Recycling of ABS and PC from electrical and electronic waste. Effect of miscibility and previous degradation on final performance of industrial blends

Impact of recyclability on the tensile and Impact properties of coated plastic materials for the automotive and electronic sectors

This research focuses on the study of the tensile modulus and impact resistance) of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and its blends with polycarbonate (ABS/PC) including recycled and painted material. A comprehensive assessment was done to determine the impact of reprocessing cycles, remaining coating and their combined effect in the final properties of the recycled polymer. Post-consumer materials are in an already-aged state, lowering their initial properties. Mechanical recycling methods showed that the reprocessing cycles have a higher impact on the mechanical performance than the amount of recycling material content. Also, the material is often coated when they are about to be recycled. The remaining coating impurities play a major role in the recycling process, losing up to 42% of the impact resistance for ABS and 28% for ABS/PC. It was demonstrated that below a 10% of remaining paint, both materials retained is performance as a neat product. Impurities was declared to be the most pernicious element on the recycling process and their elimination must be a priority regarding this objective. These results provide a better knowledge of the recycling effect and can be used to decide the potential recyclability of plastic. The ascribed project of this study (DECOAT) aims to develop efficient systems to remove coatings at the end-of-life of the part, to reduce the damage and promote the use of recycled material in high-tech applications.

Waste acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) incorporated with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) for potential water filtration membrane

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is one of the most common fused-filament feedstocks for 3D printing. The rapid growth of the 3D printing industry has resulted in huge demand for ABS filaments; however, it generates a large amount of waste. This study developed a novel method using waste ABS to fabricate electrospun nanofiber membranes (ENMs) for water filtration. Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) was employed to modify the properties of waste ABS, and the effect of PVP addition in the range of 0-5 wt% was investigated. The results showed that adding PVP increased the viscosity and surface tension but decreased the conductivity of the precursor solution. After electrospinning, PVP could reduce the number of beads, increase the porosity and fiber diameter, and improve the wettability of the fabricated fibers. Moreover, the bilayer of ABS ENMs achieved a high flux value between 2951 and 48 041 L m-2 h-1 and a high rejection rate of 99%. Our study demonstrates a sustainable strategy to convert waste plastics to inexpensive materials for wastewater treatment membranes.

Chemical Recycling of Mixed Plastics in Electronic Waste Using Solvent-Based Processing

Currently, less than 20% of electronic waste (E-waste) produced in the U.S. is recycled. To improve the recycling rate of E-waste, the study aimed to: (1) identify the major plastics found within electronic shredder residue (ESR), (2) design solvents and processing conditions capable of separating out 90% of the plastic in ESR, and (3) estimate the energy efficiency of the solvent-based process developed. Preliminary screening showed 25 wt.% of the ESR was composed of plastics, with two polymers dominating the sorted plastic fraction—polystyrene (PS, 40 wt.%) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS, 25 wt.%). Subsequently, solvents and anti-solvents were screened using Hansen Solubility Parameter Theory for PS, ABS, and ESR dissolution. The pre-screening results showed dichloromethane (DCM) and tetrahydrofuran (THF) as the most effective solvents for PS and ABS, with methanol (MeOH) and ethylene glycol (EG) as the most effective anti-solvents. By optimizing the dissolution time and the solvents used, the highest polymer dissolution yield (99 wt.%) was achieved using DCM for 48 h. Both MeOH and EG precipitated 71 wt.% of the polymer fraction of ESR. EG removed more phosphorus containing flame retardants (94 wt.%) than MeOH (69 wt.%). Energy analysis indicated that the solvent-based processes could save 25–60% of the embodied energy for PS and ABS. Characterization showed that the solvent-based processing could preserve the high molecular weight fraction of the polymers while removing flame retardants at the same time. The results from this study prove the potential of solvent-based processing to produce secondary plastic materials from E-waste for cross-industry reuse.

