Acetaminophen-induced liver damage in mice: Effects of some medicinal plants on the oxidative defense system

Electrochemical methods for the determination of acetaminophen in biological matrices: A critical review in the clinical field

BACKGROUND

Paracetamol or acetaminophen (APAP), or acetaminophen, is a widely used medication for pain relief and fever reduction due to its analgesic and antipyretic properties. However, excessive APAP consumption can lead to severe hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity, posing overdose risks. Consequently, the development of analytical methods for an accurate and rapid detection of APAP in biological matrices is of great interest in the health-related fields. Electrochemical methods have emerged as efficient, cost-effective, and sensitive tools for APAP detection in biological samples. In the light of the reported insights, this review examines critically diverse electrochemical methods for PAR detection in different biological matrices, including serum, urine, oral fluid, and sweat.

RESULTS

The claimed benefits of chemically-modified electrodes towards the selective determination of paracetamol in such complex sample matrices are discussed. On the other hand, the possible use of unmodified carbon-based electrodes combined with flow methods is highlighted as an alternative that can find relevance in the analysis of biological fluids suspected of PAR overdose occurring in the forensic scenario. Furthermore, the details regarding the distinct techniques and working electrodes for APAP determination are presented, compared and discussed in separate sections for each biological sample (serum, urine, and oral fluid). Another aspect herein debated is the selective determination of APAP in the presence of electroactive drugs naturally found in biological samples, as uric acid, and ascorbic acid, are evaluated. In addition, we have discussed and emphasized the significance of matrix selection to ensure precise results, especially in potential overdose scenarios.

SIGNIFICANCE

This review article provides a critical discussion on the development of electroanalytical methods for biological fluids, with relevance to the fields of clinical analysis and forensics.

The ameliorative effect of methanol extract of Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) leaves on paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity in Wistar rats

Plants are a rich source of antioxidants that are produced naturally. Therefore, this study was aimed to evaluate the effect of the plant Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) in the attenuation of paracetamol (PCM) hepatotoxicity in Wistar rats. Twenty-four male albino Wistar rats weighing between 200 and 250 g were divided into four groups, with six rats each. Group 1 served as the control group, receiving just distilled water. Groups 2 and 3 received orally 250 mg/kg bwt/day PCM and 300 mg/kg bwt/day methanol extract of Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) leaves for two weeks, respectively. For group 4, the Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) leaf extract was pre-administered for 1 week before receiving 300 mg/kg bwt/day Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) leaves extract and 250 mg/kg bwt/day PCM for 2 weeks. As a marker of liver damage, serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) were measured. Liver tissue reduced glutathione (GSH) concentration, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), and catalase activities were utilized to determine antioxidant state, while malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration was employed as a lipid peroxidation indicator. When compared to the control group, the activities of serum AST, ALT, SOD, and MDA levels were considerably (p < 0.05) higher in the PCM group, although GSH level and GST and catalase activities were significantly lower. In comparison to the PCM group, co-administration of PCM with Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) extract decreased serum AST and ALT activities. This study shows that the leaf extracts of Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) protects Wistar rats' livers from PCM-induced oxidative stress by increasing antioxidant enzymes.

Quantitative analysis of nortriptyline's analgesic properties: a comparative systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to quantitatively analyse nortriptyline's analgesic potency, safety and tolerability.

DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

DATA SOURCES

The systematic search was conducted in Scopus, Web of Science and PubMed in February 2023.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA FOR SELECTING STUDIES

Clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of nortriptyline in reducing pain scores (open-label studies and comparisons of nortriptyline with placebo or other analgesics) in different pain types were included.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

The data extraction procedure and the screening phases were carried out based on predetermined eligibility criteria. To pool the data, the standardised mean difference (SMD) and standardised mean change (SMC) methods, along with random-effect and fixed-effect meta-analysis, were used. The risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Collaboration method, and the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation criteria were used to measure the certainty of the results.

RESULTS

14 of the initial 648 studies were eventually imported. Nortriptyline was reported to significantly reduce pain severity in chronic low back pain, painful symptoms in major depressive disorder, neuropathy, chronic pelvic pain and neuropathic corneal pain. However, it was not superior to placebo in fibromyalgia and knee osteoarthritis. In comparison to placebo and various alternative analgesics, the pooled SMD for lowering pain scores was 0.43 (0.23-0.64) and -0.18 (-0.39 to 0.03), respectively. In the pretreatment and post-treatment analyses, the pooled SMC was -1.20 (-1.48 to -0.93). Although constipation and xerostomia were the most commonly reported side effects, all references indicated that the adverse events were well tolerated at the administered dosages.

CONCLUSION

While nortriptyline is effective in some chronic pains, such as neuropathies, it lacks efficacy in some other chronic pains, such as fibromyalgia and osteoarthritis. Nortriptyline is well tolerated when administered in doses intended for its analgesic effects. Moreover, several studies suggested that the analgesic effects of nortriptyline are comparable to those of amitriptyline and gabapentin.

Surface engineering of carbon microspheres with nanoceria wrapped on MWCNTs: a dual electrocatalyst for simultaneous monitoring of molnupiravir and paracetamol

In the present study, nanoceria-decorated MWCNTs (CeNPs@MWCNTs) were synthesized using a simple and inexpensive process. Molnupiravir (MPV) has gained considerable attention in recent years due to the infection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Since some people infected with COVID-19 experience fever and headaches, paracetamol (PCM) has been prescribed to relieve these symptoms. Therefore, there is an urgent need to monitor and detect these drugs simultaneously in pharmaceutical and biological samples. In this regard, we developed a novel sensor based on nanoceria-loaded MWCNTs (CeNPs@MWCNTs) for simultaneous monitoring of MPV and PCM. The incorporation of CeNPs@MWCNTs electrocatalyst into a glassy carbon microsphere fluorolube oil paste electrode (GCMFE) creates more active sites, which increase the surface area, electrocatalytic ability, and electron transfer efficiency. Interestingly, CeNPs@MWCNTs modified GCMFE demonstrated excellent detection limits (6.0 nM, 8.6 nM), linear ranges (5.0-5120 nM, 8.0-4162 nM), and sensitivities (78.6, 94.3 μA μM-1 cm-2) for simultaneous detection of MPV and PCM. The developed CeNPs@MWCNTs electrocatalyst modified GCMFE exhibited good repeatability, anti-interference capability, stability, and real-time analysis with good recovery results, which clearly indicates that it can be used for real-time industrial applications.

