Higher moisture content is associated with greater emissions of DEHP from PVC wallpaper

How indoor decoration materials contribute to phthalates pollution: Uncovering occurrences, sources, and their implications for environmental burdens in households

Phthalate acid esters (PAEs), widely used as plasticizers in decoration materials, are significant indoor pollutants. However, research on their potential environmental impact in indoor settings remains limited. In this study, nine PAEs were determined in 177 decoration materials (41 furniture panels, 42 flooring, 52 wall coverings, and 42 paint and coatings) collected from China. PAEs were detectable in all materials, with total concentrations ranging from 261 ng/g to 4480,000 ng/g. Furniture panels and paint and coatings exhibited the highest levels. DEHP was the most abundant PAE in furniture panels and flooring, while DMP and DBP were dominant in wall coverings and paint and coatings. Principal component analysis indicated that polyvinyl chloride films, solvents, adhesives, and coatings are major sources of PAEs. The study also estimated the total PAE burdens in Chinese households, which ranged from 5.33 × 109 to 5.95 × 1012 ng. Regional variations in PAE burdens were significant (p < 0.05), with households in Southwest China experiencing the highest burdens. The type of decoration material, housing area, number of rooms, household income, and renovation budget were found to significantly influence PAE burdens. This study is the first to systematically evaluate the PAE burdens associated with decoration materials in Chinese households on a national scale, providing valuable insights into their presence and impact on daily life.

Estimate of the maximum amount of dust adhering to skin and the upper limit of dust-skin adherence factor for young adults: An example from Changchun, China

Contaminants present in dust adhering to the skin can pose a significant risk to human health through dermal absorption and hand-to-mouth contact. The adhesion capacity of dust differs significantly from that of soil due to its physicochemical properties. Therefore, applying the raw soil exposure parameters to estimate the health risks associated with dermal exposure to dust may lead to erroneous conclusions. In this study, we quantified the maximum amount of dust that adhered to the skin (MADmax) and the upper limit of dust-skin adherence factor (DSAFmax) in 26 adults using element markers as a proxy for dust. The volunteers were exposed to dust and rinse water samples were collected from their hands, forearms, lower legs, and feet. We analyzed both the raw dust samples and the rinse water samples for 11 element markers, including Be, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Ba, and Pb. The results showed that the MADmax of indoor dust and outdoor dust increased by 0.08-0.62 mg and 0.33-0.56 mg following a 1 cm2 increase in skin surface area, respectively. Based on best dust element markers, the body part-weighted dust-skin adherences (WDSAFmaxs) of indoor dust and outdoor dust were 0.35 and 0.64 mg/cm2, respectively. A smaller particle size and higher moisture content resulted in a larger DSAFmax. Only when indoor dust concentrations exceed 24.2 mg/m3 or outdoor dust concentrations exceed 44.3 mg/m3, can the WDSAFmax be applied directly in the health risk assessment of dermal exposure to dust. The method from this study can be re-applied in different regions, and the adherence data can help to improve future studies on the health effects of dermal exposure to dust.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbon thin film layers on glass, dust, and polyurethane foam surfaces

An investigation was conducted into the dynamic behavior of two polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) semi-volatile organic compound (SVOC) naphthalene (NAP) and benzo [ghi]perylene (BghiP) in air and on various surfaces including glass, dust, and polyurethane foam (PUF) to understand their interaction with different media. A confocal fluorescence microscope and an infrared microscope were employed to detect and monitor the concentration-, time-, and temperature-dependent changes of the aromatic NAP and BghiP species on the surfaces. Infrared two-dimensional mapping of the vibrational characteristic peaks was used to track the two PAHs on the surfaces. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was employed to measure the gaseous concentrations. The sorption of NAP and BghiP on the surfaces was estimated using Arizona desert sand fine (ISO 12103-1 A2) dust and organic contaminant household (SRM 2585) dust. The surface-to-air partition coefficients of NAP and BghiP were estimated on the different surfaces of glass, dust, and PUF. Molecular dynamic simulations were performed on dust surfaces based on the Hatcher model to understand the behavior of NAP and BghiP on dust surfaces. The Weschler-Nazaroff model was introduced to predictPAH film accumulation on the surfaces, providing a better understanding of PAH interaction with different environmental media. These findings could contribute to developing effective strategies to mitigate the adverse impact of PAHs on the environment and human health.

