Efficacy of metallic nanoparticles in attenuating the accumulation and toxicity of chromium in plants: Current knowledge and future perspectives

Micro/Nanoplastics in plantation agricultural products: behavior process, phytotoxicity under biotic and abiotic stresses, and controlling strategies

With the extensive utilization of plastic products, microplastics/nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) contamination not only poses a global hazard to the environment, but also induces a new threat to the growth development and nutritional quality of plantation agricultural products. This study thoroughly examines the behavior of MPs/NPs, including their sources, entry routes into plants, phytotoxicity under various biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., salinity, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heavy metals, antibiotics, plasticizers, nano oxide, naturally occurring organic macromolecular compounds, invasive plants, Botrytis cinerea mycorrhizal fungi.) and controlling strategies. MPs/NPs in agricultural systems mainly originate from mulch, sewage, compost fertilizer, municipal solid waste, pesticide packaging materials, etc. They enter plants through endocytosis, apoplast pathways, crack-entry modes, and leaf stomata, affecting phenotypic, metabolic, enzymatic, and genetic processes such as seed germination, growth metabolism, photosynthesis, oxidative stress and antioxidant defenses, fruit yield and nutrient quality, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. MPs/NPs can also interact with other environmental stressors, resulting in synergistic, antagonistic, or neutral effects on phytotoxicity. To address these challenges, this review highlights strategies to mitigate MPs/NPs toxicity, including the development of novel green biodegradable plastics, plant extraction and immobilization, exogenous plant growth regulator interventions, porous nanomaterial modulation, biocatalysis and enzymatic degradation. Finally, the study identifies current limitations and future research directions in this critical field.

Effects of Nanosilica Priming on Rapeseed (Brassica napus) Tolerance to Cadmium and Arsenic Stress by Regulating Cellular Metabolism and Antioxidant Defense

The mechanisms by which seed-primed silicon dioxide nanoparticles (nSi) alleviated arsenic (As) and cadmium (Cd) toxicity in Brassica napus L. remain unclear. A pot study examined the physico-biochemical, cellular, and molecular responses of B. napus exposed to Cd (10 mg/kg soil) and As (50 mg/kg soil) doses with or without nSi priming. The results showed that nSi priming improved photosynthesis, seedling biomass, and metabolite accumulation, and restored the cell structure. Upon Cd and As stress, nSi diminished oxidative stress by downplaying H2O2 (24-32%) and O2•- (29-36%), MDA, and activating antioxidant defenses. Also, nSi relieved Cd and As accumulation (27-36%) by enhancing root-vacuolar sequestration (upregulating BnHMA3, BnPCs, and BnABCC1), cell wall chelation, and downregulating root transporters (BnNRAMP5, BnIRTI, BnHMA2, BnHMA4, BnPHT1.1, and BnPHT1.4). Our findings revealed that nSi priming effectively enhanced canola tolerance to Cd and As toxicity by strengthening multiple oxidative defense mechanisms and limiting their accumulation.

Chitosan nanoparticles alleviate chromium toxicity by modulating metabolic homeostasis and promoting chromium sequestration in Zea mays L

Chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) have been proposed as a potential alternative in alleviating chromium (Cr) toxicity. However, the mechanisms underlying remains poorly understood. This study investigates the effects of CSNPs on carbon/nitrogen metabolism, cell wall Cr binding capacity, and antioxidant activity in Zea mays L. under Cr stress. Cr stress decreased the total dry weight (DW) by 48.5 %. By contrast, the total DW was reduced by only 26.2 % in CSNPs-treated plants. Analysis of transcriptomic, enzyme activity, and metabolite content data, CSNPs-treated plants exhibited a higher level of relatively stable Carbon and Nitrogen metabolism than untreated plants. CSNPs application resulted in a substantial increase in the levels of sucrose and soluble protein by 78.0 % and 19.4 % in the leaves, and 60.0 % and 59.7 % in the roots, respectively. Meanwhile, CSNPs increased the contents of glutathione, phytochelatin, and cell wall polysaccharide. This increase resulted in a higher retention of Cr in vacuole and cell wall. Additionally, CSNPs alleviated the oxidative damage by improving antioxidant activity. Overall, our results suggest that CSNPs alleviates Cr toxicity by modulating metabolic homeostasis and promoting Cr sequestration in maize plants. This study provides new insights into the mechanisms underlying CSNPs-mediated Cr stress response with potential implications for crop production.

A review of pathogen removal from municipal wastewater using advanced oxidation processes: Agricultural application, regrowth risks, and new perspectives

Pathogen removal in wastewater offers a chance to recover water and nutrients for crop production, reducing environmental contamination and public health risks. However, the risk of pathogens regrowing in treated effluents can endanger public health if reused in agriculture, attracting stringent reuse standards. While advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) promise to reduce pathogens, eliminating regrowth potential in AOP-treated effluents requires further scrutiny. This review aimed to summarize the available evidence on understanding pathogen reduction and regrowth potential in AOP-treated effluents, following best practices for scoping reviews like the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA). It covers recent pathogen studies under AOPs, current AOP investigations, the impact of AOP dosage and retention time on pathogen control, and challenges in reusing AOP-treated effluents for crop production. Additionally, it identifies areas needing improvement or complementary treatments for pathogen-free effluents with no regrowth potential. The review concludes by summarizing key findings and suggesting research areas for further exploration.