Recycling Potential for Non-Valorized Plastic Fractions from Electrical and Electronic Waste

This paper describes a study for waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) to characterise the plastic composition of different mixed plastic fractions. Most of the samples studied are currently excluded from material recycling and arise as side streams in state-of-the-art plastics recycling plants. These samples contain brominated flame retardants (BFR) or other substances of concern listed as persistent organic pollutants or in the RoHS directive. Seventeen samples, including cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors, CRT televisions, flat screens such as liquid crystal displays, small domestic appliances, and information and communication technology, were investigated using density- and dissolution-based separation processes. The total bromine and chlorine contents of the samples were determined by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, indicating a substantial concentration of both elements in density fractions above 1.1 g/cm3, most significantly in specific solubility classes referring to ABS and PS. This was further supported by specific flame retardant analysis. It was shown that BFR levels of both polymers can be reduced to levels below 1000 ppm by dissolution and precipitation processes enabling material recycling in compliance with current legislation. As additional target polymers PC and PC-ABS were also recycled by dissolution but did not require an elimination of BFR. Finally, physicochemical investigations of recycled materials as gel permeation chromatography, melt flow rate, and differential scanning calorimetry suggest a high purity and indicate no degradation of the technical properties of the recycled polymers.

Combined Effect of Activated Carbon Particles and Non-Adsorptive Spherical Beads as Fluidized Media on Fouling, Organic Removal and Microbial Communities in Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor

The combined effect of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) spherical beads and granular activated carbon (GAC) particles as fluidized media on the performance of anaerobic fluidized bed membrane bioreactor (AFMBR) was investigated. GAC particles and ABS beads were fluidized together in a single AFMBR to investigate membrane fouling and organic removal efficiency as well as energy consumption. The density difference between these two similarly sized media caused the stratified bed layer where ABS beads are fluidized above the GAC along the membrane. Membrane relaxation was effective to reduce the fouling and trans-membrane pressure (TMP) below 0.25 bar could be achieved at 6 h of hydraulic retention time (HRT). More than 90% of soluble chemical oxygen demand (SCOD) was removed after 80 d operation. Biogas consisting of 65% of methane was produced by AFMBR, suggesting that combined use of GAC and ABS beads did not have any adverse effect on methane production during the operational period. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) examinations showed the adherence of microbes to both media. However, 16S rRNA results revealed that fewer microbes attached to ABS beads than GAC. There were also compositional differences between the ABS and GAC microbial communities. The abundance of the syntrophs and exoelectrogens population on ABS beads was relatively low compared to that of GAC. Our result implied that syntrophic synergy and possible occurrence of direct interspecies electron transfer (DIET) might be facilitated in AFMBR by GAC, while traditional methanogenic pathways were dominant in ABS beads. The electrical energy required was 0.02 kWh/m3, and it was only about 13% of that produced by AFMBR.

Development of Thermal Resistant FDM Printed Blends. The Preparation of GPET/PC Blends and Evaluation of Material Performance

The paper discusses the preparation of polymer blends based on the polyethylene terephthalate copolymer/polycarbonate (GPET/PC). Materials have been prepared in order to assess their applicability in the fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing process. The tested key feature was the thermomechanical resistance, measured by head deflection temperature (HDT) and Vicat softening temperature (VST), the mechanical tests and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) were also performed. A clear relationship between the increasing content of PC in the blend properties was observed. DMTA analysis revealed significant changes in the glass transition temperature, which indicates the miscibility of this type of polymer system. The mechanical tests indicate a clear trend of stiffness and strength improvement along with the increasing share of PC phase in the structure. The increase in impact strength is also clear, however, compared to the results for a pure PC, the results obtained for GPET/PC blends are significantly lower. As part of the research, reference samples based on polyethylene terephthalate homopolymer (PET) and composite samples with addition of 10% talc were also prepared. The structure analysis for PET/PC(50/50) samples did not show miscibility. However, due to the formation of the PET crystalline phase, the thermomechanical resistance of these materials was visibly higher. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis confirmed a high degree of compatibility of the GPET/PC blend structure as indicated by the lack of visible signs of phase separation. This phenomenon is not observed for PET/PC blends, which confirms the different thermomechanical interactions of both tested polymer systems.