Associations of urinary phthalate metabolites with household environments among mothers and their preschool-age children

Phthalates have become a matter of public health concern due to their extensive use worldwide and negative health effects. The evaluation of potential sources of phthalate exposure is crucial to design prevention strategies, especially for vulnerable populations. This study included 528 mother-child pairs in the Taiwan Mother Infant Cohort Study who were followed up at ages 3-6 years between 2016 and 2020. Each mother was interviewed by using a structured questionnaire containing questions on demographic characteristics and household environment factors, such as the use of plastic food packaging, residential visible mold, insecticide sprays, and electric mosquito repellents. Eleven phthalate metabolites were analyzed in urine samples simultaneously collected from the mother-child pairs. The phthalate metabolite urinary concentrations were higher among the children than among their mothers, except those of mono-ethyl phthalate (MEP) and mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP). Multiple linear regression analyses showed that urine samples collected during the summer showed higher concentrations of phthalate metabolites than those collected during the winter. Family income levels had negative associations with the concentrations of MnBP and metabolites of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) in children. The use of plastic food packaging was positively associated with mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP) and metabolites of DEHP in mothers. Residential visible mold or mold stains were significantly associated with higher MnBP and DEHP metabolite concentrations in children. The use of insecticide sprays was positively associated with MnBP concentrations in children. Significant associations between household environmental factors and phthalate exposure were mostly found in children, potentially indicating different exposure pathways between mothers and their children. Findings from this study provide additional information for the design of prevention strategies to protect the health of children and women.

Gas-phase and PM2.5-bound phthalates in nail salons: characteristics, exposure via inhalation, and influencing factors

This study aimed to investigate the characteristics of, exposure to, and factors influencing gas-phase and PM_2.5-bound phthalates (PAEs) in nail salons. Data on both indoor and outdoor gas-phase and PM_2.5-bound PAEs, carbon dioxide (CO₂), temperature, and relative humidity were collected in nail salons. We also used questionnaires to survey building characteristics and occupants' behaviors. The average total gas-phase and PM_2.5-bound PAE concentrations indoors were higher than those outdoors by 6 and 3 times, respectively. Diethyl phthalate, diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) were the predominant compounds among both the gas-phase and PM_2.5-bound PAEs in indoor air. The volume of the salon's space or the difference of indoor and outdoor CO₂ concentrations (dCO₂) was significantly associated with indoor PAE concentrations. The ratios of PM_2.5-bound to gas-phase PAEs, especially high-molecular-weight PAEs, were positively associated with the dCO₂ concentrations. Higher ratios of indoor to outdoor PM_2.5-bound DiBP, DnBP, and DEHP concentrations were discovered when more clients visited each day. Building characteristics, ventilation conditions, and occupants' activities have influences on the gas-phase and particle-phase PAEs. The study identifies the characteristics of gas-phase and PM_2.5-bound PAEs in nail salons and their influencing factors.

Impact of mold growth on di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate emission from moist wallpaper

