Sex-related differences in the wheel-running activity of mice decline with increasing age

Regulator of G protein signaling 6 mediates exercise-induced recovery of hippocampal neurogenesis, learning, and memory in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

JOURNAL/nrgr/04.03/01300535-202510000-00027/figure1/v/2024-11-26T163120Z/r/image-tiff Hippocampal neuronal loss causes cognitive dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is reduced in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Exercise stimulates adult hippocampal neurogenesis in rodents and improves memory and slows cognitive decline in patients with Alzheimer's disease. However, the molecular pathways for exercise-induced adult hippocampal neurogenesis and improved cognition in Alzheimer's disease are poorly understood. Recently, regulator of G protein signaling 6 (RGS6) was identified as the mediator of voluntary running-induced adult hippocampal neurogenesis in mice. Here, we generated novel RGS6 fl/fl ; APP SWE mice and used retroviral approaches to examine the impact of RGS6 deletion from dentate gyrus neuronal progenitor cells on voluntary running-induced adult hippocampal neurogenesis and cognition in an amyloid-based Alzheimer's disease mouse model. We found that voluntary running in APP SWE mice restored their hippocampal cognitive impairments to that of control mice. This cognitive rescue was abolished by RGS6 deletion in dentate gyrus neuronal progenitor cells, which also abolished running-mediated increases in adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis was reduced in sedentary APP SWE mice versus control mice, with basal adult hippocampal neurogenesis reduced by RGS6 deletion in dentate gyrus neural precursor cells. RGS6 was expressed in neurons within the dentate gyrus of patients with Alzheimer's disease with significant loss of these RGS6-expressing neurons. Thus, RGS6 mediated voluntary running-induced rescue of impaired cognition and adult hippocampal neurogenesis in APP SWE mice, identifying RGS6 in dentate gyrus neural precursor cells as a possible therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease.

Voluntary exercise is a moderately effective mitigator of chronic social isolation stress in two female rodent models

Depression is a common mood disorders, particularly among women, and often with social stress precursors. Exercise, in addition to the known physical benefits, can have psychological benefits, potentially alleviating certain symptoms of stressors. This study investigated the impact of chronic social isolation stress in two female rodent models - mice and prairie voles. To assess the mitigating impact of exercise, paired and isolated animals were either provided 24-hour access to running wheels in their cages or remained sedentary. In mice, only animals that remained paired and had access to exercise wheels retained adaptive levels of active behaviors in the forced-swim test. However, either remaining paired or having access to a running wheel prevented increased corticosterone levels in mice. By contrast, in voles, either being paired or having access to a running wheel promoted adaptive levels of active behaviors in the forced-swim test. Similar to mice, either being paired or having access to a running wheel also prevented increased corticosterone levels in prairie voles. Body weight and adrenal:body mass ratios were not affected by either isolation or exercise in either species. Together these findings highlight the important differences between female rodents of different species in responses to chronic social stress. They also allude to differences between female and male rodent models. Lastly, these results indicate that for female rodents, exercise can provide certain mitigating effects against chronic social stress consequences.

Aging: A struggle for beneficial to overcome negative factors made by muscle and bone

Musculoskeletal health is strongly influenced by regulatory interactions of bone and muscle. Recent discoveries have identified a number of key mechanisms through which soluble factors released during exercise by bone exert positive effects on muscle and by muscle on bone. Although exercise can delay the negative effects of aging, these beneficial effects are diminished with aging. The limited response of aged muscle and bone tissue to exercise are accompanied by a failure in bone and muscle communication. Here, we propose that exercise induced beneficial factors must battle changes in circulating endocrine and inflammatory factors that occur with aging. Furthermore, sedentary behavior results in the release of negative factors impacting the ability of bone and muscle to respond to physical activity especially with aging. In this review we report on exercise responsive factors and evidence of modification occurring with aging.