Development of recycled blends based on cables and wires with plastic cabinets: An effective solution for value addition of hazardous waste plastics

The recycling of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) recovered from the plastic insulations in wires and cables is a rising concern in the current situation due to its hazardous behaviour during recycling. Similarly, high-impact polystyrene (HIPS) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) used in the structural components of electrical and electronic equipment are also generated in large quantities. In the current work, three agendas were fixed: (a) to determine the effect of recycled polymeric material (HIPS and ABS) recovered from different sources on the mechanical property of the polymeric blends; (b) to formulate a high-impact strength blend; and (c) to deduce a mechanism for improved impact strength. The mechanical characterizations were conducted on the entire blends formulated. Among them, the recycled blend composed of recycled PVC (r-PVC) and recycled ABS (r-ABS) (segregated from uninterrupted power supply housing) and recycled HIPS (r-HIPS; collected from television housing) was confined for further physio-mechanical and thermal analysis. Besides, the r-PVC/r-ABS systems had shown better mechanical properties than r-PVC/r-HIPS systems in similar composition. The impact strength of blend r-PVC/r-ABS (70:30) was found to be 250 J/m, which was 200% more than the blend r-PVC/r-ABS (0:100). The compatibility and non-compatibility in PVC/ABS and PVC/HIPS blends respectively were explained with thermal, mechanical and morphological characterizations. Furthermore, a plausible cross-linking mechanism is developed between ABS and PVC, which controls the release of chlorine atoms into the environment.

Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment: A Review on the Identification Methods for Polymeric Materials

Considering that the large quantity of waste electrical and electronic equipment plastics generated annually causes increasing environmental concerns for their recycling and also for preserving of raw material resources, decreasing of energy consumption, or saving the virgin materials used, the present challenge is considered to be the recovery of individual polymers from waste electrical and electronic equipment. This study aims to provide an update of the main identification methods of waste electrical and electronic equipment such as spectroscopic fingerprinting, thermal study, and sample techniques (like identification code and burning test), and the characteristic values in the case of the different analyses of the polymers commonly used in electrical and electronic equipment. Additionally, the quality of the identification is very important, as, depending on this, new materials with suitable properties can be obtained to be used in different industrial applications. The latest research in the field demonstrated that a complete characterization of individual WEEE (Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment) components is important to obtain information on the chemical and physical properties compared to the original polymers and their compounds. The future directions are heading towards reducing the costs by recycling single polymer plastic waste fractions that can replace virgin plastic at a ratio of almost 1:1.

Optimization of Surface Treatment Using Sodium Hypochlorite Facilitates Coseparation of ABS and PC from WEEE Plastics by Flotation

Waste acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polycarbonate (PC) as dominant components in waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) plastics show significant potential for recycling, which is severely restricted by efficient separation method. We proposed a novel surface treatment method using sodium hypochlorite for facilitating coseparation of ABS and PC from WEEE plastics by flotation for recycling. Optimization of surface treatment process was performed with response surface methodology using Box-Behnken design. A quadratic model was generated for predicting the floating rate of ABS and PC, and it was also used to optimize the coseparation performance. The optimum conditions were determined and included concentration of 0.05 M, temperature of 69.5 °C, contact time of 56.5 min, and stirring rate of 200 rpm. Under optimum conditions, the coseparation of ABS and PC was effectively achieved; the recovery and the purity of ABS and PC reached 97.4% and 100.0%, respectively. The formation of oxygen-bearing groups and morphological changes were confirmed as major mechanism to induce the surface hydrophilization of ABS and PC. Consequently, this method is feasible for selective coseparation of ABS and PC from WEEE plastics, and it provides technological insights in the sustainable deposal of WEEE plastics.