Harnessing the potential of copper-based nanoparticles in mitigating abiotic and biotic stresses in crops

The demand for crops production continues to intensify with the rapid increase in population. Agricultural crops continue to encounter abiotic and biotic stresses, which can substantially hamper their productivity. Numerous strategies have been focused to tackle the abiotic and biotic stress factors in various plants. Nanotechnology has displayed great potential to minimize the phytotoxic impacts of these environmental constraints. Copper (Cu)-based nanoparticles (NPs) have displayed beneficial effects on plant growth and stress tolerance. Cu-based NPs alone or in combination with plant growth hormones or microorganisms have been documented to induce plant tolerance and mitigate abiotic or biotic stresses in different plants. In this review, we have comprehensively discussed the uptake and translocation of Cu-based NPs in plants, and beneficial roles in improving the plant growth and development at various growth stages. Moreover, we have discussed how Cu-based NPs mechanistically modulate the physiological, biochemical, metabolic, cellular, and metabolic functions to enhance plant tolerance against both biotic (viruses, bacterial and fungal diseases, etc.) and abiotic stresses (heavy metals or metalloids, salt, and drought stress, etc.). We elucidated recent advancements, knowledge gaps, and recommendations for future research. This review would help plant and soil scientists to adapt Cu-based novel strategies such as nanofertilizers and nanopesticides to detoxify the abiotic or biotic stresses. These outcomes may contribute to the promotion of healthy food production and food security, thus providing new avenues for sustainable agriculture production.

Oryza glumaepatula and calcium oxide nanoparticles enhanced Cr stress tolerance by maintaining antioxidant defense, chlorophyll and gene expression levels in rice

Chromium (Cr), a potent heavy metal, threatens rice cultivation due to its escalating presence in soil from human activities. Wild rice contains useful genes for phytoremediation; however, it is difficult to use directly for metal mitigation. Here, a single segment substitution line (SSSL), SG001, was developed by crossing O. glumaepatula and Huajingxian74 (HJX) to evaluate the survival ability of plants against Cr. Further, we explored the potential effect of calcium oxide nanoparticles (CaO-NPs) (50 μM) to minimize the toxic effect of Cr (100 μM) in rice cultivars, SG001 and HJX. The findings of this study indicated that Cr toxicity led to increased oxidative stress. This was shown by higher levels of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which was increased by 104% in SG001 and 177% in HJX, and malondialdehyde (MDA) increased by 79% in SG001 and 135% in HJX. Furthermore, it also depicted that Cr toxicity considerably declined shoot and root length, shoot and root fresh weight by 30%, 27%, 25%, and 20% in SG001 and 44%, 51%, 42%, and 45% in HJX, respectively. This mitigation was evidenced by decreased Cr contents, increased calcium (Ca) levels in SG001, and the maintenance of chlorophyll, antioxidant defense, and gene expression levels. Moreover, there was a notable reduction in MDA and H2O2, while the defense mechanisms of key antioxidants, including ascorbate peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione, catalase, and peroxidase were upregulated, along with an increase in soluble protein contents in both rice cultivars after applying CaO-NPs. CaO-NPs effectively restored cellular and subcellular structural integrity and growth in both lines, which had been seriously disrupted by Cr toxicity. Overall, our findings suggest that SG001, in combination with CaO-NPs, could serve as an effective strategy to mitigate Cr toxicity in plants.

Modulation of rhizosphere microbial community and metabolites by bio-functionalized nanoscale silicon oxide alleviates cadmium-induced phytotoxicity in bayberry plants

Cadmium (Cd) is an extremely toxic heavy metal that can originate from industrial activities and accumulate in agricultural soils. This study investigates the potential of biologically synthesized silicon oxide nanoparticles (Bio-SiNPs) in alleviating Cd toxicity in bayberry plants. Bio-SiNPs were synthesized using the bacterial strain Chryseobacterium sp. RTN3 and thoroughly characterized using advanced techniques. A pot experiment results demonstrated that Cd stress substantially reduced leaves biomass, photosynthesis efficiency, antioxidant enzyme activity, and induced oxidative damage in bayberry (Myrica rubra) plants. However, Bio-SiNPs application at 200 mg kg-1 significantly enhanced plant biomass, chlorophyll content (26.4 %), net photosynthetic rate (8.6 %), antioxidant enzyme levels, and mitigated reactive oxygen species production under Cd stress. Bio-SiNPs modulated key stress-related phytohormones by increasing salicylic acid (13.2 %) and abscisic acid (13.7 %) contents in plants. Bio-SiNPs augmented Si deposition on root surfaces, preserving normal ultrastructure in leaf cells. Additionally, 16S rRNA gene sequencing demonstrated that Bio-SiNPs treatment favorably reshaped structure and abundance of specific bacterial groups (Proteobacteria, Actinobacteriota, and Acidobacteriota) in the rhizosphere. Notably, Bio-SiNPs application significantly modulated the key metabolites (phenylacetaldehyde, glycitein, maslinic acid and methylmalonic acid) under both normal and Cd stress conditions. Overall, this study highlights that bio-nanoremediation using Bio-SiNPs enhances tolerance to Cd stress in bayberry plants by beneficially modulating biochemical, microbial, and metabolic attributes.

Comparative investigation on chemical and green synthesized titanium dioxide nanoparticles against chromium (VI) stress eliciting differential physiological, biochemical, and cellular attributes in Helianthus annuus L

Nanotechnology is a new scientific area that promotes unique concepts to comprehend the optimal mechanics of nanoparticles (NPs) in plants under heavy metal stress. The present investigation focuses on effects of synthetic and green synthesized titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs and gTiO2 NPs) against Cr(VI). Green TiO2 NPs have been produced from plant leaf extract (Ricinus communis L.). Synthesis was confirmed employing an array of optical spectroscopic and electron microscopic techniques. Chromium strongly accelerated H2O2 and MDA productions by 227 % and 266 % at highest chromium concentration (60 mg/kg of soil), respectively, and also caused DNA damage, and decline in photosynthesis. Additionally, anomalies were observed in stomatal cells with gradual increment in chromium concentrations. Conversely, foliar applications of TiO2 NPs and gTiO2 NPs considerably mitigated chromium stress. Sunflower plants treated with modest amounts of green TiO2 NPs had significantly better growth index compared to chemically synthesized ones. Principal component analysis highlighted the variations among photosynthetic attributes, oxidative stress markers, and antioxidant defense systems. Notably, gTiO2 supplementation to the Cr(VI) strained plants minimized PC3 production which is a rare report so far. Conclusively, gTiO2 NPs have been identified to be promising nano-based nutrition resource for farming applications.