Flood damage can increase indoor concentrations of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and molds in households with wallpaper. Wallpaper water content can affect its DEHP emission into indoor environments; however, the influence of mold growth on this DEHP emission remains unclear. Here, we evaluated whether mold growth affects DEHP emission from moist wallpaper (moist WP). Experiments were conducted in glass chambers with wallpaper containing 12.7% (w/w) DEHP and a dust tray sample system at approximately 28 °C and 100% relative humidity (RH). The experimental groups were (1) moist WP, (2) moist WP + Aspergillus versicolor (AV), (3) moist WP + Cladosporium cladosporioides, (4) moist WP + Penicillium chrysogenum, and (5) moist WP + mold mixture. Mold growth on the wallpaper and DEHP emission into air and onto dust were analyzed at nine time-points over 30 days. Initially, the moist WP group emitted relatively high concentrations of DEHP into air, but after at least 8 days, the concentration of DEHP emitted by the mold-added groups exceeded that of the moist WP group. DEHP emission onto dust, especially from the moist WP group, increased considerably at day 15. During the experimental period, the moist WP (13.63 ± 4.67 μg) and moist WP + AV (13.93 ± 0.49 μg) groups emitted higher cumulative amounts of DEHP onto dust. During the 30-day experimental period, obvious mold growth occurred over days 15–30. Moreover, the moist WP group exhibited relatively higher and lower cumulative DEHP emission into air than the mold-added groups during days 2–10 (2.71 vs. 1.94–2.94 μg) and 15–30 (1.16 vs. 1.61–2.12), respectively; a contrasting trend was observed for cumulative DEHP emission onto dust. In conclusion, mold growth affects DEHP emission from water-damaged wallpaper, and the removal or cleaning of wet wallpaper, particularly those with visible mold growth, is critical from a public health perspective.

Phthalates mixture on allergies and oxidative stress biomarkers among children: The Hokkaido study

BACKGROUND

Exposure to individual phthalates and the mediation effect of oxidative stress in association with asthma and allergic symptoms have been studied previously. Little is known about the mixture effect of phthalates on health outcomes. Thus, we investigated the effect of a mixture of ten phthalate metabolites in association with wheeze, rhino-conjunctivitis, and eczema. The mediating effect of three oxidative stress biomarkers was also assessed.

METHODS

Levels of 10 phthalate metabolites and 3 oxidative stress biomarkers were measured in 386 urine samples from 7-year-old children. Parents reported demographic and allergic symptoms using ISAAC questionnaires. Logistic regression for individual metabolites and mixture analysis weighted quantile sum (WQS) and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) were fitted to examine the association between phthalate metabolite exposure and health outcomes. Baron and Kenny's regression approach was used for mediation analysis.

RESULTS

In logistic regression model showed mono (2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP) (OR = 1.41, 95% CI 1.02-1.97) and mono carboxy-isononyl phthalate (cx-MINP) (OR = 1.40, 95% CI 1.07-1.86) were associated with wheeze. The WQS index had a significant association (OR = 1.46, 95% CI 1.09-1.96) with wheeze and (OR = 1.40, 95% CI 1.07-1.82) with eczema. Mono-isononyl phthalate (MINP) and mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP) were the most highly weighted metabolites. In the BKMR model, diisononyl phthalate (DINP) metabolites showed the highest group posterior inclusion probability (PIP). Among DINP metabolites, MINP in wheeze, cx-MINP in rhino-conjunctivitis and OH-MINP in eczema showed the highest conditional PIPs. The overall metabolites mixture effect was associated with eczema. We did not find any mediation of oxidative stress in the association between phthalates and symptoms. No significant association between phthalate metabolites and oxidative stress was observed in this study.

CONCLUSION

Mixture of phthalate metabolites were associated with wheeze and eczema. The main contributors to the association were DEHP and DINP metabolites. No mediation of oxidative stress was observed.

Analysis and health risk assessment of phthalate esters (PAEs) in indoor dust of preschool and elementary school centers in city of Tehran, Iran