Physical activity reverses the aging induced decline in angiogenic potential in the fast locomotory muscles of mice

Fast locomotory muscles, which are responsible for generating the highest power outputs, are more vulnerable to aging than slow muscles. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the impact of middle age and voluntary physical activity on capillarization and angiogenic potential in fast locomotory muscles. Middle-aged (M-group) and young (Y-group) wild-type FVB female mice were randomly assigned to either the sedentary or trained group undergoing 8-week spontaneous wheel running (8-sWR). Capillary density (assessed via immunohistochemical capillary staining and Western immunoblotting) of the fast locomotory muscles in the M-group (15-months old) was not significantly different compared to the Y-group (4-months old). Nevertheless, the expression of key pro-angiogenic genes in the fast muscle of the M-group was lower than that in the fast muscle of Y-group. 8-sWR had no impact on muscle capillarization; however, it increased fast muscle Vegfa expression in both the M and Y groups. We concluded that although fast muscle capillarization is still preserved in middle age, nevertheless the angiogenic potential (at least at the level of gene expression) is significantly reduced at this stage of aging. Moderate-intensity voluntary physical activity had no effect on capillary density, but it increased the angiogenic potential of the fast muscle.

Aging reduces motivation through decreased Bdnf expression in the ventral tegmental area

Age-associated reduced motivation is a hallmark of neuropsychiatric disorders in the elderly. In our rapidly aging societies, it is critical to keep motivation levels high enough to promote healthspan and lifespan. However, how motivation is reduced during aging remains unknown. Here, we used multiple mouse models to evaluate motivation and related affective states in young and old mice. We also compared the effect of social isolation, a common stressor in aged populations, to those of aging. We found that both social isolation and aging decreased motivation in mice, but that Bdnf expression in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) was selectively decreased during aging. Furthermore, VTA-specific Bdnf knockdown in young mice recapitulated reduced motivation observed in old mice. These results demonstrate that maintaining Bdnf expression in the VTA could promote motivation to engage in effortful activities and potentially prevent age-associated neuropsychiatric disorders.

Serotonergic-dependent effects of exercise and elevated stress hormone on small non-coding RNA transcriptomics and proteomics in a mouse model of affective disorders

Environmental changes may alter gene expression in depression and anxiety disorders through epigenetic regulation, including via small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) and their major subclass, microRNAs (miRNAs). However, underlying mechanisms mediating miRNA regulation in response to changing environmental stimuli are unclear. Using the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) knockout (KO) mouse model of depression/anxiety, this study aimed to compare the effects of voluntary exercise (EX) versus chronic treatment with the stress hormone corticosterone (CT), on hippocampal miRNA transcriptome and proteome in five comparison groups: WT-SH vs. KO-SH; WT-SH vs. WT-EX; KO-SH vs. KO-EX; WT-SH vs. WT-CT; KO-SH vs. KO-CT. We hypothesized that treatment with stress hormone will result in miRNA and proteomics changes observed in genetic model of depression, while exercise will have beneficial effects similar to antidepressant treatment. Using high-throughput sequencing of miRNAs and mass spectrometry (MS)-based approaches for protein expression, we revealed 337 differentially expressed (DE) miRNAs and 67 proteins in 5-HTT KO mice compared to wild-type (WT) control mice in standard-housing conditions. After exercise, there were 200 DE miRNAs and 3 DE proteins in WT mice, and 20 DE miRNAs and 95 DE proteins in 5-HTT KO mice, while corticosterone treatment led to 168 DE miRNAs and 1 DE protein in WT, and 21 DE miRNAs and 21 DE proteins in 5-HTT KO mice. Serotonergic dysfunction (due to the 5-HTT KO gene mutation) induced altered expression of miRNAs and proteins involved in regulation of neurodevelopment, neurogenesis and neuroinflammatory responses. Treatment with the stress hormone corticosterone in WT mice activated pathways which were also found altered in 5-HTT KO mice, while exercise caused antidepressant-like effects. These findings suggest that functional 5-HTT might be required for the beneficial effects of exercise on miRNA expression. Our study is the first to explore how gene-environment interactions affect miRNA/proteomic composition in a mouse model of depression/anxiety, and extends our understanding of gene-environmental interactions underlying these affective disorders.