Sonochemical synthesis of lanthanum ferrite nanoparticle-decorated carbon nanotubes for simultaneous electrochemical determination of acetaminophen and dopamine

A new nanocomposite consisting of lanthanum ferrite nanoparticles (LaFeO3 NPs) integrated with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) was fabricated via facile sonochemical approach. The engineered nanocomposite was applied to simultaneously determine acetaminophen (ACP) and dopamine (DA) in a binary mixture. The LaFeO3 NPs@CNT probe possesses several advantages such as superior conductivity, large surface area, and more active sites, improving its electrocatalytic activity towards ACP and DA. Under optimized conditions, the anodic peak currents (Ipa) linearly increased with increasing concentration of ACP and DA in the range 0.069-210 µM and 0.15-210 µM, respectively. The sensitivity of LaFeO3 NPs@CNTs/glassy carbon electrode (GCE) for detecting ACP and DA is 7.456 and 5.980 μA·μM-1·cm-2, respectively. The detection limits (S/N = 3) for ACP and DA are 0.02 μM and 0.05 μM, respectively. Advantages of LaFeO3 NPs@CNTs/GCE for the detection of ACP and DA include wide linear ranges, low-detection limits, good selectivity, and long-term stability. The as-fabricated electrode was applied to determine ACP and DA in pharmaceutical formulations and human serum samples with recoveries ranging from 97.7 to 103.3% and an RSD that did not exceed 3.7%, confirming the suitability of the proposed sensor for the determination of ACP and DA in real samples. This study not only presents promising opportunities for enhancing the sensitivity and stability of electrochemical sensors used in the detection of bioanalytes but also significantly contributes to the progress of unique and comprehensive biochemical detection methodologies.

Concurrent administration of farnesol protects acetaminophen-induced acute hepatic necrosis in mice

Acetaminophen (APAP) is known to cause acute liver injury and acute liver failure in Western countries. This study investigates the protective role of farnesol (FAR) (C15 H26 O), a natural sesquiterpene alcohol in essential oils, against APAP-induced acute liver necrosis in mice. Mice were injected with a single dose of APAP (300 mg/kg) via an intraperitoneal route. Different groups of mice were concurrently treated with a single dose of FAR 25 mg/kg, FAR 50 mg/kg, and N-acetylcysteine. APAP administration caused a significant increase in transaminase activities and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the serum and liver tissue, respectively, with a concomitant decrease in intracellular antioxidants, including reduced glutathione (GSH) in the liver tissue. APAP intoxication upregulated proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and IκB kinase β in the liver tissue. FAR and N-acetylcysteine (NAC) administrations concurrently with APAP prevented serum transaminase increase in serum and MDA levels in the liver tissue. A high dose of FAR and NAC treatments significantly inhibited GSH and other antioxidant depletion. FAR and NAC treatments also downregulated the expression of proinflammatory markers. FAR treatments protects against APAP-induced acute liver injury and offers antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway involved in the transcription of genes responsible for inflammatory cytokine synthesis.

Improvement of Caciotta-like cheese nutritional value by means of enrichment with blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) and Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas)

Introduction

In this study, we supplemented models of Caciotta-like cheese with blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) and Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas), as they have a high content of polyphenols, known as phytochemicals associated with health benefits. We evaluated the microbial composition, organoleptic aspects, total phenolic content, and chemical composition of model cheeses enriched with blackcurrant and Cornelian cherry.

Methods

Two different suppliers have been tested: a conventional and an organic one. Two different conditions of preparation (freeze-dried and not freeze-dried) were tested in two different amounts (0.3 and 0.6% dry weight w/v milk volume). Polyphenols were determined using Folin-Ciocalteu reaction and spectrometry; microbial community was determined with selective 24 media and plate counts; composition was determined using nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry. Organoleptic tests with an untrained panel have been performed.

Results

The enrichments with blackcurrant and Cornelian cherry increased the total polyphenol content in model cheeses, in particular, when blackcurrant and Cornelian cherry were from conventional farming. Blackcurrant-enriched cheeses showed higher counts of lactic acid bacteria, higher levels of organic acids, amino acids, gamma-aminobutyric acid, histamine, and lower amount of monosaccharides deriving from bacterial lactose fermentation in cheese, suggesting a positive effect of blackcurrant compounds on the growth and activity of lactic acid bacteria. The enrichments did not affect the acceptance of the cheese, neither by blackcurrant nor by Cornelian cherry incorporation, with the exception of the appearance.

Discussion

Overall, we showed that cheeses enriched with blackcurrant or Cornelian cherry from conventional farming increased the bioactive potential of the dairy product without having an adverse effect on the microbial community, physiochemical properties, or organoleptic properties.

Role of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidants in Acquired Inner Ear Disorders

Oxygen metabolism in the mitochondria is essential for biological activity, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced simultaneously in the cell. Once an imbalance between ROS production and degradation (oxidative stress) occurs, cells are damaged. Sensory organs, especially those for hearing, are constantly exposed during daily life. Therefore, almost all mammalian species are liable to hearing loss depending on their environment. In the auditory pathway, hair cells, spiral ganglion cells, and the stria vascularis, where mitochondria are abundant, are the main targets of ROS. Excessive generation of ROS in auditory sensory organs is widely known to cause sensorineural hearing loss, and mitochondria-targeted antioxidants are candidates for treatment. This review focuses on the relationship between acquired hearing loss and antioxidant use to provide an overview of novel antioxidants, namely medicines, supplemental nutrients, and natural foods, based on clinical, animal, and cultured-cell studies.