Toxicological effects of nanoparticles in plants: Mechanisms involved at morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular levels

The rapid advancement of nanotechnology has led to unprecedented innovations across diverse industries, including pharmaceuticals, agriculture, cosmetics, electronics, textiles, and food, owing to the unique properties of nanoparticles. The extensive production and unregulated release of synthetic nanoparticles may contribute to nanopollution within the ecosystem. In the agricultural sector, nanotechnology is increasingly utilized to improve plant productivity, enhance resistance to stressors, and reduce the usage of chemicals. However, the uncontrolled discharge of nanoparticles into the natural environment raises concerns regarding possible plant toxicological impacts. The review focuses on the translocation of these particles within the plants, emphasizing their phytotoxicological effects at morphological, physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels. Eventhough the beneficial aspects of these nanoparticles are evident, excessive usage of nanoparticles at higher concentrations may lead to potential adverse effects. The phytotoxicity resulting from excessive amounts of nanoparticles affects seed germination and biomass production, disrupts the photosynthesis system, induces oxidative stress, impacts cell membrane integrity, alters gene expression, causes DNA damage, and leads to epigenetic variations in plants. Nanoparticles are found to directly associate with the cell membrane and cell organelles, leading to the dissolution and release of toxic ions, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and subsequent oxidative stress. The present study signifies and accumulates knowledge regarding the application of nanoparticles in agriculture and illustrates a clear picture of their possible impacts on plants and soil microbes, thereby paving the way for future developments in nano-agrotechnology. The review concludes by addressing current challenges and proposing future directions to comprehend and mitigate the possible biological risks associated with nanoparticles in agriculture.

Mycorrhizosphere bacteria inhibit chromium uptake and phytotoxicity by regulating proline metabolism, antioxidant defense system, and aquaporin gene expression in tomato

Chromium (Cr) contamination in soil-plant systems poses a pressing environmental challenge due to its detrimental impacts on plant growth and human health. Results exhibited that Cr stress decreased shoot biomass, root biomass, leaf relative water content, and plant height. However, single and co-application of Bacillus subtilis (BS) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) considerably enhanced shoot biomass (+ 21%), root biomass (+ 2%), leaf relative water content (+ 26%), and plant height (+ 13) under Cr stress. The frequency of mycorrhizal (F) association (+ 5%), mycorrhizal colonization (+ 13%), and abundance of arbuscules (+ 5%) in the non-stressed soil was enhanced when inoculated with combined BS and AMF as compared to Cr-stressed soil. The co-inoculation with BS and AMF considerably enhanced total chlorophyll, carotenoids, and proline content in Cr-stressed plants. Cr-stressed plants resulted in attenuated response in SOD, POD, CAT, and GR activities when inoculated with BS and AMF consortia by altering oxidative stress biomarkers (H2O2 and MDA). In Cr-stressed plants, the combined application of BS and AMF considerably enhanced proline metabolism, for instance, P5CR (+ 17%), P5CS (+ 28%), OAT (- 22%), and ProDH (- 113%) as compared to control. Sole inoculation with AMF downregulated the expression of SIPIP2;1, SIPIP2;5, and SIPIP2;7 in Cr-stressed plants. However, the expression of NCED1 was downregulated with the application of sole AMF. In contrast, the relative expression of Le4 was upregulated in the presence of AMF and BS combination in Cr-stressed plants. Therefore, it is concluded that co-application of BS and AMF enhanced Cr tolerance by enhancing proline metabolism, antioxidant enzymes, and aquaporin gene expression. Future study might concentrate on elucidating the molecular processes behind the synergistic benefits of BS and AMF, as well as affirming their effectiveness in field experiments under a variety of environmental situations. Long-term research on the effect of microbial inoculation on soil health and plant production might also help to design sustainable chromium remediation solutions.

Interaction of titanium dioxide nanoparticles with PVC-microplastics and chromium counteracts oxidative injuries in Trachyspermum ammi L. by modulating antioxidants and gene expression

The emergence of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) microplastics (MPs) as pollutants in agricultural soils is increasingly alarming, presenting significant toxic threats to soil ecosystems. Ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi L.), a plant of significant medicinal and culinary value, is increasingly subjected to environmental stressors that threaten its growth and productivity. This situation is particularly acute given the well-documented toxicity of chromium (Cr), which has been shown to adversely affect plant biomass and escalate risks to the productivity of such economically and therapeutically important species. The present study was conducted to investigate the individual effects of different levels of PVC-MPs (0, 2, and 4 mg L-1) and Cr (0, 150, and 300 mg kg-1) on various aspects of plant growth. Specifically, we examined growth and biomass, photosynthetic pigments, gas exchange attributes, oxidative stress responses, antioxidant compound activity (both enzymatic and nonenzymatic), gene expression, sugar content, nutritional status, organic acid exudation, and Cr accumulation in different parts of Ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi L.) seedlings, which were also exposed to varying levels of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (NPs) (0, 25, and 50 µg mL-1). Results from the present study showed that the increasing levels of Cr and PVC-MPs in soils significantly decreased plant growth and biomass, photosynthetic pigments, gas exchange attributes, sugars, and nutritional contents from the roots and shoots of the plants. Conversely, increasing levels of Cr and PVC-MPs in the soil increased oxidative stress indicators in term of malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, and electrolyte leakage, and also increased organic acid exudation pattern in the roots of T. ammi seedlings. Interestingly, the application of TiO2-NPs counteracted the toxicity of Cr and PVC-MPs in T. ammi seedlings, leading to greater growth and biomass. This protective effect is facilitated by the NPs' ability to sequester reactive oxygen species, thereby reducing oxidative stress and lowering Cr concentrations in both the roots and shoots of the plants. Our research findings indicated that the application of TiO2-NPs has been shown to enhance the resilience of T. ammi seedlings to Cr and PVC-MPs toxicity, leading to not only improved biomass but also a healthier physiological state of the plants. This was demonstrated by a more balanced exudation of organic acids, which is a critical response mechanism to metal stress.