The influence of sex on activity in voluntary wheel running, forced treadmill running, and open field testing in mice

Physical activity is commonly used for both measuring and treating dysfunction. While preclinical work has been historically biased towards males, the inclusion of both males and females is gaining popularity. With the increasing inclusion of both sexes, it is imperative to determine sex differences in common behavioral assays. This was a secondary analysis of healthy naïve mice to determine baseline sex differences in three activity assays: voluntary wheel running (32 mice), forced treadmill running (178 mice), and open field (88 mice). In voluntary wheel running, females showed greater distance run, running time, bout duration, and speed, but no difference in total bouts. In forced treadmill running, females showed greater time to exhaustion, but no difference in maximum speed attained. In open field, males showed greater active time but no difference in distance and speed over 30 min; however, male mice showed a downward trajectory in distance and speed over the final 20 min of testing, whereas females did not. These data suggest that male mice demonstrate comparable activity intensity to female mice but do not match females' duration of activity, especially for volitional tasks. Researchers utilizing these assays should account for sex differences as they could mask true findings in an experiment.

The effects of brain serotonin deficiency on the behavioral and neurogenesis-promoting effects of voluntary exercise in tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (R439H) knock-in mice

Exercise is known to reduce depression and anxiety symptoms. Although the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying this effect remain unknown, exercise-induced increases in neurotransmitter release and hippocampal neurogenesis have been hypothesized to play key roles. One neurotransmitter that has been implicated in both antidepressant-like effects and the regulation of hippocampal neurogenesis is serotonin (5-HT). Complete loss of function of the brain 5-HT synthesis enzyme (tryptophan hydroxylase 2, Tph2) has been reported to prevent exercise-induced increases in neurogenesis and to block a subset of antidepressant-like responses to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), but whether partial loss of Tph2 function blocks the behavioral and neurogenic effects of exercise has not been established. This study used four tests that are predictive of antidepressant efficacy to determine the impact of 5-HT deficiency on responses to exercise in male and female mice. Our results demonstrate that low 5-HT impairs the behavioral effects of exercise in females in the forced swim and novelty-suppressed feeding tests. However, genetic reductions in 5-HT synthesis did not significantly impact exercise-induced alterations in cellular proliferation or immature neuron production in the hippocampus in either sex. These findings highlight the importance of brain 5-HT in mediating behavioral responses to exercise and suggest that individual differences in brain 5-HT synthesis could influence sensitivity to the mental health benefits of exercise. Furthermore, the observed disconnect between neurogenic and behavioral responses to exercise suggests that increased neurogenesis is unlikely to be the primary driver of the behavioral effects of exercise observed here.

Effect of aging and exercise on hTERT expression in thymus tissue of hTERT transgenic bacterial artificial chromosome mice

Telomere shortening occurs with aging in immune cells and may be related to immunosenescence. Exercise can upregulate telomerase activity and attenuate telomere shortening in immune cells, but it is unknown if exercise impacts other immune tissues such as the thymus. This study aimed to examine human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) alternative splicing (AS) in response to aging and exercise in thymus tissue. Transgenic mice with a human TERT bacterial artificial chromosome integrated into its genome (hTERT-BAC) were utilized in two different exercise models. Mice of different ages were assigned to an exercise cage (running wheel) or not for 3 weeks prior to thymus tissue excision. Middle-aged mice (16 months) were exposed or not to treadmill running (30 min at 60% maximum speed) prior to thymus collection. hTERT transcript variants were measured by RT-PCR. hTERT transcripts decreased with aging (r =  - 0.7511, p < 0.0001) and 3 weeks of wheel running did not counteract this reduction. The ratio of exons 7/8 containing hTERT to total hTERT transcripts increased with aging (r = 0.3669, p = 0.0423) but 3 weeks of voluntary wheel running attenuated this aging-driven effect (r = 0.2013, p = 0.4719). Aging increased the expression of senescence marker p16 with no impact of wheel running. Thymus regeneration transcription factor, Foxn1, went down with age with no impact of wheel running exercise. Acute treadmill exercise did not induce any significant changes in thymus hTERT expression or AS variant ratio (p > 0.05). In summary, thymic hTERT expression is reduced with aging. Exercise counteracted a shift in hTERT AS ratio with age. Our data demonstrate that aging impacts telomerase expression and that exercise impacts dysregulated splicing that occurs with aging.