Nitrogen-doped carbon@TiO2 double-shelled hollow spheres as an electrochemical sensor for simultaneous determination of dopamine and paracetamol in human serum and saliva

As the most commonly used antipyretic and analgesic drug, paracetamol (PA) coexists with neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) in real biological samples. Their simultaneous determination is extremely important for human health, but they also interfere with each other. In order to improve the conductivity, adsorption affinity, sensitivity, and selectivity of TiO2-based electrochemical sensor, N-doped carbon@TiO2 double-shelled hollow sphere (H-C/N@TiO2) is designed and synthesized by simple alcoholic and hydrothermal method, using polystyrene sphere (PS) as a template. Meanwhile, TiO2 hollow spheres (H-TiO2) or N-doped carbon hollow spheres (H-C/N) are also prepared by the same method. H-C/N@TiO2 has good conductivity, charge separation, and the highly enhanced and stable current responses for the detection of PA and DA. The detection limit and linear range are 50.0 nmol/L and 0.3-50 μmol/L for PA, 40.0 nmol/L and 0.3-50 μmol/L for DA, respectively, which are better than those of carbon-based sensors. Moreover, this electrochemical sensor, with high selectivity, strong anti-interference, high reliability, and long time durability, can be used for the simultaneous detection of PA and DA in human blood serum and saliva. The high electrochemical performance of H-C/N@TiO2 is attributed to the multi-functional combination of different layers, because of good conductivity, absorption and electrons transfer ability from in-situ N-doped carbon and electrocatalytic activity from TiO2.

Reversible inhibition of the oxidase-like activity of Fe single-atom nanozymes for drug detection

Mechanism research of nanozymes has always been of great interest since their emergence as outstanding mimics of friable natural enzymes. An important but rarely mentioned issue in mechanism research of nanozymology is the inhibitory effect of nanozymes. And conventional nanozymes with various active sites hinder the mechanism research, while single-atom Fe-N-C nanozymes with similar active sites to natural enzymes exhibit structural advantages. Herein, we synthesized Fe single-atom nanozymes (Fe-SANs) with ultrahigh oxidase-like activity and found that a common analgesic-antipyretic drug 4-acetamidophenol (AMP) had inhibitory effects for the oxidase-like activity of Fe-SANs. We investigated the inhibitory effects in detail and demonstrated that the inhibition type was reversible mixed-inhibition with inhibition constants (K i and ) of 0.431 mM and 0.279 mM, respectively. Furthermore, we put forward a colorimetric method for AMP detection based on nanozyme inhibition. The research on the inhibitory effects of small molecules on nanozymes expands the scope of analysis based on nanozymes and the inhibition mechanism study may offer some insight into investigating the interaction between nanozymes and inhibitors.

Extra Virgin Olive Oil Protects the Testis and Blood from the Toxicity of Paracetamol (Overdose) in Adult Male Rats

Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) is important in people's daily diets. Paracetamol is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic drug. The aim of this study is to investigate the protective effect of EVOO against hematotoxicity and testicular toxicity induced by paracetamol overdose in rats. Forty rats were divided into four groups. Group 1 rats were given water (control), Group 2 rats were given oral EVOO daily (2 mL/kg b.wt.), Group 3 rats were given oral paracetamol daily (650 mg/kg b.wt.), and Group 4 rats were given paracetamol and EVOO daily. After 15 days, blood and testis samples were collected for biochemical, histological, and ultrastructural studies. The results show that paracetamol decreased the PCV, Hb, and RBC counts relative to the control, and significantly increased the WBC counts and stab cells in Group 3. A significant decrease in blood testosterone was found in Group 3 compared to the control, while a significant increase in testosterone levels was observed in Group 4 compared to Group 3. Light and electron microscopy showed disorganized seminiferous tubules in Group 3. The testis in Group 4 appeared in normal shape. In conclusion, the results indicate that EVOO protects the testis and blood from paracetamol toxicity and may also increase fertility in male rats.

Quantum Chemical Studies and Electrochemical Investigations of Polymerized Brilliant Blue-Modified Carbon Paste Electrode for In Vitro Sensing of Pharmaceutical Samples

To develop an electrochemical sensor for electroactive molecules, the choice and prediction of redox reactive sites of the modifier play a critical role in establishing the sensing mediating mechanism. Therefore, to understand the mediating mechanism of the modifier, we used advanced density functional theory (DFT)-based quantum chemical modeling. A carbon paste electrode (CPE) was modified with electropolymerization of brilliant blue, later employed for the detection of paracetamol (PA) and folic acid (FA). PA is an analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic prescription commonly used in medical fields, and overdose or prolonged use may harm the liver and kidney. The deficiency of FA associated with neural tube defects (NTDs) and therefore the quantification of FA are very essential to prevent the problems associated with congenital deformities of the spinal column, skull and brain of the fetus in pregnant women. Hence, an electrochemical sensor based on a polymerized brilliant blue-modified carbon paste working electrode (BRB/CPE) was fabricated for the quantification of PA and FA in physiological pH. The real analytical applicability of the proposed sensor was judged by employing it in analysis of a pharmaceutical sample, and good recovery results were obtained. The potential excipients do not have a significant contribution to the electro-oxidation of PA at BRB/CPE, which makes it a promising electrochemical sensing platform. The real analytical applicability of the proposed method is valid for pharmaceutical analysis in the presence of possible excipients. The prediction of redox reactive sites of the modifier by advanced quantum chemical modeling-based DFT may lay a new foundation for researchers to establish the modifier–analyte interaction mechanisms.

Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth leaf extract inhibits rat brain and liver mitochondrial membrane permeability transition pore opening

The effect of Kigelia africana on mitochondrial membrane permeability transition has not been explored. In this study, the effect of a solvent fraction of Kigelia africana leaf extract on mitochondrial membrane permeability transition of rat brain and liver was evaluated. A methanol extract of K. africana leaves was fractionated into different solvents by vacuum liquid chromatography and following preliminary screening, the dichloromethane:ethylacetate (1:1) fraction was selected for further assays. Constituent phytochemicals in the fraction were revealed by thin-layer chromatography and further purification was carried out to characterize the compounds. Brain and liver mitochondria were isolated and used for mitochondrial membrane permeability transition and adenosine triphosphatase assays. Exogenous Ca²⁺ and Al³⁺ were used to trigger the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition opening. Physicochemical properties revealed by thin-layer chromatography showed that the isolated compounds were flavonoids. The extract inhibited mitochondrial membrane permeability transition opening in the presence and absence of triggering agents in brain and liver mitochondria. It also inhibited mitochondrial lipid peroxidation and adenosine triphosphatase activity. These results suggest that the extract can limit the rate of apoptosis via inhibition of mitochondrial membrane permeability transition which is pivotal to the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway and is an important therapeutic target in some pathological conditions.

Chemically modified carbon-based electrodes for the determination of paracetamol in drugs and biological samples

Paracetamol is a non-steroidal, anti-inflammatory drug widely used in pharmaceutical applications for its sturdy, antipyretic and analgesic action. However, an overdose of paracetamol can cause fulminant hepatic necrosis and other toxic effects. Thus, the development of advantageous analytical tools to detect and determine paracetamol is required. Due to simplicity, higher sensitivity and selectivity as well as costefficiency, electrochemical sensors were fully investigated in last decades. This review describes the advancements made in the development of electrochemical sensors for the paracetamol detection and quantification in pharmaceutical and biological samples. The progress made in electrochemical sensors for the selective detection of paracetamol in the last 10 years was examined, with a special focus on highly innovative features introduced by nanotechnology. As the literature is rather extensive, we tried to simplify this work by summarizing and grouping electrochemical sensors according to the by which manner their substrates were chemically modified and the analytical performances obtained.

Estrogen receptor agonists protect against acetaminophen-induced hepatorenal toxicity in rats

AIMS

Acetaminophen-induced hepatorenal toxicity varies among sexes with controversial results among species. The aim was to compare the impact of sex and ovarian hormones on hepatorenal toxicity and to elucidate protective effects of estrogen and estrogen receptor (ER) agonists.

MAIN METHODS

Under anesthesia, female rats underwent ovariectomy (OVX) or sham-OVX. Starting at postsurgical 40th day, OVX-rats received subcutaneously (each, 1 mg/kg/day) 17β-estradiol (E₂), ERβ-agonist (DPN) or ERα-agonist (PPT) for 10 days, while male and sham-OVX rats received vehicle for 10 days. Then, rats received either acetaminophen (3 g/kg) or saline by orogastric gavage and were decapitated at 24th h. Blood samples were obtained to measure serum ALT, AST, BUN, creatinine levels. Liver and kidney samples were obtained for histopathologic examination and for analyzing levels of luminol- and lucigenin-chemiluminescence, glutathione and myeloperoxidase activity.

KEY FINDINGS

Compared to their control groups, levels of AST, ALT, BUN, creatinine, hepatic and renal myeloperoxidase activity and chemiluminescence levels were increased, and hepatic glutathione level was decreased in acetaminophen-administered male groups, while ALT and hepatic chemiluminescence levels were not elevated in sham-OVX-rats. Both ER-agonists and E₂ reduced BUN, creatinine and reversed all oxidative parameters in renal tissues of OVX-rats. Additionally, ERα-agonist reversed all hepatic injury parameters, while ERβ-agonist elevated hepatic glutathione level.

SIGNIFICANCE

Acetaminophen toxicity in female rats presented with a more preserved hepatic function, while renal toxicity was not influenced by sex or by the lack of ovarian hormones. Pretreatment with estrogen or ER agonists, via their antioxidant actions, provided protective effects on acetaminophen-induced hepatorenal toxicity.

Toxicity of NSAID drug (paracetamol) to nontarget organism-Nostoc muscorum

Due to many folds increase in application of human and veterinary medicines, pharmaceuticals, a new category of pollutants, have emerged in our environment. They exist as residues in rivers, sewage effluents, streams, surface, ground, and potable water. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is one such drug that is used as an antipyretic and analgesic medicine. It is a non-steroidal antiinflammatory drug (NSAID) and is easily available in the market because no medical prescription is necessary for its purchase and use. Paracetamol remains physiologically active even after their expiry period. Their detection in the environment in bioactive form has resulted in adverse effects on nontarget species. To determine the effect of paracetamol on aquatic photosynthetic organic (Cyanobacteria-Nostoc muscorum), present study was performed. Paracetamol (25 mg/L, 50 mg/L, 75 mg/L, 100, 125, and 150 mg/L) exposure showed toxic responses on the test organism by generating oxidative stress (MDA, H₂O_2, O₂^.-). Paracetamol caused a significant decrease in growth of cyanobacteria and showed EC₅₀ 113.68 mg/L after the 6th day of treatment. Photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll, carotenoid, and phycobiliprotein) decreased with paracetamol increase. Antioxidant enzymatic (SOD, CAT, APX, GST, and GR) and osmolyte (Proline) also increased with increase in paracetamol to counteract the oxidative stress.

Potential Application of Tetrapleura tetraptera and Hibiscus sabdariffa (Malvaceae) in Designing Highly Flavoured and Bioactive Pito with Functional Properties

Sorghum beer (pito) is an indigenous alcoholic beverage peculiar to northern Ghana and parts of other West African countries. It is overwhelmed with calories, essential amino acids (such as lysine, etc.), B-group vitamins, and minerals. In recent years, there has been a growing demand for highly flavoured yet functional pito in Ghana; however, the local producers lack the prerequisite scientific expertise in designing such products. We propose the utilization of Tetrapleura tetraptera (TT) and Hibiscus sabdariffa (HS) as cheap and readily available materials in designing functional flavoured pito. The addition of TT and HS would not alter the fermentation profile but rather augment the starter with nutrients, thus improving the fermentation performance and shelf life of the final pito. In vitro and in vivo studies provide substantive evidence of antioxidant, nephro- and hepato-protective, renal/diuretic effect, anticholesterol, antidiabetic, and antihypertensive effects among others of the TT and HS, hence enriching the pito with health-promoting factors and consequently boosting the health of the consumer. Herein, we summarise the phytochemical, biological, pharmacological, and toxicological aspects of TT and HS as well as the technology involved in brewing the novel bioactive-flavoured pito. In addition, we also report the incidence of heavy metal in conventional pito.