Nano-enabled agrochemicals: mitigating heavy metal toxicity and enhancing crop adaptability for sustainable crop production

The primary factors that restrict agricultural productivity and jeopardize human and food safety are heavy metals (HMs), including arsenic, cadmium, lead, and aluminum, which adversely impact crop yields and quality. Plants, in their adaptability, proactively engage in a multitude of intricate processes to counteract the impacts of HM toxicity. These processes orchestrate profound transformations at biomolecular levels, showing the plant's ability to adapt and thrive in adversity. In the past few decades, HM stress tolerance in crops has been successfully addressed through a combination of traditional breeding techniques, cutting-edge genetic engineering methods, and the strategic implementation of marker-dependent breeding approaches. Given the remarkable progress achieved in this domain, it has become imperative to adopt integrated methods that mitigate potential risks and impacts arising from environmental contamination on yields, which is crucial as we endeavor to forge ahead with the establishment of enduring agricultural systems. In this manner, nanotechnology has emerged as a viable field in agricultural sciences. The potential applications are extensive, encompassing the regulation of environmental stressors like toxic metals, improving the efficiency of nutrient consumption and alleviating climate change effects. Integrating nanotechnology and nanomaterials in agrochemicals has successfully mitigated the drawbacks associated with traditional agrochemicals, including challenges like organic solvent pollution, susceptibility to photolysis, and restricted bioavailability. Numerous studies clearly show the immense potential of nanomaterials and nanofertilizers in tackling the acute crisis of HM toxicity in crop production. This review seeks to delve into using NPs as agrochemicals to effectively mitigate HM toxicity and enhance crop resilience, thereby fostering an environmentally friendly and economically viable approach toward sustainable agricultural advancement in the foreseeable future.

Unlocking the phytoremediation potential of organic acids: A study on alleviating lead toxicity in canola (Brassica napus L.)

Soil contamination with toxic heavy metals [such as lead (Pb)] is becoming a serious global problem due to the rapid development of the social economy. Organic chelating agents such as maleic acid (MA) and tartaric acid (TA) are more efficient, environmentally friendly, and biodegradable compared to inorganic chelating agents and they enhance the solubility, absorption, and stability of metals. To investigate this, we conducted a hydroponic experiment to assess the impact of MA (0.25 mM) and TA (1 mM) on enhancing the phytoremediation of Pb under its toxic concentration of 100 μM, using the oil seed crop canola (Brassica napus L.). Results from the present study showed that the Pb toxicity significantly (P < 0.05) decreased plant growth and biomass, photosynthetic pigments, gas exchange attributes and nutritional contents from the roots and shoots of the plants. In contrast, toxic concentration of Pb significantly (P < 0.05) increased oxidative stress indicators in term of malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, and electrolyte leakage, increased enzymatic and non-enzymatic antixoidants and their specific gene expression and also increased organic acid exudation patter in the roots of B. napus. In addition, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed that Pb toxicity significantly affected double membranous organelles while Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy showed an nveiled distinct peak variations in Pb-treated plants, when compared to control. Additionally, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed that Pb toxicity significantly affected double-membrane organelles, while Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy unveiled distinct peak variations in Pb-treated plants compared to the control. The negative impact of Pb toxicity can overcome the application of MA and TA, which ultimately increased plant growth and biomass by capturing the reactive oxygen species, and decreased oxidative stress in B. napus. With the application of MA and TA, the values of the bioaccumulation factor (BAF) and translocation factor (TF) exceeded 1, indicating that the use of MA and TA enhances the phytoremediation potential of B. napus under Pb stress conditions. This finding could be beneficial for field environment studies, especially when explored through in-depth genetic and molecular analysis.

Silicon a key player to mitigate chromium toxicity in plants: Mechanisms and future prospective

Chromium is a serious heavy metal (HM) and its concentration in plant-soil interface is soaring due to anthropogenic activities, unregulated disposals, and lack of efficient treatments. High concentration of Cr is toxic to ecosystems and human health. Cr stress also diminishes the plant performance by changing the plant's vegetative and reproductive development that ultimately affects sustainable crop production. Silicon (Si) is the second-most prevalent element in the crust of the planet, and has demonstrated a remarkable potential to minimize the HM toxicity. Amending soils with Si mitigates adverse effects of Cr by improving plant physiological, biochemical, and molecular functioning and ensuring better Cr immobilization, compartmentation, and co-precipitation. However, there is no comprehensive review on the role of Si to mitigate Cr toxicity in plants. Thus, in this present review; the discussion has been carried on; 1) the source of Cr, 2) underlying mechanisms of Cr uptake by plants, 3) how Si affects the plant functioning to reduce Cr toxicity, 4) how Si can cause immobilization, compartmentation, and co-precipitation 5) strategies to improve Si accumulation in plants to counter Cr toxicity. We also discussed the knowledge gaps and future research needs. The present review reports up-to-date knowledge about the role of Si to mitigate Cr toxicity and it will help to get better crop productivity in Cr-contaminated soils. The findings of the current review will educate the readers on Si functions in reducing Cr toxicity and will offer new ideas to develop Cr tolerance in plants through the use of Si.