Individuals spend a lot of time indoors; thus they are generally exposed to phthalates used in consumer products. Therefore, those exposed to phthalates as indoor contaminants are at high risks. The present study was conducted to evaluate the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic hazard of phthalate esters (PAEs), like dimethyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, di(nbutyl) phthalate, butyl benzyl phthalate, dioctyl phthalate, and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in the dust obtained from 21 schools in Tehran, in 2019. A total of 63 indoor dust specimens were obtained by a vacuum cleaner. After transferring dust samples to the laboratory, 100 mg of each sample was centrifuged and mixed with 20 ml acetone and kept through a night and ultrasonicated within 30 min. Eventually, PAEs' contents were measured via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Based on the findings, median concentrations of DMP, DEP, DnBP, BBP, DEHP, and DnOP were 0.90, 0.10, 6.0, 0.20, 118.30, and 4.10 mg kg^-1 respectively. Moreover, the overall average daily exposure doses (ADD) of phthalate esters via dust ingestion, skin contact, and inhalation were 1.56E-03, 1.70E-06, and 1.56E-07 mg kg^-1 day^-1, respectively, and the lifetime average daily exposure doses (LADD) were 1.83E-04, 2.34E-08, and 2.46E-08 mg kg^-1 day^-1, respectively; thus ingestion of dust particles was found to be the main pathway of exposure to phthalate for non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks. Although based on the results, the studied samples were below the US Environmental Protection Agency threshold of 1.00E-06, due to the disadvantages of phthalates in human safety, these kinds of investigations are helpful in understanding the main ways of exposure to PAEs and providing a science-based framework for the future attempts for mitigating the PAEs indoor emissions.

Production, Use, and Fate of Phthalic Acid Esters for Polyvinyl Chloride Products in China

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are the most common plasticizers, approximately 90% of which are used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) products, but they are also endocrine disruptors that have attracted considerable attention. The metabolism of PAEs in PVC products in China from 1958 to 2019 was studied using dynamic material flow analysis. The results showed that the total consumption of PAEs was 29.2 Mt in the past 60 years. By 2019, the in-use stocks of PAEs were 5.0 Mt. Construction materials were always in the leading position with respect to the consumption and in-use stocks of PAEs. A total PAE loss of 22.7 Mt was generated, of which 68.0% remained in waste distributed in landfills (50.1%), storage sites (5.5%), the environment (44.4%), 12.4% was eliminated during waste incineration and open burning, and 19.6% was emitted into the environment. From 1958 to 2019, 496.4, 55.6, and 3905.0 kt of PAEs were emitted into water, air, and soil, respectively. The use and waste treatment stages contributed 79.3 and 19.9% of the emissions of PAEs in the life cycle, respectively. This study systematically analyzed the metabolism of PAEs at the national level over a long-time span, providing useful information on the life cycle management of PAEs.

Air Phthalate Emitted from Flooring Building Material by the Micro-Chamber Method: Two-Stage Emission Evaluation and Comparison

The phthalate and semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) are modern chemical substances and extensively existing in the indoor environment. The European Commission stipulated the "European Unified Test Criteria", since 2011, for the declared specifications of building products (CEN/TS 16516), based on the "lowest concentrations of interest (LCI)", the index pollutants, test method, and emission standard of "phthalate" and "SVOC" were specified in detail. The purpose of this study is to use six common indoor floor construction products in Taiwan (regenerated pseudoplastic rubber flooring, healthy pseudoplastic imitation wood floor, regenerated pseudoplastic rubber flooring, PVC floor tile/floor, plastic click floor, composite floor covered with carpet) to detect the changes in the concentration of phthalate emitted to the air. The ISO 16000-25 Indoor air-Part 25: Determination of the emission of semi-volatile organic compounds by building products-micro-chamber method is used to build a DS-BMEMC (glass micro-chamber: volume 630 mL), the SVOC, including phthalate, is collected in two stages, in the stable conditions of temperature 25 °C, relative humidity 50% and air change rate 2 times/h, the Stage 1 emission detection experiment (24 h) is performed, and then the Stage 2 heating-up desorption emission detection experiment (40 min air sampling) is performed, the temperature rises to 200-220 °C, the phthalate and SVOC adsorbed on the glass micro-chamber is desorbed at a high temperature to catch the air substances, the air is caught by Tenax^®-TA and Florisil^® adsorption tube, and then the GC/MS and LC/MSMS analysis methods are used for qualitative and emission concentration analyses of SVOC of two-stage emission, respectively. The findings show that the floor construction materials emit nine phthalate SVOCs: DEHP, DINP, DNOP, DIDP, BBP, DBP, DIBP, DEP, and DMP, the two-stage emission concentrations are different, Stage 1 (normal temperature) emission concentration of six floor construction materials is 0.01-1.2% of Stage 2 (high temperature) emission concentration, meaning the phthalate SVOC of floor construction materials is unlikely to be volatilized or emitted at normal temperature. An interesting finding is that only S3 was detected DINP 72.6 (μg/m³) in stage 1. Others were detected DINP in stage 2. This might be because S3 has carpet on the surface. This implies that floor material with carpet may have an emission of DINP at normal temperature. The result of this study refers to the limited value evaluation of EU structural material standard emission TSVOC ≤ 0.1 ug/m³, the floor building material emissions are much higher than the evaluation criteria, increasing the health risk of users. The detection method and baseline can be used as the standard for controlling the emission of phthalate SVOC of Taiwan's green building material labeling system in the future.