Kinetic Analysis of the Thermal Degradation of Recycled Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene by non-Isothermal Thermogravimetry

This work presents an in-depth kinetic study of the thermal degradation of recycled acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) polymer. Non-isothermal thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) data in nitrogen atmosphere at different heating rates comprised between 2 and 30 K min-1 were used to obtain the apparent activation energy (Ea) of the thermal degradation process of ABS by isoconversional (differential and integral) model-free methods. Among others, the differential Friedman method was used. Regarding integral methods, several methods with different approximations of the temperature integral were used, which gave different accuracies in Ea. In particular, the Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO), the Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS), and the Starink methods were used. The results obtained by these methods were compared to the Kissinger method based on peak temperature (Tm) measurements at the maximum degradation rate. Combined Kinetic Analysis (CKA) was also carried out by using a modified expression derived from the general Sestak-Berggren equation with excellent results compared with the previous methods. Isoconversional methods revealed negligible variation of Ea with the conversion. Furthermore, the reaction model was assessed by calculating the characteristic y ( α ) and z ( α ) functions and comparing them with some master plots, resulting in a nth order reaction model with n = 1.4950, which allowed calculating the pre-exponential factor (A) of the Arrhenius constant. The results showed that Ea of the thermal degradation of ABS was 163.3 kJ mol-1, while ln A was 27.5410 (A in min-1). The predicted values obtained by integration of the general kinetic expression with the calculated kinetic triplet were in full agreement with the experimental data, thus giving evidence of the accuracy of the obtained kinetic parameters.

Assessment of plastic waste materials degradation through near infrared spectroscopy

Plastic waste is a relevant challenge for waste management sector and further technological means have to be urgently researched. The evaluation of plastic waste quality through non-destructive, cost-effective and mature technologies could be without any doubt a key issue. This study is aimed at the assessment of Near Infrared (NIR) spectroscopy for the generation of global degradation-prediction models able to forecast plastic ageing. The degradation of Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Polypropylene (PP) and Polyethylene (PE) was achieved by thermal ageing (at 85 °C, 105 °C and 120 °C and durations ranging from 4 to 504 h), to simulate environmental outdoor conditions. Experimental data obtained for each plastic material were elaborated through partial least square (PLS) regression to obtain empirical models. For all inspected plastic materials, a good correspondence between the variation in absorbance units and the change in chemical bonds vibrations was observed. The PLS models were afterwards calibrated (taking into account the different ageing conditions; first separately then including the ageing factors combined). A high accuracy (R² equal to 0.85-1.00) was observed in predicting ageing for PET and ABS, while the correspondence showed a 30% decrease for PE and PP. This study proves that NIR spectroscopy can be recommended as an effective tool to investigate plastics degradation, with some limitations for specific polymers that need further investigations.

Solvent-based separation and recycling of waste plastics: A review

Since the creation of first man-made plastic, the global production and consumption of plastics have been continuously increasing. However, because plastic materials are durable and very slow to degrade, they become waste with high staying power. The over-consumption, disposal, and littering of plastics result in pollution, thus causing serious environmental consequences. To date, only a fraction of waste plastics is reused and recycled. In fact, recycling plastics remains a great challenge because of technical challenges and relatively insufficient profits, especially in mixed plastics. This review focuses on an environmentally friendly and potentially profitable method for plastics separation and recovery and solvents extraction. It includes the dissolution/reprecipitation method and supercritical fluid extraction, which produce high-quality recovered plastics comparable to virgin materials. These methods are summarized and discussed taking mass-produced plastics (PS, PC, Polyolefins, PET, ABS, and PVC) as examples. To exploit the method, the quality and efficiency of solvent extraction are elaborated. By eliminating these technical challenges, the solvent extraction method is becoming more promising and sustainable for plastic issues and polymer markets.