Differential responses of Brassica napus cultivars to dual effects of magnesium oxide nanoparticles

Magnesium oxide nanoparticles (MgO NPs) have great potential to enhance the crop productivity and sustainability of agriculture. Still, a thorough understanding is lacking about its essentiality or toxicity and precise dose for the safe cultivation of oilseed crops. Thus, we assessed the dual effects of MgO NPs (control, 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, and 200 mg/L) on the seed germination, growth performance, photosynthesis, total soluble protein, total carbohydrates, oxidative stress markers (hydrogen peroxide as H2O2 and superoxide anion as O2•‒), lipid peroxidation as MDA, and antioxidant defence machinery (SOD, CAT, APX, and GR activities, and GSH levels) of seven different oilseeds (Brassica napus L.) cultivars (ZY 758, ZD 649, ZD 635, ZD 619, GY 605, ZD 622, and ZD 630). Our findings revealed that low doses of MgO NPs (mainly at 10 mg/L) markedly boosted the seed germination, plant growth (shoot and root lengths) (15‒22%), and biomass (fresh and dry) (11‒19%) by improving the levels of photosynthetic pigments (14‒27%), net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, photosynthetic efficiency (Fv/Fm), total soluble protein and total carbohydrates (16‒36%), antioxidant defence, and reducing the oxidative stress in B. napus tissues. Among all B. napus cultivars, these beneficial effects of MgO NPs were pronounced in ZD 635. ile, elevated levels of MgO NPs (particularly at 200 mg/L) induced oxidative stress, impaired antioxidant scavenging potential, photosynthetic inhibition, protein oxidation, and carbohydrate degradation and lead to inhibit the plant growth attributes. These inhibitory effects were more pronounced in ZD 622. Collectively, low-dose MgO NPs reinforced the Mg contents, protected the plant growth, photosynthesis, total soluble carbohydrates, enzyme activities, and minimized the oxidative stress. While, the excessive MgO NP levels impaired the above-reported traits. Overall, ZD 622 was highly susceptible to MgO NP toxicity and ZD 635 was found most tolerant to MgO NP toxicity.

Zinc-oxide nanoparticles ameliorated the phytotoxic hazards of cadmium toxicity in maize plants by regulating primary metabolites and antioxidants activity

Cadmium stress is a major threat to plant growth and survival worldwide. The current study aims to green synthesis, characterization, and application of zinc-oxide nanoparticles to alleviate cadmium stress in maize (Zea mays L.) plants. In this experiment, two cadmium levels (0, 0.6 mM) were applied to check the impact on plant growth attributes, chlorophyll contents, and concentration of various primary metabolites and antioxidants under exogenous treatment of zinc-oxide nanoparticles (25 and 50 mg L-1) in maize seedlings. Tissue sampling was made 21 days after the zinc-oxide nanoparticles application. Our results showed that applying cadmium significantly reduced total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents by 52.87% and 23.31% compared to non-stress. In comparison, it was increased by 53.23%, 68.49% and 9.73%, 37.53% with zinc-oxide nanoparticles 25, 50 mg L-1 application compared with cadmium stress conditions, respectively. At the same time, proline, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase contents were enhanced in plants treated with cadmium compared to non-treated plants with no foliar application, while it was increased by 12.99 and 23.09%, 23.52 and 35.12%, 27.53 and 36.43%, 14.19 and 24.46%, 14.64 and 37.68% by applying 25 and 50 mg L-1 of zinc-oxide nanoparticles dosages, respectively. In addition, cadmium toxicity also enhanced stress indicators such as malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, and non-enzymatic antioxidants in plant leaves. Overall, the exogenous application of zinc-oxide nanoparticles (25 and 50 mg L-1) significantly alleviated cadmium toxicity in maize. It provides the first evidence that zinc-oxide nanoparticles 25 ~ 50 mg L-1 can be a candidate agricultural strategy for mitigating cadmium stress in cadmium-polluted soils for safe agriculture practice.

Application of magnesium oxide nanoparticles as a novel sustainable approach to enhance crop tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses

Abiotic stresses (heavy metals, drought, salinity, etc.) or biotic pathogens (bacteria, fungi, nematodes, etc.) contribute to major losses in crop yields.

Lithium-induced alterations in soybean nodulation and nitrogen fixation through multifunctional mechanisms

The increasing footprints of lithium (Li) in agroecosystems combined with limited recycling options have raised uncertain consequences for important crops. Nitrogen (N2)-fixation by legumes is an important biological response process, but the cause and effect of Li exposure on plant root-nodule symbiosis and biological N2-fixation (BNF) potential are still unclear. Soybean as a model plant was exposed to Li at low (25 mg kg-1), medium (50 mg kg-1), and high (100 mg kg-1) concentrations. We found that soybean growth and nodulation capacity had a concentration-dependent response to Li. Li at 100 mg kg-1 reduced the nodule numbers, weight, and BNF potential of soybean in comparison to the low and medium levels. Significant shift in soybean growth and BNF after exposure to Li were associated with alteration in the nodule metabolic pathways involved in nitrogen uptake and metabolism (urea, glutamine and glutamate). Importantly, poor soybean nodulation after high Li exposure was due in part to a decreased abundance of bacterium Ensifer in the nodule bacterial community. Also, the dominant N2-fixing bacterium Ensifer was significantly correlated with carbon and nitrogen metabolic pathways. The findings of our study offer mechanistic insights into the environmental and biological impacts of Li on soybean root-nodule symbiosis and N2-acquisition and provide a pathway to develop strategies to mitigate the challenges posed by Li in agroecosystems.

Progress in phytoremediation of chromium from the environment

As chromium (Cr) in ecosystems affects human health through food chain exposure, phytoremediation is an environmentally friendly and efficient way to reduce chromium pollution in the environment. Here, we review the mechanism of absorption, translocation, storage, detoxification, and regulation of Cr in plants. The Cr(VI) form is more soluble, mobile, and toxic than Cr(III), reflecting how various valence states of Cr affect environmental risk characteristics, physicochemical properties, toxicity, and plant uptake. Plant root's response to Cr exposure leads to reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and apoptosis. Cell wall immobilization, vacuole compartmentation, interaction of defense proteins and organic ligand with Cr, and removal of reactive oxygen species by antioxidants continue plant life. In addition, the combined application of microorganisms, genetic engineering, and the addition of organic acids, nanoparticles, fertilization, soil amendments, and other metals could accelerate the phytoremediation process. This review provides efficient methods to investigate and understand the complex changes of Cr metabolism in plants. Preferably, fast-growing, abundantly available biomass species should be modified to mitigate Cr pollution in the environment as these green and efficient remediation technologies are necessary for the protection of soil and water ecology.