Enriched housing differentially alters allostatic load and cardiopulmonary responses to wildfire-related smoke in male and female mice

Living conditions are an important modifier of individual health outcomes and may lead to higher allostatic load (AL). However, housing-induced cardiovascular and immune effects contributing to altered environmental responsiveness remain understudied. This investigation was conducted to examine the influence of enriched (EH) versus depleted housing (DH) conditions on cardiopulmonary functions, systemic immune responses, and allostatic load in response to a single wildfire smoke (WS) exposure in mice. Male and female C57BL/6J mice were divided into EH or DH for 22 weeks, and cardiopulmonary assessments measured before and after exposures to either one-hr filtered air (FA) or flaming eucalyptus WS exposure. Male and female DH mice exhibited increased heart rate (HR) and left ventricular mass (LVM), as well as reduced stroke volume and end diastolic volume (EDV) one week following exposure to WS. Female DH mice displayed significantly elevated levels of IL-2, IL-17, corticosterone and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) following WS, while female in EH mice higher epinephrine levels were detected. Female mice exhibited higher AL than males with DH, which was potentiated post-WS exposure. Thus, DH increased susceptibility to extreme air pollution in a gender-dependent manner suggesting that living conditions need to be evaluated as a modifier of toxicological responses.

Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase inhibition mimics and boosts exercise-mediated improvements in muscle function in aged mice

Human hallmarks of sarcopenia include muscle weakness and a blunted response to exercise. Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase inhibitors (NNMTis) increase strength and promote the regenerative capacity of aged muscle, thus offering a promising treatment for sarcopenia. Since human hallmarks of sarcopenia are recapitulated in aged (24-month-old) mice, we treated mice from 22 to 24 months of age with NNMTi, intensive exercise, or a combination of both, and compared skeletal muscle adaptations, including grip strength, longitudinal running capacity, plantarflexor peak torque, fatigue, and muscle mass, fiber type, cross-sectional area, and intramyocellular lipid (IMCL) content. Exhaustive proteome and metabolome analyses were completed to identify the molecular mechanisms underlying the measured changes in skeletal muscle pathophysiology. Remarkably, NNMTi-treated aged sedentary mice showed ~ 40% greater grip strength than sedentary controls, while aged exercised mice only showed a 20% increase relative to controls. Importantly, the grip strength improvements resulting from NNMTi treatment and exercise were additive, with NNMTi-treated exercised mice developing a 60% increase in grip strength relative to sedentary controls. NNMTi treatment also promoted quantifiable improvements in IMCL content and, in combination with exercise, significantly increased gastrocnemius fiber CSA. Detailed skeletal muscle proteome and metabolome analyses revealed unique molecular mechanisms associated with NNMTi treatment and distinct molecular mechanisms and cellular processes arising from a combination of NNMTi and exercise relative to those given a single intervention. These studies suggest that NNMTi-based drugs, either alone or combined with exercise, will be beneficial in treating sarcopenia and a wide range of age-related myopathies.

Translatability of mouse muscle-aging for humans: the role of sex

Muscle-aging drives sarcopenia and is a major public health issue. Mice are frequently used as a model for human muscle-aging, however, research investigating their translational value is limited. In addition, mechanisms underlying muscle-aging may have sex-specific features in humans, but it is not yet assessed whether these are recapitulated in mice. Here, we studied the effects of aging on a functional, histological and transcriptional level at multiple timepoints in male and female mice (4, 17, 21 and 25 months), with particular emphasis on sex-differences. The effects of natural aging on the transcriptome of quadriceps muscle were compared to humans on pathway level. Significant loss of muscle mass occurred late, at 25 months, in both male (-17%, quadriceps) and female mice (-10%, quadriceps) compared to young control mice. Concomitantly, we found in female, but not male mice, a slower movement speed in the aged groups compared to the young mice (P < 0.001). Consistently, weighted gene co-expression network analysis revealed a stronger association between the aging-related reduction of movement and aging-related changes in muscle transcriptome of female compared to male mice (P < 0.001). In male, but not female mice, major distinctive aging-related changes occurred in the last age group (25 months), which highlights the necessity for careful selection of age using mice as a muscle-aging model. Furthermore, contrasting to humans, more aging-related changes were found in the muscle transcriptome of male mice compared to female mice (4090 vs. 2285 differentially expressed genes at 25 months, respectively). Subsequently, male mice recapitulated more muscle-aging related pathways characteristic for both male and female humans. In conclusion, our data show that sex has a critical effect on the mouse muscle-aging trajectory, although these do not necessarily reflect sex differences observed in the human muscle-aging trajectory.

