-contaminated paddy soil, OsNRAMP5 knockout mutants accumulated approximately 50 and 70% lower Pb concentrations in the grain and straw, respectively, than the wild type. OsNRAMP5 expression in rice roots was not affected by Pb exposure. These results indicate that OsNRAMP5 is a major transporter for Pb uptake in rice, in addition to its role in the uptake of manganese and cadmium. This study provides a mechanistic understanding of Pb uptake in rice plants and a potential strategy to limit Pb accumulation in rice grains.

Ferrihydrite transformations in flooded paddy soils: rates, pathways, and product spatial distributions

Complex interactions between redox-driven element cycles in soils influence iron mineral transformation processes. The rates and pathways of iron mineral transformation processes have been studied intensely in model systems such as mixed suspensions, but transformation in complex heterogeneous porous media is not well understood. Here, mesh bags containing 0.5 g of ferrihydrite were incubated in five water-saturated paddy soils with contrasting microbial iron-reduction potential for up to twelve weeks. Using X-ray diffraction analysis, we show near-complete transformation of the ferrihydrite to lepidocrocite and goethite within six weeks in the soil with the highest iron(II) release, and slower transformation with higher ratios of goethite to lepidocrocite in soils with lower iron(II) release. In the least reduced soil, no mineral transformations were observed. In soils where ferrihydrite transformation occurred, the transformation rate was one to three orders of magnitude slower than transformation in comparable mixed-suspension studies. To interpret the spatial distribution of ferrihydrite and its transformation products, we developed a novel application of confocal micro-Raman spectroscopy in which we identified and mapped minerals on selected cross sections of mesh bag contents. After two weeks of flooded incubation, ferrihydrite was still abundant in the core of some mesh bags, and as a rim at the mineral-soil interface. The reacted outer core contained unevenly mixed ferrihydrite, goethite and lepidocrocite on the micrometre scale. The slower rate of transformation and uneven distribution of product minerals highlight the influence of biogeochemically complex matrices and diffusion processes on the transformation of minerals, and the importance of studying iron mineral transformation in environmental media.

Mitigating the accumulation of arsenic and cadmium in rice grain: A quantitative review of the role of water management

Arsenic exposure through rice consumption is a growing concern. Compared to Continuous Flooding (CF), irrigation practices that dry the soil at least once during the growing season [referred to here as Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD)] can decrease As accumulation in grain; however, this can simultaneously increase grain Cd to potentially unsafe levels. We modelled grain As and Cd from field studies comparing AWD and CF to identify optimal AWD practices to minimize the accumulation of As and Cd in grain. The severity of soil drying during AWD drying event(s), quantified as soil water potential (SWP), was the main factor leading to a reduction in grain total As and inorganic As, compared to CF. However, lower SWP levels were necessary to decrease grain inorganic As, compared to total As. Therefore, if the goal is to decrease grain inorganic As, the soil needs to be dried further than it would for decreasing total As alone. The main factor driving grain Cd accumulation was when AWD was practiced during the season. Higher grain Cd levels were observed when AWD occurred during the early reproductive stage. Further, higher Cd levels were observed when AWD spanned multiple rice growth stages, compared to one stage. If Cd levels are concerning, the minimum trade-off between total As and Cd accumulation in rice grain occurred when AWD was implemented at a SWP of -47 kPa during one stage other than the early reproductive. While these results are not meant to be comprehensive of all the interactions affecting the As and Cd dynamics in rice systems, they can be used as a first guide for implementing AWD practices with the goal of minimizing the accumulation of As and Cd in rice grain.

Immobilization of soil Cd by sulfhydryl grafted palygorskite in wheat-rice rotation mode: A field-scale investigation

The safe utilization of heavy metal contaminated farmland has attracted extensive attention of the whole society, and there is an urgent need to develop novel high-efficiency amendments. To clarify the actual remediation effect and potential for large-scale application of sulfhydryl grafted palygorskite (SGP) in Cd polluted soil in wheat-rice rotation mode, a field-scale experiment was conducted. SGP at the dosages of 0.5 g/kg-2.0 g/kg could reduce gain Cd contents by 27.15-59.05% and 16.16-79.47% for wheat and rice, respectively. The maximal decreases of soil available Cd figured out by DTPA extraction in wheat and rice season were 58.18% and 33.67%, respectively. The immobilization ratio for Cd was much more than that of trace elements, including Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn, Ni. SGP showed an effective immobilization rate for soil Cd under the interference of many elements in the soil, pointing to the targeting and selectivity of its high-efficiency immobilization. It had no lifting effect on soil pH but decreased zeta potentials of soil particles. The sorption of Cd²⁺ on SGP amended soil could be fitted by the second-order kinetic model and Langmuir isotherm, and the changes of thermodynamic parameters showed SGP strengthened the fixation. SGP made the biological accumulation coefficient and transfer factor of rice grain drop dramatically but had no noticeable effect on these parameters of winter wheat, indicating different botanical responses. SGP as a novel immobilization amendment may provide an efficient and sustainable solution for the remediation of contaminated soil in wheat-rice rotation mode in field-scale.