Efficacy of zinc-based nanoparticles in alleviating the abiotic stress in plants: current knowledge and future perspectives

Due to sessile, plants are unable to avoid unfavorable environmental conditions which leads to inducing serious negative effects on plant growth, crop yield, and food safety. Instead, various approaches were employed to mitigate the phytotoxicity of these emerging contaminants from the soil-plant system. However, recent studies based on the exogenous application of ZnO NPs approve of their important positive potential for alleviating abiotic stress-induced phytotoxicity leads to ensuring global food security. In this review, we have comprehensively discussed the promising role of ZnO NPs as alone or in synergistic interactions with other plant growth regulators (PGRs) in the mitigation of various abiotic stresses, i.e., heavy metals (HMs), drought, salinity, cold and high temperatures from different crops. ZnO NPs have stress-alleviating effects by regulating various functionalities by improving plant growth and development. ZnO NPs are reported to improve plant growth by stimulating diverse alterations at morphological, physiological, biochemical, and ultrastructural levels under abiotic stress factors. We have explained the recent advances and pointed out research gaps in studies conducted in earlier years with future recommendations. Thus, in this review, we have also addressed the opportunities and challenges together with aims to uplift future studies toward effective applications of ZnO NPs in stress management.

Comparative physiological and metabolomics analyses using Ag⎯NPs and HAS31 (PGPR) to alleviate Cr stress in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

In the current industrial scenario, chromium (Cr) as a metal is of great importance but poses a major threat to the ecosystem because of its toxicity, but fewer studies have been conducted on its effects and alleviation strategies by using nanoparticles (NPs) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). Taking into consideration the positive effects of silver⎯nanoparticles (Ag⎯NPs) and (HAS31) rhizobacteria in reducing Cr toxicity in plants, the present study was conducted. A pot experiment was conducted to determine the effects of single and/or combined application of different levels [0 (no Ag⎯NPS), 15 and 30 mM] of Ag⎯NPs and HAS31 [0 (no HAS31), 50 g and 100 g] on Cr accumulation, morpho-physiological and antioxidative defense attributes of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) exposed to severe Cr stress [0 (without Cr stress), 50 and 100 μM)]. Results from the present study showed that the increasing levels of Cr in the soil significantly (P < 0.05) decreased plant growth and biomass, photosynthetic pigments, gas exchange attributes, sugars, and nutritional contents from the roots and shoots of the plants. In contrast, increasing levels of Cr in the soil significantly (P < 0.05) increased oxidative stress indicators in term of malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, and electrolyte leakage, and also increased organic acid exudation patter in the roots of H. vulgare. Although, the activities of enzymatic antioxidants and the response of their gene expressions in the roots and shoots of the plants and non-enzymatic such as phenolic, flavonoid, ascorbic acid, and anthocyanin contents were increased by increasing the Cr concentration in the soil. The negative impacts of Cr injury were reduced by the application of PGPR (HAS31) and Ag⎯NPs, which increased plant growth and biomass, improved photosynthetic apparatus, antioxidant enzymes, and mineral uptake, as well as diminished the exudation of organic acids and oxidative stress indicators in roots of H. vulgare by decreasing Cr toxicity. Research findings, therefore, suggest that the application of PGPR (HAS31) and Ag⎯NPs can ameliorate Cr toxicity in H. vulgare, resulting in improved plant growth and composition under metal stress, as depicted by balanced exudation of organic acids.

Seed priming with nano-silica effectively ameliorates chromium toxicity in Brassica napus

Plant yield is severely hampered by chromium (Cr) toxicity, affirming the urgent need to develop strategies to suppress its phyto-accumulation. Silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) have emerged as a provider of sustainable crop production and resistance to abiotic stress. But, the mechanisms by which seed-primed SiO2 NPs palliate Cr-accumulation and its toxic impacts in Brassica napus L. tissues remains poorly understood. To address this gap, present study examined the protective efficacy of seed priming with SiO2 NPs (400 mg/L) in relieving the Cr (200 µM) phytotoxicity mainly in B. napus seedlings. Results delineated that SiO2 NPs significantly declined the accumulation of Cr (38.7/35.9%), MDA (25.9/29.1%), H2O2 (27.04/36.9%) and O2• (30.02/34.7%) contents in leaves/roots, enhanced the nutrients acquisition, leading to improved photosynthetic performance and better plant growth. SiO2 NPs boosted the plant immunity by upregulating the transcripts of antioxidant (SOD, CAT, APX, GR) or defense-related genes (PAL, CAD, PPO, PAO and MT-1), GSH (assists Cr-vacuolar sequestration), and modifying the subcellular distribution (enhances Cr-proportion in cell wall), thereby confer tolerance to ultrastructural damages under Cr stress. Our first evidence to establish the Cr-detoxification by seed-primed SiO2 NPs in B. napus, indicated the potential of SiO2 NPs as stress-reducing agent for crops grown in Cr-contaminated areas.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles potentially regulate the mechanism(s) for photosynthetic attributes, genotoxicity, antioxidants defense machinery, and phytochelatins synthesis in relation to hexavalent chromium toxicity in Helianthus annuus L