Probing polypharmacy, ageing and sex effects on physical function using different tests

BACKGROUND

Ageing, sex and polypharmacy affect physical function.

OBJECTIVES

This mouse study investigates how ageing, sex and polypharmacy interact and affect grip strength, balance beam and wire hang, correlating and comparing the different test results between and within subgroups.

METHODS

Young (2.5 months) and old (21.5 months) C57BL/6 J male and female mice (n = 10-6/group) were assessed for physical function at baseline on grip strength, balance beam and wire hang with three trials of 60 s (WH60s) and one trial of 300 s (WH300s). Mice were randomised to control or diet containing a high Drug Burden Index (DBI, total anticholinergic and sedative drug exposure) polypharmacy regimen (metoprolol, simvastatin, citalopram, oxycodone and oxybutynin at therapeutic oral doses). Following 6-8 weeks of treatment, mice were reassessed.

RESULTS

High DBI polypharmacy and control mice both showed age group differences on all tests (p < 0.05). Only control mice showed sex differences, with females outperforming males on the WH60s and balance beam for old mice, WH300s for young mice (p < 0.05). Polypharmacy reduced grip strength in all subgroups (p < 0.05) and only in old females reduced wire hang time and cumulative behaviour and balance beam time and %walked (p < 0.05). Physical function assessments were all correlated with each other, with differences between subgroups (p < 0.05), and mice within subgroups showed interindividual variability in performance.

CONCLUSION

Age, sex and polypharmacy have variable effects on different tests, and behavioural measures are useful adjuvants to assessing performance. There was considerable within-group variability in change in measures over time. These findings can inform design and sample size of future studies.

The influence of sex on activity in voluntary wheel running, forced treadmill running, and open field testing

Introduction

Physical activity is commonly used for both measuring and treating dysfunction. While preclinical work has been historically biased towards males, the use of both male and female animals is gaining popularity after multiple NIH initiatives. With increasing inclusion of both sexes, it has become imperative to determine sex differences in common behavioral assays. The purpose of this study was to determine baseline sex differences in 3 activity assays: voluntary wheel running, forced treadmill running, and open field testing.

Methods

This was a secondary analysis of sex differences in healthy mice in 3 different assays: Separate mice were used for each assay. Specifically, 16 mice underwent 28 days of voluntary wheel running, 178 mice underwent forced treadmill running, and 88 mice underwent open field testing. Differences between sex across several activity parameters were examined for each assay.

Results

In voluntary wheel running, sex differences with larger effect sizes were observed in distance run, running time, and bout duration, with smaller effect size differences in speed, and no difference in total bouts. In forced treadmill running, differences were shown in time to exhaustion, but no difference in max speed attained. In open field, there were sex differences in active time but not in distance and speed in data aggregated over 30 minutes; however, distance and speed in male mice showed a downward trajectory over the final 20 minutes of testing, whereas females maintained the same trajectory.

Conclusion

These data suggest that male mice demonstrate comparable activity intensity as female mice but do not match female's duration of activity, especially for volitional tasks. Researchers utilizing these assays should account for sex differences as they could potentially mask true findings in an experiment.

Plain English Summary

Physical activity is a common measure to examine function in human subjects with and without disease. Animal models often use measures of physical activity to assess function, yet most of these measures have been done in males only, making interpretation and translation to females and humans difficult. Several measures have been used to measure activity in animals, including those examining voluntary running behavior, maximum capacity, and general activity levels; sex differences between these measures are unclear. We discovered sex differences throughout each of three activity tests. In voluntary running behavior there were large differences between sexes with females running a greater distance and spending more time running. There were small differences in the maximum capacity with females running for a longer period at high intensity. General activity levels showed small differences with females being less active than males. Thus, the greatest differences were found for voluntary running and small differences were found for maximum capacity and general activity levels; differences observed were dependent on the task. Researchers utilizing these assays should account for sex differences as they could potentially mask true findings in an experiment.