Emergency room visits for childhood atopic dermatitis are associated with floods?

Floods are known to increase the level of allergens such as molds in the environments. Under climate change, the frequency of floods could be increased, which highlights the importance of understanding the impacts of floods on atopic diseases. However, there was a lack of studies. This study examines whether floods induce attacks of childhood atopic dermatitis (AD). A retrospective population-based study was conducted in Taiwan Island using Taiwan's National Health Insurance Research Database. Emergency room (ER) visits for AD were identified among children aged 0-12 years. Weekly data of flood occurrence, number of flood sites, temperature, and air pollution were obtained for each township of the identified cases. A time-stratified case-crossover design was used. The relationship between ER visits for AD and floods was assessed by conditional logistic regression, adjusting for weekly mean temperature, PM_2.5 and NO₂. There were a total of 55,488 ER visits due to AD during the study period. Such visits increased when flood occurred, and then declined. The effects of floods at the week of flood remained robust, with OR of 1.14 (95% CI = 1.01-1.28) for flood occurrence and 1.31 (95% CI = 1.10-1.55) for the number of flood sites, after adjusting for covariates. Such effects were slightly higher in boys and children aged 1-12 years. This study demonstrated the impact of floods on flare-up of childhood AD, and the effect was most prominently at the week of flood. Healthcare workers should be alarmed for potential increase of AD flare ups after flood events.

Secular trends of urinary phthalate metabolites in 7-year old children and association with building characteristics: Hokkaido study on environment and children's health

The widespread commercial production and use of phthalates as plasticizers in consumer products have led to significant human exposure. Some phthalates are known to disrupt the endocrine system and result in adverse health outcomes. As such, they have been regulated in materials used for children's items and food packages. In this study, we examined the secular trend of urinary phthalate metabolites in children and the association between metabolites and building characteristics. In total, 400 first-morning spot urine samples of 7 years old children collected from 2012 to 2017 from an ongoing birth cohort study were examined. Parents provided information on demographics and building questionnaires. We analyzed 10 urinary phthalate metabolites from five phthalate diesters using ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS): MiBP, MnBP, MBzP, MEHP, MEOHP, MEHHP, MECPP, MiNP, OH-MiNP, and cx-MiNP. A multivariable regression model with creatinine-corrected metabolite levels was applied to assess secular trends during 2012-2017. The association between metabolite levels and building characteristics was investigated using a mutual-adjusted linear regression. The metabolites MnBP, MEHP, MEOHP, MEHHP, MECPP, and OH-MiNP were detected in all samples. The highest median concentration was for MECPP 37.4 ng/mL, followed by MnBP and MEHHP at concentrations of 36.8 and 25.8 ng/mL, respectively. Overall, DBP, BBzP, and DINP metabolite concentrations in this study were comparable to or lower than those in previous studies from Japan and other countries in a similar study period. Higher concentrations of DEHP metabolites were observed in this study than in children from the USA and Germany, as per previous reports. Despite updated phthalate regulations and reports of production volume change in Japan, all the measured metabolites showed a stable trend between 2012 and 2017. Higher phthalate metabolite levels were observed among children from households with low annual income, those who lived in old buildings, and those with window opening habits of ≥1 h than ≤1 h. In contrast, children in houses that vacuumed 4 or more days/week showed a lower level of MnBP than those in houses that vacuumed ≤3 days/week. This study demonstrates that the internal exposure level of phthalates in Japanese children was stable from 2012 to 2017. Our findings suggest that phthalate exposure in children is consistent. Thus, improvements in the indoor environment, such as frequent vacuuming, may reduce exposure. Biomonitoring of phthalates is critical for elucidating their possible health effects and developing mitigation strategies.