Chromium (VI) is one of the hazardous heavy metal, heavily discharged into the soil and severely hampers the plants yield. The TiO₂ NPs was selected due to its potential to alleviate the heavy metals toxicity. This manuscript unravels the mechanisms for Cr(VI) induced toxicity and how foliar application of TiO₂ NP_S potentially ameliorate the toxicity by regulating the photosynthetic attributes, DNA damage, antioxidants defense machinery, and phytochelatins synthesis in Helianthus annuus L. Plants were exposed to Cr(VI) concentrations [0, 15, 30, and 60 mg Cr(VI) kg^-1 of soil], and TiO₂ NP_S (15 mg L^-1, 25 nm size₎ were foliar sprayed thrice to the plants at three days interval. The maximum accumulation of total chromium was recorded in root (12.53 µg g^-1 DW) followed by shoot (5.67 µg g^-1 DW) at 60 mg Cr(VI) treatment. The presence and localization of TiO₂ NPs inside the plant leaf cells were confirmed by TEM-EDS analysis. The results revealed that Cr(VI) exposure had a dose-dependent inhibitory effects on photosynthetic attributes, structure of guard and epidermal cells, photosynthetic pigments; inducing impacts on H₂O₂ and MDA productions, DNA damage, AsA-GSH cycle, and most importantly on PC₂, and PC₃ synthesis which is rarely reported. However, TiO₂ NPs exposure minimized Cr(VI) induced toxicity through reduction of total chromium accumulation, H₂O₂ and MDA productions, thereby reducing DNA damage reported first time under combined treatment of Cr(VI)+ TiO₂ NPs as evidenced through comet assay. It also positively regulate the photosynthetic pigments, AsA-GSH cycle, and modulates PC₂ and PC₃ synthesis which have crucial impacts on ROS quenching and Cr(VI) detoxification, respectively, and in turn, minimizes Cr(VI) toxicity in H. annuus L. Besides, this study strengthens the less acknowledged report that Cr(VI) is an inducer of PCs synthesis and also confirms that TiO₂ NPs potentially counteract Cr(VI) toxicity.

Application of silicon and sodium hydrosulfide alleviates arsenic toxicity by regulating the physio-biochemical and molecular mechanisms of Zea mays

Soil contamination with toxic heavy metals (such as arsenic (As)) is becoming a serious global problem due to rapid development of social economy, although the use of silicon (Si) and sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS) has been found effective in enhancing plant tolerance against biotic and abiotic stresses including the As toxicity. For this purpose, a pot experiment was conducted using the different levels of As toxicity in the soil, i.e., (0 mM (no As), 50, and 100 µM) which were also supplied with the different exogenous levels of Si, i.e., (0 (no Si), 1.5, and 3 mM) and also with the NaHS, i.e., (0 (no NaHS), 1, and 2 mM) on growth, photosynthetic pigments, gas exchange characteristics, oxidative stress biomarkers, antioxidant machinery (enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants), and their gene expression, ion uptake, organic acid exudation, and As uptake of maize (Zea mays L.). Results from the present study showed that the increasing levels of As in the soil significantly (P < 0.05) decreased plant growth and biomass, photosynthetic pigments, gas exchange attributes, sugars, and nutritional contents from the roots and shoots of the plants. In contrast, increasing levels of As in the soil significantly (P < 0.05) increased oxidative stress indicators in terms of malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, and electrolyte leakage and also increased organic acid exudation patter in the roots of Z. mays, although the activities of enzymatic antioxidants and the response of their gene expressions in the roots and shoots of the plants and non-enzymatic such as phenolic, flavonoid, ascorbic acid, and anthocyanin contents were initially increased with the exposure of 50 µM As, but decreased by the increasing the As concentration 100 µM in the soil. The negative impact of As toxicity can overcome the application of Si and NaHS, which ultimately increased plant growth and biomass by capturing the reactive oxygen species and decreased oxidative stress in Z. mays by decreasing the As contents in the roots and shoots of the plants. Our results also showed that the Si was more sever and showed better results when we compared with NaHS under the same treatment of As in the soil. Research findings, therefore, suggest that the combined application of Si and NaHS can ameliorate As toxicity in Z. mays, resulting in improved plant growth and composition under metal stress, as depicted by balanced exudation of organic acids.

Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) doping on the surface of CuO-NPs reduces the toxic effects of NPs on Lactuca sativa

CuO Nanoparticles (CuO NPs) retard the plant growth but at appropriate concentration boosts shoot growth and therefore may function as nano-carrier or nano-fertilizer. To overcome the toxic effects, NPs can be capped with plant growth regulators. In this work, CuO-NPs (30 nm) were synthesized as the carrier and capped with indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) to generate CuO-IAA NPs (30.4 nm) as toxicity mitigant molecules. Seedlings of dicots, Lactuca sativa L. (Lettuce) were exposed to 5, 10 mg Kg-1/ of NPs in the soil to analyze shoot length, fresh and dry weight of shoots, phytochemicals, and antioxidant response. Toxicity to shoot length was recorded at higher concentrations of CuO-NPs, however, a reduction in toxicity was observed for CuO-IAA nanocomposite. Concentration-dependent decrease in the biomass of plants was also observed at higher concentrations of CuO-NPs (10 mg/kg). The antioxidative phytochemicals (phenolics and flavonoids) and antioxidative response increased in plants when exposed to CuO-NPs. However, the presence of CuO-IAA NPs combats the toxic response and a significant decrease in non-enzymatic antioxidants and total antioxidative response and total reducing power potential was observed. The results demonstrate that CuO-NPs can be used as a carrier of hormones for the enhancement of plant biomass and IAA on the surface of NPs reduces the toxic effects on NPs.

Chromium Toxicity in Plants: Signaling, Mitigation, and Future Perspectives

Plants are very often confronted by different heavy metal (HM) stressors that adversely impair their growth and productivity. Among HMs, chromium (Cr) is one of the most prevalent toxic trace metals found in agricultural soils because of anthropogenic activities, lack of efficient treatment, and unregulated disposal. It has a huge detrimental impact on the physiological, biochemical, and molecular traits of crops, in addition to being carcinogenic to humans. In soil, Cr exists in different forms, including Cr (III) "trivalent" and Cr (VI) "hexavalent", but the most pervasive and severely hazardous form to the biota is Cr (VI). Despite extensive research on the effects of Cr stress, the exact molecular mechanisms of Cr sensing, uptake, translocation, phytotoxicity, transcript processing, translation, post-translational protein modifications, as well as plant defensive responses are still largely unknown. Even though plants lack a Cr transporter system, it is efficiently accumulated and transported by other essential ion transporters, hence posing a serious challenge to the development of Cr-tolerant cultivars. In this review, we discuss Cr toxicity in plants, signaling perception, and transduction. Further, we highlight various mitigation processes for Cr toxicity in plants, such as microbial, chemical, and nano-based priming. We also discuss the biotechnological advancements in mitigating Cr toxicity in plants using plant and microbiome engineering approaches. Additionally, we also highlight the role of molecular breeding in mitigating Cr toxicity in sustainable agriculture. Finally, some conclusions are drawn along with potential directions for future research in order to better comprehend Cr signaling pathways and its mitigation in sustainable agriculture.