PYP1-4 peptide from Pyropia yezoensis protects against acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in HepG2 cells

Acetaminophen (APAP) is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic. It is safe at normal treatment doses; however, APAP overdose is a major cause of acute liver and kidney failure. A variety of methods to reduce the damage caused by APAP overdose have previously been evaluated. The protein-rich seaweed Pyropia yezoensis has antioxidant, antitumor and anti-inflammatory activities, and protects against cytotoxicity. However, little is known regarding the protective effects of P. yezoensis peptide against APAP-induced hepatotoxicity. The present study investigated the ability of P. yezoensis peptide (PYP1-4) to ameliorate the damage caused by APAP-induced hepatotoxicity using HepG2 as the model cell line in addition to the signaling pathways involved. Briefly, cell viability, nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species and apoptosis assays were performed in conjunction with western blot analysis and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. First, the present study revealed the minimum toxic concentration of APAP (15 mM) and the resting concentration of PYP1-4 (0–500 ng/ml). Administration of PYP1-4 to APAP-induced cells decreased the nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species levels, and restored the levels of antioxidant-associated proteins (catalase, heme oxygenase 1, superoxide dismutase 2 and quinone oxidoreductase 1). PYP1-4 increased the translocation of nuclear factor, erythroid 2 like 2 to the nucleus and the activities of glycogen synthase kinase-3β, Akt and AMP-activated protein kinase. In addition, APAP induced apoptosis; however, PYP1-4 inhibited apoptosis by modulating the levels of pro-apoptotic markers (Bad), anti-apoptotic markers (Bcl-2 and BH3 interacting domain death agonist), caspases and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1. Subsequently, the insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor signaling pathway was investigated to determine whether PYP1-4 treatment restored the levels of cell growth-associated factors during APAP-induced hepatotoxicity. PYP1-4 treatment impacted the levels of components of the insulin receptor substrate 1/PI3K/Akt and Ras/Raf/ERK signaling pathways, and promoted cell survival. Therefore, the P. yezoensis peptide PYP1-4 may be useful for preventing APAP-induced hepatotoxicity.

Dietary supplementation of jute leaf (Corchorus olitorius) modulates hepatic delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALAD) activity and oxidative status in high-fat fed/low streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Impaired liver function is associated with decreased hepatic delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALAD) activity in diabetes mellitus. Hence, this study described the effect of dietary jute leaf (Corchorus olitorius) on hepatic δ-ALAD activity in high-fat fed combined with low-dose streptozotocin administered diabetic rats. Animals were fed diets containing 35% fat for 14 days prior to a single administration of low-dose (35 mg/kg body weight) streptozotocin to induce diabetes. Thereafter, the animals were randomly placed in groups and fed 100 mg/g jute leaf-supplemented diets for 30 days. The result showed that jute leaf supplementation significantly (p < 0.05) reversed the decreased hepatic δ-ALAD activity, increased hepatic catalase and SOD activity accompanying the decrease in serum AST and AST activities. This finding suggests that restoration of hepatic δ-ALAD activity, modulation of hepatic function biomarkers, and increase in antioxidant status could be possible underlying events mediating the hepatoprotective effect of jute leaf in diabetic conditions. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Decrease in hepatic δ-ALAD activity has been associated with diabetes-induced hepatotoxicity arising from prolonged and uncontrolled hyperglycemia. Therefore, increased δ-ALAD activity represents improved hepatic function in diabetic situations. Antidiabetic properties of jute leaf have been demonstrated but information on its effect on hepatic δ-ALAD is lacking. Thus, this study revealed that dietary supplementation of jute leaf restored hepatic δ-ALAD activities and improved liver antioxidant status in diabetic rats which is an indication of its hepatoprotective properties.

Effects of acetaminophen in oxidative stress and neurotoxicity biomarkers of the gastropod Phorcus lineatus

The growing use of pharmaceutical drugs has become a major environmental issue considering that these substances (or their metabolites) end up inevitably in sewage waters after excretion. In the wild, these chemicals may affect non-target organisms, and their potential toxicity is not sufficiently studied, a reality that is particularly true for marine organisms. Acetaminophen (also known as paracetamol) is known to be toxic in high dosages, namely, by triggering oxidative effects. These effects may be potentiated in marine organisms subjected to contamination resulting from large human settlements along coastal areas. In order to assess how different exposure regimes (acute vs. chronic) may affect aquatic wildlife, individuals of the gastropod species Phorcus lineatus were acutely (96 h) and chronically (28 days) exposed to ecologically relevant concentrations of acetaminophen. The effects were evaluated through the quantification of selected biomarkers-catalase (CAT), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), and cholinesterase (ChE) activities. The results from acute exposure showed no significant effects in all three biomarkers, but chronically exposed organisms showed significant increases in the activities of CAT and ChEs. The data show that P. lineatus triggered a defensive biological response in the presence of acetaminophen, and also show that realistically low levels of acetaminophen can exert adaptive changes with unknown consequences.