Quantification of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate released by medical devices during respiratory assistance and estimation of patient exposure

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) migration from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has been studied with infusion, transfusion and extracorporeal oxygenation devices, but no study has been conducted to estimate its migration via respiratory medical devices (MDs). This work aims to develop an ex vivo model to quantify DEHP released doses by these MDs, which will then be used to estimate newborns DEHP exposure from respiratory assistance MDs. We followed the Frensh National Research and Safety Institute (INRS) recommendations for the validation of a collecting and analysing method of DEHP in air, which will be used to quantify DEHP in air passing through PVC respiratory assistance MDs. The developed method met all the validation criteria for DEHP determination in air. DEHP in air passing through MDs on the sixth day reached a cumulative quantity of 122.86 μg when using a flow rate of 4 L min^-1 of non-humidified air while it was of 49.22 μg; 58.12 μg and 29.61 μg with flow rates of 2 L min^-1 of humidified air, 2 L min^-1 of dry air and 4 L min^-1 of humidified air, respectively. Model application to two patients undergoing two different respiratory procedure demonstrated that noninvasive ventilation patient received higher dose of inhaled DEHP, confirmed by DEHP metabolites quantification in urine. Although the protective effect of air humidifiers on DEHP exposure was demonstrated, the effect of flow rate is difficult to be established. This developed method should be tested to verify its capacity to collect and quantify other plasticizers used in PVC MDs.

Associations of urinary di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites with the residential characteristics of pregnant women

Epidemiological evidence on the associations between urinary di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) metabolites and residential characteristics is limited. Therefore, we investigated the associations of urinary DEHP metabolites with the residential characteristics of pregnant women. We collected completed questionnaires and maternal spot urine samples from 616 random pregnant women in Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University in Shenyang. Urinary DEHP metabolites concentrations, including mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) and mono (2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP), were measured and analyzed by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Multivariable linear regression models were performed to obtain regression estimates (β) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) after adjustment for sociodemographic characteristics. In all participants, the geometric mean of MEHP and MEHHP concentrations were 4.25 ± 4.34 and 5.72 ± 2.65 μg/L, respectively. In multivariable analyses after adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, distance from residence to motor vehicle traffic (≥150 m versus <20 m) was negatively associated with MEHP (β = -0.241, 95% CI: -0.448, -0.033) and MEHHP (β = -0.279, 95% CI: -0.418, -0.140) concentrations. Compared with the one that had not recently been renovated, a renovated home was associated with higher MEHP (β = 0.194, 95% CI: 0.064, 0.324) and MEHHP (β = 0.111, 95% CI: 0.024, 0.197) concentrations. Air freshener use was associated with higher MEHP (β = 0.322, 95% CI: 0.007, 0.636) concentrations. Moldy walls were positively associated with MEHP (β = 0.299, 95% CI: 0.115, 0.482) and MEHHP (β = 0.172, 95% CI: 0.050, 0.294) concentrations. In contrast, humidifier use was associated with a lower MEHP concentration (β = -0.167, 95% CI: -0.302, -0.032). Residential characteristics were probably associated with the DEHP exposure of pregnant women in Shenyang. Living near the motor vehicle traffic, residential renovation, air freshener use, and moldy walls are likely risk factors for increased DEHP exposure, whereas using household humidifier could be considered a protective measure to reduce DEHP exposure.