Use of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for the determination of polycarbonate (PC) and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) concentrations in PC/ABS plastics from e-waste

Due to the continual increase in waste generated from electronic devices, the management of plastics, which represents between 10 and 30% by weight of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE or e-waste), becomes indispensable in terms of environmental and economic impacts. Considering the importance of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC), and their blends in the electronics and other industries, this study presents a new application of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) for the fast and direct determination of PC and ABS concentrations in blends of these plastics obtained from samples of e-waste. From the LIBS spectra acquired for the PC/ABS blend, multivariate calibration models were built using partial least squares (PLS) regression. In general, it was possible to infer that the relative errors between the theoretical or reference and predicted values for the spiked samples were lower than 10%.

Influence of impurities on the performances of HIPS recycled from Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)

In order to produce a high quality recycled material from real deposits of electric and electronic equipment, the rate of impurities in different blended grades of reclaimed materials has to be reduced. Setting up industrial recycling procedures requires to deal with the main types of polymers presents in WEEE (Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment), particularly High Impact Polystyrene (HIPS) as well as other styrenic polymers such as Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS), Polystyrene (PS) but also polyolefin which are present into WEEE deposit as Polypropylene (PP). The production of a substantial quantity of recycled materials implies to improve and master the compatibility of different HIPS grades. The influence of polymeric impurities has to be studied since automatic sorting techniques are not able to remove completely these fractions. Investigation of the influence of minor ABS, PS and PP polymer fractions as impurities has been done on microstructure and mechanical properties of HIPS using environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) in order to determine the maximum tolerated rate for each of them into HIPS after sorting and recycling operations.

Melt processing and property testing of a model system of plastics contained in waste from electrical and electronic equipment

In the present research, blending of polymers used in electrical and electronic equipment, i.e. acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer, polycarbonate and polypropylene, was performed in a twin-screw extruder, in order to explore the effect process parameters on the mixture properties, in an attempt to determine some characteristics of a fast and economical procedure for waste management. The addition of polycarbonate in acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer seemed to increase its thermal stability. Also, the addition of polypropylene in acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer facilitates its melt processing, whereas the addition of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer in polypropylene improves its mechanical performance. Moreover, the upgrading of the above blends by incorporating 2 phr organically modified montmorillonite was investigated. The prepared nanocomposites exhibit greater tensile strength, elastic modulus and storage modulus, as well as higher melt viscosity, compared with the unreinforced blends. The incorporation of montmorillonite nanoplatelets in polycarbonate-rich acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer/polycarbonate blends turns the thermal degradation mechanism into a two-stage process. Alternatively to mechanical recycling, the energy recovery from the combustion of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer/polycarbonate and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer/polypropylene blends was recorded by measuring the gross calorific value. Comparing the investigated polymers, polypropylene presents the higher gross calorific value, followed by acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer and then polycarbonate. The above study allows a rough comparative evaluation of various methodologies for treating plastics from waste from electrical and electronic equipment.

Structural modification of acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene waste as an efficient nanoadsorbent for removal of metal ions from water: isotherm, kinetic and thermodynamic study

An environmentally benign approach for the structural modification of ABS waste and its use for the removal of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions have been described using isotherm, kinetics and thermodynamic studies.

Recycling of engineering plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipments: influence of virgin polycarbonate and impact modifier on the final performance of blends

This study is focused on the recovery and recycling of plastics waste, primarily polycarbonate, poly(acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) and high impact polystyrene, from end-of-life waste electrical and electronic equipments. Recycling of used polycarbonate, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, polycarbonate/acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene/high impact polystrene material was carried out using material recycling through a melt blending process. An optimized blend composition was formulated to achieve desired properties from different plastics present in the waste electrical and electronic equipments. The toughness of blended plastics was improved with the addition of 10 wt% of virgin polycarbonate and impact modifier (ethylene-acrylic ester-glycidyl methacrylate). The mechanical, thermal, dynamic-mechanical and morphological properties of recycled blend were investigated. Improved properties of blended plastics indicate better miscibility in the presence of a compatibilizer suitable for high-end application.