Targeted cellular delivery of robust enzyme nanoparticles for the treatment of drug-induced hepatotoxicity and liver injury

Direct delivery of proteins into cells has been considered an effective approach for treating the protein-related diseases. However, clinical use of proteins has still been limited due to their instability in the blood and poor membrane permeability. To achieve an efficient cellular delivery of the protein to target cells via a systemic administration, a multifunctional carrier system having desirable stability both in the blood stream and the cells, specific cell-targeting property and endosomal escape functions may be required. In this study, we prepared a catalytic nanoparticle containing an active enzyme by cross-tethering multiple superoxide dismutase (SOD) molecules with catechol-derivatized hyaluronic acid (HA). The permeable shell of hydrophilic HA chains effectively protects the enzyme from degradation in the blood after intravenous administration and provides an additional function for targeting hepatocytes expressing HA receptor (CD44). The structure and catalytic activity of the enzyme molecules in the nanoparticle were not significantly compromised in the nanoparticle. In addition, ultra-small calcium phosphate nanoparticles (USCaP, 2-5 nm) were crystalized and decorated on the surface of the nanoparticle for the efficient endosomal escape after cellular uptake. The SOD-containing nanoparticle fortified with USCaP was used for the treatment of acetaminophen (APAP)-induced fulminant hepatotoxicity and liver injury. The nanoparticle achieved the efficient hepatic cellular delivery of SOD via a systemic administration and resulted in efficient removal of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the liver and remarkable improvement of APAP-induced hepatotoxicity and liver injury in animals. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Despite the enormous therapeutic potential, the intracellular delivery of proteins has been limited due to their poor membrane permeability and stability. In this study, we demonstrated an active enzyme-containing nanoparticle functionalized by hyaluronic acid and ultra-small size calcium phosphate nanoparticles (2-5 nm) for targeted cellular delivery of superoxide dismutase (SOD). The nanoparticle was designed to integrate all the essential functions, including serum stability, target specificity, and endosomal escape capability, for a systemic delivery of a therapeutic protein to the cells of the liver tissue. The intravenous administration of the nanoparticle efficiently removes reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the liver and remarkably improves the drug-induced hepatotoxicity and the progress of fulminant liver injury in an acetaminophen-overdose animal model.

Platycodin D protects acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity by inhibiting hepatocyte MAPK pathway and apoptosis in C57BL/6J mice

The root of Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A. DC. (P. grandiflorus), Platycodonis Radix, has been commonly applied to prevent and treat human diseases including bronchitis, asthma and excessive phlegm. Platycodin D (PD), one of the most important therapeutic components of P. grandiflorus, has been reported to possess protective effect against alcohol and carbon tetrachloride induced hepatotoxicity. In this study, we examined the protective efficacy of PD on acetaminophen (APAP)-induced liver injury and possible underlying mechanisms in C57BL/6J mice. Administration of PD prior to APAP intoxication significantly ameliorated the increase in serum transferases, interleukin 1β (IL-1β), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) and the depletion of glutathione (GSH) in mice. PD pretreatment decreased the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) in presence of APAP. Moreover, PD treatment noticeably reduced APAP-induced hepatocyte necrosis and apoptosis evidenced by evaluating physiological and histological hepatocyte changes in mice. Finally, PD pretreatment significantly diminished c-Jun NH₂-terminal kinase (JNK), extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), and p38 phosphorylation induced by APAP. Collectively, PD pretreatment effectively protects hepatocytes against APAP-induced hepatotoxicity in mice through ameliorating oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and hepatocyte apoptosis.

Design of Optical Sensor Membrane Based on Polymer Poly(methyl methacrylate) for Paracetamol Detection in Traditional Herbal Medicine

Generally, regulation states that herbal medicines are remedies containing plants or preparation of plants as active ingredients only. Paracetamol is one of the drugs that is frequently added in herbal medicine to enhance the effect as an analgesic. The government regulation disallows chemical drugs contained in herbal medicine due to the toxic effect of uncontrolled consumption. On this study, the optical sensor membrane from polymer poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) was synthesized by phase inversion method and was used to detect paracetamol in herbal medicine. PMMA was made in three different concentrations 5%, 7.5%, and 10% and was mixed with ferric chloride (FeCl3), Folin-Ciocalteu, and Nessler reagent as specific colorimetric reagents for paracetamol detection, with a ratio of solvent:reagent was 6:4; 7:3; and 8:2. The result of the experiment shows that PMMA-FeCl3 7.5% (7:3), PMMA-Folin 5% (6:4), and PMMA-Nessler 5% (6:4) give the best performance for paracetamol detection. Real herbal medicine samples were analyzed to confirm the practical application of this sensor, and the result shows good agreement with UV-Vis data. The results show that optical sensor membrane which has been developed can be used as new detection method of paracetamol for community application.

The impact of expired commercial drugs on non-target marine species: A case study with the use of a battery of biomarkers in hemocytes of mussels

The present study investigated the effects of two expired commercial medicines, like Buscopan Plus and Mesulid, commonly classified as household medical wastes, on hemocytes of mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Mussel hemocytes' lysosomal membrane stability (in terms of neutral red retention assay), superoxide anions (O₂^·-) and nitric oxides (NO, in terms of nitrites) production, lipid peroxidation (in terms of malondialdehyde/MDA content) and the formation of nuclear abnormalities (using the micronucleus/MN assay) were assessed in hemocytes of mussels treated for 7 days with appropriate amounts of each drug (the concentrations of active substances were considered in each case, due to the absence of data related with the excipients) as well as in hemocytes of post-treated/recovered mussels (7 days post-treatment/recovery period). According to the results, treated mussels showed significantly decreased NRRT values, enhanced O₂^·-, NO and MDA levels, as well as high frequencies of nuclear abnormalities in both cases. Thοse effects showed a drastic reduction in almost all cases, after the post-treatment/recovery period. Moreover, the "stress on stress" method, commonly performed for estimating mussels' ability to survive in air, showed significantly reduced LT₅₀ values in challenged mussels, compared to values observed in control mussels. The current findings revealed for the first time that both expired commercial drugs could affect mussels, probably via the formation of active substances bioactivated metabolites, as well as excipients, such as TiO₂ and SiO₂, at least in case of Buscopan plus. Although further research is needed, the current findings indicate the environmental impact of expired commercial drugs, thus revealing the need for the proper disposal of household medical wastes.

The impact of vitamin C on the relationship among inflammation, lipid peroxidation and platelet activation during analgesic nephropathy in rats

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress and inflammation are involved in the pathogenesis of paracetamol-induced renal damage. This study examines the relationship between 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α (8-iso-PGF2α) and platelet activation as well as the relative contribution of the pro-inflammatory markers interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in enhanced 8-iso-PGF2α biosynthesis, as a complementary onset during analgesic nephropathy induced by chronic treatment with paracetamol. The protective effects of vitamin C on the aforementioned settings are also investigated.