Indoor phthalate concentrations in residences in Shihezi, China: implications for preschool children's exposure and risk assessment

Despite the risks associated with phthalate exposure, there are few studies emphasizing preschool children's exposure to phthalates in residences in Northwest China. In this study, seven phthalates from indoor dust samples were measured in 50 residences in Shihezi, China. Preschool children's exposure doses via non-dietary intake were calculated by Monte Carlo simulation. Risk assessment was conducted by comparing the simulated exposure dose with benchmarks for reproductive toxicity and cancer specified in Proposition 65 of California. The detection frequencies for all selected phthalates were more than 75%, with the exception of benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) and di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP). Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was the most principal compound in the dust samples (median = 455 μg/g and 462 μg/g in the bedroom and living room, respectively). The simulation displayed that the median DBP daily intake was 1.5-1.9 μg/day/kg for preschool children in Shihezi, which was considered a high level compared with similar studies around the world. The risk assessment indicated that almost all preschool children face potential reproductive risk due to dibutyl phthalate (DBP) exposure, with medians of hazard index (HI) from 9.6 to 12.4 for all age groups. Therefore, from a children's health perspective, attention should be paid to reducing indoor phthalate pollution and exposure in this area.

Concentration and factors affecting the distribution of phthalates in the air and dust: A global scenario

Phthalates are ubiquitously present environmental contaminants. Air and dust are the most important mediums of exposure to phthalates. The present study reviews the presence of phthalates in the air and dust reported from different countries in the last ten years (2007-2017). The phthalate concentrations revealed wide heterogeneity with a mean and median value 6 ± 19 μg/m³ and 0.5 μg/m³ respectively in the air and 1.5 × 10³ ± 2.2 × 10³ μg/g and 7.8x10²μg/g respectively in the dust. The highest phthalates levels in the air were reported from India (1.1 × 10² μg/m³) and in dust from Bulgaria (1.2 × 10⁴ μg/g). Overall higher levels were reported from developing countries as compared to developed countries. Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and Di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) were found to be predominant in both air and dust. Temperature, humidity, air exchange rate, building material and indoor maintenance were reported as the important factors influencing the levels of phthalates in the air and dust. In addition to policy level interventions, reducing the use of phthalate containing materials and controlling the factors which enhance the emission from existing sources can help in reducing human exposure to phthalates.

Synthesis of a novel environmental friendly plasticizer based on tung oil fatty acid for poly (vinyl chloride) blends

A novel environmental friendly plasticizer (TPE) derived from tung oil fatty acid with long fatty acid chain and high degree of branching was synthesized. Chemical structure of the obtained TPE was characterized with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and 1H NMR. TPE was used to prepare plasticized PVC blends as main plasticizer. Thermal stability, mechanical properties and migration resistance of poly (vinyl chloride) plasticized with TPE were investigated. The results showed that torque data of plasticized PVC blends reached 12.4 N·m when the mass of the TPE was 50 wt.%. TPE improved the thermal stability of PVC blends obviously than dioctyl phthalate (DOP). The leaching tests showed that PVC plasticized with TPE were with higher migration resistance than that of DOP. The excellent thermal stability and high migration resistance of PVC blends showed high application value for TPE.

Influence of indoor environmental factors on mass transfer parameters and concentrations of semi-volatile organic compounds

Semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in indoor environments can partition among the gas phase, airborne particles, settled dust, and available surfaces. The mass transfer parameters of SVOCs, such as the mass transfer coefficient and the partition coefficient, are influenced by indoor environmental factors. Subsequently, indoor SVOC concentrations and thus occupant exposure can vary depending on environmental factors. In this review, the influence of six environmental factors, i.e., indoor temperature, humidity, ventilation, airborne particle concentration, source loading factor, and reactive chemistry, on the mass transfer parameters and indoor concentrations of SVOCs was analyzed and tentatively quantified. The results show that all mass transfer parameters vary depending on environmental factors. These variations are mostly characterized by empirical equations, particularly for humidity. Theoretical calculations of these parameters based on mass transfer mechanisms are available only for the emission of SVOCs from source surfaces when airborne particles are not present. All mass transfer parameters depend on the temperature. Humidity influences the partition of SVOCs among different phases and is associated with phthalate hydrolysis. Ventilation has a combined effect with the airborne particle concentration on SVOC emission and their mass transfer among different phases. Indoor chemical reactions can produce or eliminate SVOCs slowly. To better model the dynamic SVOC concentration indoors, the present review suggests studying the combined effect of environmental factors in real indoor environments. Moreover, interactions between indoor environmental factors and human activities and their influence on SVOC mass transfer processes should be considered.

Characterization of phthalates exposure and risk for cosmetics and perfume sales clerks

High levels of phthalates in name-brand cosmetics products have raised concerns about phthalate exposure and the associated risk for cosmetics sales clerks. We assessed the exposure and risk of phthalates in 23 cosmetics, 4 perfume, and 9 clothing department store sales clerks. We collected 108 urine samples pre- and post-shift and analyzed for phthalate monoesters through liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. Phthalates in 32 air samples were collected and analyzed through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Demographic characteristics and information on the exposure scenarios were obtained through questionnaires. Principal component analysis, cluster and risk analysis were applied to identify the exposure profile and risk of phthalate. Median post-shift levels of urinary mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) and monomethyl phthalate (MMP) were significantly higher than the corresponding pre-shift levels in cosmetics group (53.3 vs. 30.9 μg/g-c for MEHP; 34.4 vs. 22.5 μg/g-c for MMP; both P < 0.05) and the post-shift levels of urinary MMP was significantly higher than the corresponding pre-shift levels in perfume group (26.6 vs. 14.9 μg/g-c, P < 0.05). Median levels of air diethyl phthalate (DEP) in cosmetics (1.77 μg/m³) and perfume (1.75 μg/m³) groups and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in perfume group (6.98 μg/m³) were higher than those in clothing group (DEP: 0.89; DEHP: 2.16 μg/m³). Over half of cosmetic (70%) and perfume sale clerks had exceeded cumulative risk of phthalate exposure for anti-androgenic effect. We concluded that cosmetic and perfume workers had increased risks of reproductive or hepatic effects for DBP and DEHP exposure. We suggest that not only inhalation but dermal exposure is important route of phthalate exposure for cosmetics and perfume workers.

Phthalate and non-phthalate plasticizers in indoor dust from childcare facilities, salons, and homes across the USA

The quality of indoor environment has received considerable attention owing to the declining outdoor human activities and the associated public health issues. The prolonged exposure of children in childcare facilities or the occupational exposure of adults to indoor environmental triggers can be a culprit of the pathophysiology of several commonly observed idiopathic syndromes. In this study, concentrations of potentially toxic plasticizers (phthalates as well as non-phthalates) were investigated in 28 dust samples collected from three different indoor environments across the USA. The mean concentrations of non-phthalate plasticizers [acetyl tri-n-butyl citrate (ATBC), di-(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA), and di-isobutyl adipate (DIBA)] were found at 0.51-880 μg/g for the first time in indoor dust samples from childcare facilities, homes, and salons across the USA. The observed concentrations of these replacement non-phthalate plasticizer were as high as di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, the most frequently detected phthalate plasticizer at highest concentration worldwide, in most of indoor dust samples. The estimated daily intakes of total phthalates (n = 7) by children and toddlers through indoor dust in childcare facilities were 1.6 times higher than the non-phthalate plasticizers (n = 3), whereas estimated daily intake of total non-phthalates for all age groups at homes were 1.9 times higher than the phthalate plasticizers. This study reveals, for the first time, a more elevated (∼3 folds) occupational intake of phthalate and non-phthalate plasticizers through the indoor dust at salons (214 and 285 ng/kg-bw/day, respectively) than at homes in the USA.