Influence of polyvinyl chloride microplastic on chromium uptake and toxicity in sweet potato

The extensive use of plastic products and rapid industrialization have created a universal concern about microplastics (MPs). MPs can pose serious environmental risks when combined with heavy metals. However, current research on the combined effects of MPs and hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] on plants is insufficient. Herein, a 14-day hydroponic experiment was conducted to investigate the impact of PVC MPs (100 and 200 mg/L) and Cr(VI) (5, 10, and 20 μM) alone and in combination on sweet potato. Results showed that combined Cr(VI) and PVC MPs affected plant growth parameters significantly, but PVC MPs alone did not. The combined application of PVC MPs and Cr(VI) resulted in a decrease in plant height (24-65%), fresh biomass per plant (36-71%), and chlorophyll content (16-34%). Cr(VI) bioaccumulation increased with the increase in its doses, with the highest concentration of Cr(VI) in the leaves (16.45 mg/kg), stems (13.81 mg/kg), and roots (236.65 mg/kg). Cr(VI) and PVC MPs-induced inhibition varied with Cr(VI) and PVC MPs doses. Osmolytes and antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, and H₂O₂ contents were significantly increased, while antioxidant enzymes except CAT were decreased with increasing Cr(VI) concentration alone and mixed treatments. The presence of PVC MPs promoted Cr(VI) accumulation in sweet potato plants, which clearly showed severe toxic effects on their physio-biochemical characteristics, as indicated by a negative correlation between Cr(VI) concentration and these parameters. PVC MPs alone did not significantly inhibit these parameters. The findings of this study provide valuable implications for the proper management of PVC MPs and Cr(VI) in sweet potato plants.

Combined application of plant growth-promoting bacteria and iron oxide nanoparticles ameliorates the toxic effects of arsenic in Ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi L.)

Soil contamination with toxic heavy metals [such as arsenic (As)] is becoming a serious global problem because of the rapid development of the social economy. Although plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) and nanoparticles (NPs) are the major protectants to alleviate metal toxicity, the study of these chemicals in combination to ameliorate the toxic effects of As is limited. Therefore, the present study was conducted to investigate the combined effects of different levels of Providencia vermicola (5 ppm and 10 ppm) and iron oxide nanoparticles (FeO-NPs) (50 mg/l^-1 and 100 mg/l^-1) on plant growth and biomass, photosynthetic pigments, gas exchange attributes, oxidative stress and response of antioxidant compounds (enzymatic and non-enzymatic), and their specific gene expression, sugars, nutritional status of the plant, organic acid exudation pattern As accumulation from the different parts of the plants, and electron microscopy under the soil, which was spiked with different levels of As [0 μM (i.e., no As), 50 μM, and 100 μM] in Ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi L.) seedlings. Results from the present study showed that the increasing levels of As in the soil significantly (p< 0.05) decreased plant growth and biomass, photosynthetic pigments, gas exchange attributes, sugars, and nutritional contents from the roots and shoots of the plants, and destroyed the ultra-structure of membrane-bound organelles. In contrast, increasing levels of As in the soil significantly (p< 0.05) increased oxidative stress indicators in term of malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, and electrolyte leakage, and also increased organic acid exudation patter in the roots of T. ammi seedlings. The negative impact of As toxicity can overcome the application of PGPB (P. vermicola) and FeO-NPs, which ultimately increased plant growth and biomass by capturing the reactive oxygen species, and decreased oxidative stress in T. ammi seedlings by decreasing the As contents in the roots and shoots of the plants. Our results also showed that the FeO-NPs were more sever and showed better results when we compared with PGPB (P. vermicola) under the same treatment of As in the soil. Research findings, therefore, suggest that the combined application of P. vermicola and FeO-NPs can ameliorate As toxicity in T. ammi seedlings, resulting in improved plant growth and composition under metal stress, as depicted by balanced exudation of organic acids.

Sensitivity of Zea mays and Soil Microorganisms to the Toxic Effect of Chromium (VI)

Chromium is used in many settings, and hence, it can easily enter the natural environment. It exists in several oxidation states. In soil, depending on its oxidation-reduction potential, it can occur in bivalent, trivalent or hexavalent forms. Hexavalent chromium compounds are cancerogenic to humans. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of Cr(VI) on the structure of bacteria and fungi in soil, to find out how this effect is modified by humic acids and to determine the response of Zea mays to this form of chromium. A pot experiment was conducted to answer the above questions. Zea mays was sown in natural soil and soil polluted with Cr(VI) in an amount of 60 mg kg-1 d.m. Both soils were treated with humic acids in the form of HumiAgra preparation. The ecophysiological and genetic diversity of bacteria and fungi was assayed in soil under maize (not sown with Zea mays). In addition, the following were determined: yield of maize, greenness index, index of tolerance to chromium, translocation index and accumulation of chromium in the plant. It has been determined that Cr(VI) significantly distorts the growth and development of Zea mays, while humic acids completely neutralize its toxic effect on the plant. This element had an adverse effect on the development of bacteria of the genera Cellulosimicrobium, Kaistobacter, Rhodanobacter, Rhodoplanes and Nocardioides and fungi of the genera Chaetomium and Humicola. Soil contamination with Cr(VI) significantly diminished the genetic diversity and richness of bacteria and the ecophysiological diversity of fungi. The negative impact of Cr(VI) on the diversity of bacteria and fungi was mollified by Zea mays and the application of humic acids.