METHODS

Analgesic nephropathy was induced in Wistar rats. Renal function markers and the activity of antioxidant enzymes were determined spectrophotometrically. Immunoassays were used to measure the pro-inflammatory markers and the markers of lipid peroxidation and platelet activation.

RESULTS

The chronic treatment with paracetamol led to renal dysfunction, represented by the elevation of plasma urea and creatinine and the decline in the enzymatic antioxidant status, but did not cause a significant increase in TNF-α and IL-1β. The paracetamol-induced lipid peroxidation and enhanced production of 8-iso-PGF2α was not sufficient to cause changes in platelet activation represented by the level of 11-dehydro thromboxane B2.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that oxidative stress cannot circumvent the need of stimulation by circulatory cytokines in order to induce inflammatory response and changes in platelet activation during analgesic nephropathy. Vitamin C proved to be beneficial in restoring the renal function markers to normal, increasing the renal enzymatic antioxidant potential, inhibiting lipid peroxidation, and lowering cytokine production and 11-dehydro thromboxane B2 excretion. The observed effects of vitamin C offer support for its potential use as protective treatment in cases of chronic paracetamol overdose.

Polyphenols reported to shift APAP-induced changes in MAPK signaling and toxicity outcomes

Due to its widespread availability, acetaminophen (APAP) is the leading cause for drug-induced liver injury in many countries including United States and United Kingdom. When used as recommended, APAP is relatively safe. However, in overdose cases, increased metabolism of APAP to N-acetyl-para-benzoquinoneimine (NAPQI), a reactive metabolite, leads to glutathione (GSH) depletion, oxidative stress, and cellular injury. Throughout this process, a variety of factors play important roles in propagating toxicity, including c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), a member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family. Because of its involvement in multiple cellular processes, biomarkers associated with MAPK signaling have generated interest as a mechanistic target for protecting against APAP-induced liver injury and hepatocellular injury, in general. This review summarizes mechanistic details by which natural products, specifically those containing polyphenolic moieties, are capable of attenuating APAP-induced toxicity, at least in part through an ability to modulate MAPKs. These compounds include carnosic acid, chlorogenic acid, davallialactone, extracts from Hibiscus sabdariffa, quercetin-based compounds, and resveratrol. Despite variations in the experimental designs across these studies, common pathways and biomarkers were implicated in cytoprotection when polyphenolic compounds were given with APAP, such as enhanced antioxidant gene expression and reversal of APAP-induced changes in oxidative stress markers and MAPK signaling. Overall, an emphasis should be placed on method standardization for future studies if we are to gain a more in-depth understanding of how polyphenolic moieties contribute to cytoprotection during an APAP overdose event.

Ilex paraguariensis crude extract acts on protection and reversion from damage induced by t-butyl hydroperoxide in human erythrocytes: a comparative study with isolated caffeic and/or chlorogenic acids

BACKGROUND

Studies comparing the effects of phytochemicals under different regimens of exposure are necessary to give a better indication about their mechanism(s) of protection. Hence, in the present study, we investigated the preventive (pre-incubation), protective (co-incubation) and/or remediative (post-incubation) activity of chlorogenic acid and caffeic acids, in comparison with Ilex paraguariensis crude extract, against t-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP)-induced damage to human erythrocytes.

RESULTS

We found that both caffeic and chlorogenic acids were able to prevent and revert the hemolysis associated with t-BHP exposure. By contrast, isolated compounds (alone or in combination) presented no effect on basal and/or t-BHP-induced non-protein thiol (NPSH) oxidation or production of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBBARS). In turn, I. paraguariensis extract was effective to prevent, protect and revert the hemolysis associated with t-BHP exposure. Moreover, I. paraguariensis significantly protects and reverts t-BHP-induced NPSH oxidation and TBARS production.

CONCLUSIONS

We have found that I. paraguariensis extract acts better with respect to the protection and reversion of t-BHP-associated changes, whereas isolated compounds are more active in preventing and reverting t-BHP pro-hemolytic action. Moreover, our data suggest that the pro-hemolytic activity of t-BHP may occur via mechanism(s) other(s) than lipid peroxidation and/or NPSH oxidation. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Phytochemical Content, Health Benefits, and Toxicology of Common Edible Flowers: A Review (2000-2015)

Edible flowers contain numerous phytochemicals which contribute to their health benefits, and consumption of edible flowers has increased significantly in recent years. While many researchers have been conducted, no literature review of the health benefits of common edible flowers and their phytochemicals has been compiled. This review aimed to present the findings of research conducted from 2000 to 2015 on the species, traditional application, phytochemicals, health benefits, and the toxicology of common edible flowers. It was found in 15 species of common edible flowers that four flavonols, three flavones, four flavanols, three anthocyanins, three phenolic acids and their derivatives were common phytochemicals and they contributed to the health benefits such as anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, and neuroprotective effect. Toxicology studies have been conducted to evaluate the safety of common edible flowers and provide information on their dosages and usages.

Hepatoprotective effect of withanolide-rich fraction in acetaminophen-intoxicated rat: decisive role of TNF-α, IL-1β, COX-II and iNOS

CONTEXT

Overdose of acetaminophen (APAP) is common in humans and is often associated with hepatic damage. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Solanaceae) shows multiple pharmacological activities including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the possible mechanism of hepatoprotective activity of withanolide-rich fraction (WRF) isolated from a methanolic extract of Withania somnifera roots.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Hepatotoxicity was induced by oral administration of APAP (750 mg/kg, p.o.) for 14 d. The control group received the vehicle. APAP-treated animals were given either silymarin (25 mg/kg) or graded doses of WRF (50, 100 and 200mg/kg) 2 h prior to APAP administration. Animals were killed on 15th day and blood and liver tissue samples were collected for the further analysis.