Morphology, Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Recycled PC/ABS Blends Processed via Vane Extruder

The melt blends of recycled polycarbonate and recycled poly(acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) were performed by using a novel vane extruder. The morphology, mechanical, and thermal properties of the RPC/RABS blends in the whole composition range were investigated. When the concentration of RABS was 20 wt%, the blend presented the best comprehensive mechanical properties, especially for the impact strength which was significantly improved compared with RPC and RABS individuals. The blend with 90 wt% RABS also presents better mechanical properties compared with the adjacent blending ratio. With the increase of RABS concentration in blends, Tg of the RABS phase decreases slightly, but Tg of the RPC phase increases. The DSC and SEM results indicate that RPC are partial miscible with RABS.

An analysis of the composition and metal contamination of plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)

The compositions of three WEEE plastic batches of different origin were investigated using infrared spectroscopy, and the metal content was determined with inductively coupled plasma. The composition analysis of the plastics was based mainly on 14 samples collected from a real waste stream, and showed that the major constituents were high impact polystyrene (42 wt%), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer (38 wt%) and polypropylene (10 wt%). Their respective standard deviations were 21.4%, 16.5% and 60.7%, indicating a considerable variation even within a single batch. The level of metal particle contamination was found to be low in all samples, whereas wood contamination and rubber contamination were found to be about 1 wt% each in most samples. In the metal content analysis, iron was detected at levels up to 700 ppm in the recyclable waste plastics fraction, which is of concern due to its potential to catalyse redox reactions during melt processing and thus accelerate the degradation of plastics during recycling. Toxic metals were found only at very low concentrations, with the exception of lead and cadmium which could be detected at 200 ppm and 70 ppm levels, respectively, but these values are below the current threshold limits of 1000 ppm and 100 ppm set by the Restriction of Hazardous Substances directive.

Characterization and recovery of polymers from mobile phone scrap

Electronic scrap is part of a universally wide range of obsolete, defective, or used materials that need to be disposed of or recycled in an ecologically friendly manner. The present study focused on the polymers present in mobile phone scrap. In mobile phones, polymers are found in frames and in printed circuit boards (PCBs). The frames are mainly made of polymers whereas PCBs use a variety of material (polymers, ceramics, and metals) which makes recycling more difficult. As a first step, mobile phones were collected, separated by manufacturer/model, and weighed, and the principal polymer types identified. The frames and PCBs were processed separately. The metals in PCBs were separated out by an electrostatic separation process. The resulting polymeric material was identified and mixed with the polymers of frames to fabricate the samples. Two types of samples were made: one with polymeric frames, and the other with a mixture of frames and polymeric fraction from the PCBs. Both kinds of sample were fabricated by injection moulding. The samples were evaluated by mechanical tests (tensile, impact, and hardness) to verify the feasibility of recycling the polymers present in mobile phone scrap. The results demonstrated the technical viability of recovering polymers using mechanical processing followed by an injection process.

Environmental issues and management strategies for waste electronic and electrical equipment

Issues surrounding the impact and management of discarded or waste electronic and electrical equipment (WEEE) have received increasing attention in recent years. This attention stems from the growing quantity and diversity of electronic and electrical equipment (EEE) used by modern society, the increasingly rapid turnover of EEE with the accompanying burden on the waste stream, and the occurrence of toxic chemicals in many EEE components that can pose a risk to human and environmental health if improperly managed. In addition, public awareness of the WEEE or "e-waste" dilemma has grown in light of popular press features on events such as the transition to digital television and the exportation of WEEE from the United States and other developed countries to Africa, China, and India, where WEEE has often not been managed in a safe manner (e.g., processed with proper safety precautions, disposed of in a sanitary landfill, combusted with proper air quality procedures). This paper critically reviews current published information on the subject of WEEE. The definition, magnitude, and characteristics of this waste stream are summarized, including a detailed review of the chemicals of concern associated with different components and how this has changed and continues to evolve over time. Current and evolving management practices are described (e.g., reuse, recycling, incineration, landfilling). This review discusses the role of regulation and policies developed by governments, institutions, and product manufacturers and how these initiatives are shaping current and future management practices.