Exploring Key Soil Parameters Relevant to Arsenic and Cadmium Accumulation in Rice Grain in Southern China

Paddy soils in some areas of southern China are contaminated by arsenic (As) and cadmium (Cd), threatening human health via the consumption of As- and/or Cd-tainted rice. To date, a quantitative understanding of how soil characteristics control As and Cd accumulation in rice grains under field conditions is still deficient. Based on 31 paired soil-grain samples collected in southern China, we statistically explored which soil parameter or parameter combination from various soil analyses best estimates As and Cd in rice. We found that CaCl2 extraction of field-moist soil collected at rice harvest provided the best estimation (R2adj = 0.47–0.60) for grain Cd followed by dry soil CaCl2 extraction (R2adj = 0.38–0.49), where CaCl2 extractable Cd from moist or dry soil was the dominant soil parameter. Compared to soil totals, parameters from neither dry soil ascorbate-citrate extraction nor anoxic soil incubation improved model performance for grain As (R2adj ≤ 0.44), despite their closer relevance to soil redox conditions during plant As uptake. A key role of soil-available sulfur in controlling grain As was suggested by our models. Our approach and results may help develop potential soil amendment strategies for decreasing As and/or Cd accumulation in soils.

Soil amendments with ZnSO4 or MnSO4 are effective at reducing Cd accumulation in rice grain: An application of the voltaic cell principle

Cadmium (Cd) contamination in paddy soil often results in elevated Cd concentrations in rice grain, which is a serious concern threatening food safety. Most of the Cd accumulated in rice grain is derived from its remobilization in paddy soil during the grain filling period when paddy water is drained. We have previously shown that the voltaic cell effect controls the oxidative release of cadmium sulfide (CdS) during the drainage period. Metal sulfides with lower electrochemical potentials than CdS can suppress the oxidation of CdS. In the present study, we tested whether amendments of ZnSO₄ or MnSO₄ could enhance the suppressive voltaic effect on Cd release and subsequent accumulation in rice grain. The one-time addition of ZnSO₄ (75 kg/ha Zn) decreased CaCl₂-extractable Cd concentrations in soils by 32-64% in pot experiments and by 16-30% in field trials during the drainage period. Consequently, Cd concentrations in brown rice were reduced by 74-87% and 60-72% in pot experiments and field trials, respectively. Importantly, this effect persisted in the second year without further addition. The amendment of MnSO₄ had similar effects in decreasing soil extractable Cd and Cd concentrations in brown rice. These effects were not attributed to the addition of sulfate. A single application of such doses of ZnSO₄ or MnSO₄ (e.g. 75-150 kg/ha Zn or Mn) only caused a marginal increase in soil Zn or Mn concentrations and had no significant impact on grain yield. Taken together, amendments of ZnSO₄ and/or MnSO₄ (at the rate of 75-150 kg/ha Zn and or Mn) formed a protective voltaic cell partner against the oxidative dissolution of CdS and thus were highly effective in reducing Cd accumulation in rice grain. This work provides a simple but effective method to decrease soil Cd availability during soil drainage and mitigate Cd accumulation in rice to ensure food safety.

Toxic metals and metalloids: Uptake, transport, detoxification, phytoremediation, and crop improvement for safer food

Agricultural soils are under threat of toxic metal/metalloid contamination from anthropogenic activities, leading to excessive accumulation of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg) in food crops that poses significant risks to human health. Understanding how these toxic metals and their methylated species are taken up, translocated, and detoxified is prerequisite to developing strategies to limit their accumulation for safer food. Toxic metals are taken up and transported across different cellular compartments and plant tissues via various transporters for essential or beneficial nutrients, e.g. As by phosphate and silicon transporters, and Cd by manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe) transporters. These transport processes are subjected to interactions with nutrients and the regulation at the transcriptional and post-translational levels. Complexation with thiol-rich compounds, such as phytochelatins, and sequestration in the vacuoles are the common mechanisms for detoxification and for limiting their translocation. A number of genes involved in toxic metal uptake, transport, and detoxification have been identified, offering targets for genetic manipulation via gene editing or transgenic technologies. Natural variations in toxic metal accumulation exist within crop germplasm, and some of the quantitative trait loci underlying these variations have been cloned, paving the way for marker-assisted breeding of low metal accumulation crops. Using plants to extract and remove toxic metals from soil is also possible, but this phytoremediation approach requires metal hyperaccumulation for efficiency. Knowledge gaps and future research needs are also discussed.