RESULTS

In WRF-treated group, there was significant and dose-dependent (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001) decrease in serum bilirubin, ALP, AST and ALT levels with significant and dose-dependent (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001) increase in hepatic SOD, GSH and total antioxidant capacity. The level of MDA and NO decreased significantly (p < 0.01) by WRF treatment. Up-regulated mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, COX-II and iNOS was significantly down-regulated (p < 0.001) by WRF. Histological alternations induced by APAP in liver were restored to near normality by WRF pretreatment.

CONCLUSION

WRF may exert its hepatoprotective action by alleviating inflammatory and oxido-nitrosative stress via inhibition of TNF-α, IL-1β, COX-II and iNOS.

Recent trends in phytochemistry, ethnobotany and pharmacological significance of Alchornea cordifolia (Schumach. & Thonn.) Muell. Arg

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Alchornea cordifolia (Schumach. & Thonn.) Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) (A. cordifolia) is widely distributed throughout tropical Africa, where it is used extensively in traditional medicine. Conditions for which the plant has enjoyed wide use are: coughs, gonorrhoea, infertility, prostatitis, bacterial infections, diarrhoea, ulcers, pain, inflammation, fever and bronchial troubles. This review summarizes the achievements of the investigations in traditional uses, ethnobotany, phytochemistry, biological activities and toxicological profile of A. cordifolia; this review also describes the shortcomings of studies on this herbal drug and thus serves as the basis of further scientific research and development of this traditional herbal drug.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A. cordifolia-related information was collected from various resources including published articles in peer-reviewed journals, unpublished materials, textbooks, government survey reports and scientific databases such as Scifinder®, Pubmed, Science Direct, Wiley, Springer, ACS, Scielo, Web of Science and other web search instruments (Google, Yahoo), published on the subject from 1950 to 2016. 'The Plant List' (www.theplantlist.org) and 'Kew Royal Botanic Gardens' (mpns.kew.org) were used to validate the scientific name of the plant.

RESULTS

The literature revealed several reports on traditional uses, biological activities, chemical constituents and toxicological evaluation of A. cordifolia. The phytochemical information indicates identification of 95 compounds including fatty acids, terpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, alkaloids, which exhibited various pharmacological activities such as wound healing, anti-inflammation, anticancer, antioxidant, immunomodulation, antidiarrhoeal, antimicrobial, antidepressant, hepatoprotective, antiplasmodial and anxiolytic. However, there are still significant gaps in the completeness of our understanding of A. cordifolia bioactivity, therapeutic value, and roles played by each of the numerous phytoconstituents.

CONCLUSIONS

The present review indicated that A. cordifolia is a valuable medicinal plant with multiple pharmacological effects. However, further research on the pharmacological mechanism of action of this plant is recommended in order to unravel the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, clinical relevance and toxicity of its extracts as well as constituents.

Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. (Sausage tree): Phytochemistry and pharmacological review of a quintessential African traditional medicinal plant

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Kigelia africana is a quintessential African herbal medicinal plant with a pan-African distribution and immense indigenous medicinal and non-medicinal applications. The plant is use traditionally as a remedy for numerous disease such as use wounds healing, rheumatism, psoriasis, diarrhea and stomach ailments. It is also use as an aphrodisiac and for skin care.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present review aims to compile an up-to-date review of the progress made in the continuous pharmacological and phytochemistry investigation of K. africana and the corresponding commercial and pharmaceutical application of these findings with the ultimate objective of providing a guide for future research on this plant.

METHOD

The scholarly information needed for this paper were predominantly sourced from the electronic search engines such as Google, Google scholar; publishing sites such as Elsevier, scienceDirect, BMC, PubMed; other scientific database sites for chemicals such as ChemSpider, PubChem, and also from online books.

RESULTS

Pharmacological investigations conducted confirm the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant and anticancer activity of the extract of different parts of the plant. Bioactive constituents are found to be present in all parts of the plant. So far, approximately 150 compounds have been characterized from different part of the plant. Iridoids, naphthoquinones, flavonoids, terpenes and phenylethanoglycosides are the major class of compounds isolated. Novel compounds with potent antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer effect such as verbascoside, verminoside and pinnatal among others, have been identified. Commercial trade of K. africana has boosted in the las few decades. Its effect in the maintenance of skin has been recognized resulting in a handful of skin formulations in the market.

CONCLUSIONS

The pharmaceutical potentials of K. africana has been recognized and have witness a surge in research interest. However, till date, many of its traditional medicinal uses has not been investigated scientifically. Further probing of the existential researches on its pharmacological activity is recommended with the end-goal of unravelling the pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, clinical relevance and possible toxicity and side effects of both the extract and the active ingredients isolated.

An ethnobotanical study of plants used to treat liver diseases in the Maritime region of Togo

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In Togo, many persons still rely on plants for healing, however very little is known about the medicinal practices of the indigenous people. The present study aimed to document the medicinal plant utilization for the management of liver diseases in the Maritime region of the country.

METHODOLOGY

This was an ethnobotanical survey conducted in the Maritime region of Togo from June to August 2015. The data were gathered from 104 traditional healers (TH) by direct interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire. The calculated use values (UV) were used to analyze the importance of the cited plants.

RESULTS

A total of 99 plant species belonging to 88 genera and 49 families were cited by the TH as curing the hepatic diseases. The most represented families were Caesalpiniaceae with 8 species, followed by Euphorbiaceae with 7 species, Apocynaceae and Asteraceae with 6 species each. The highest UV were recorded with Gomphrena celosioides (0.13), Xylopia ethiopica (0.12), Senna occidentalis (0.12), Bridelia ferruginea (0.12), Cymbopogon citratus (0.12), Kigellia Africana (0.09), Cassia sieberiana (0.08) and Sanseviera liberica (0.08), showing their importance in the management of liver dysfunction in the surveyed region. The main used parts were the leaves, followed by the roots, the whole plant, the rhizome and the bark, accounting for more than 10% each. The herbal medicines were mostly prepared in the form of decoction and administrated by oral route.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that Maritime region of Togo has an important plant biodiversity that is exploited by the indigenous TH. However, some plants cited by the TH have not been studied for their possible hepatoprotective effects. These plants are therefore a starting point for biological screenings.