Unlocking the epigenome: Stress and exercise induced Bdnf regulation in the prefrontal cortex

Aversive caregiving in early life is a risk factor for aberrant brain and behavioral development. This outcome is related to epigenetic dysregulation of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf) gene. The Bdnf gene encodes for BDNF, a neurotrophin involved in early brain development, neural plasticity, learning, and memory. Recent work suggests that exercise may be neuroprotective in part by supporting BDNF protein and gene expression, making it an exciting target for therapeutic interventions. To our knowledge, exercise has never been studied as a therapeutic intervention in preclinical rodent models of caregiver maltreatment. To that end, the current study investigated the effect of an adult voluntary wheel running intervention on Bdnf methylation and expression in the prefrontal cortex of rats who experienced aversive caregiving in infancy. We employed a rodent model (Long Evans rats) wherein rat pups experienced intermittent caregiver-induced stress from postnatal days 1-7 and were given voluntary access to a running wheel (except in the control condition) from postnatal days 70-90 as a young adulthood treatment intervention. Our results indicate that maltreatment and exercise affect Bdnf gene methylation in an exon, CG site, and sex-specific manner. Here we add to a growing body of evidence of the ability for our experiences, including exercise, to permeate the brain. Keywords: Early life stress, Bdnf, exercise, prefrontal cortex.

Contributions of mouse genetic strain background to age-related phenotypes in physically active HET3 mice

We assessed aging hallmarks in skin, muscle, and adipose in the genetically diverse HET3 mouse, and generated a broad dataset comparing these to individual animal diagnostic SNPs from the 4 founding inbred strains of the HET3 line. For middle- and old-aged HET3 mice, we provided running wheel exercise to ensure our observations were not purely representative of sedentary animals, but age-related phenotypes were not improved with running wheel activity. Adipose tissue fibrosis, peripheral neuropathy, and loss of neuromuscular junction integrity were consistent phenotypes in older-aged HET3 mice regardless of physical activity, but aspects of these phenotypes were moderated by the SNP% contributions of the founding strains for the HET3 line. Taken together, the genetic contribution of founder strain SNPs moderated age-related phenotypes in skin and muscle innervation and were dependent on biological sex and chronological age. However, there was not a single founder strain (BALB/cJ, C57BL/6J, C3H/HeJ, DBA/2J) that appeared to drive more protection or disease-risk across aging in this mouse line, but genetic diversity in general was more protective.

Development of activity-based anorexia requires PKC-δ neurons in two central extended amygdala nuclei

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a serious psychiatric disease, but the neural mechanisms underlying its development are unclear. A subpopulation of amygdala neurons, marked by expression of protein kinase C-delta (PKC-δ), has previously been shown to regulate diverse anorexigenic signals. Here, we demonstrate that these neurons regulate development of activity-based anorexia (ABA), a common animal model for AN. PKC-δ neurons are located in two nuclei of the central extended amygdala (EAc): the central nucleus (CeA) and oval region of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (ovBNST). Simultaneous ablation of CeAPKC-δ and ovBNSTPKC-δ neurons prevents ABA, but ablating PKC-δ neurons in the CeA or ovBNST alone is not sufficient. Correspondingly, PKC-δ neurons in both nuclei show increased activity with ABA development. Our study shows how neurons in the amygdala regulate ABA by impacting both feeding and wheel activity behaviors and support a complex heterogeneous etiology of AN.

Gender-Specific Fine Motor Skill Learning Is Impaired by Myelin-Targeted Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Gene Mutation

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is caused by mutations in the NF1 gene. The clinical presentation of NF1 includes diverse neurological issues in pediatric and adult patients, ranging from learning disabilities, motor skill issues, and attention deficit disorder, to increased risk of depression and dementia. Preclinical research suggests that abnormal neuronal signaling mediates spatial learning and attention issues in NF1; however, drugs that improve phenotypes in models show inconclusive results in clinical trials, highlighting the need for a better understanding of NF1 pathophysiology and broader therapeutic options. Most NF1 patients show abnormalities in their brain white matter (WM) and myelin, and links with NF1 neuropathophysiology have been suggested; however, no current data can clearly support or refute this idea. We reported that myelin-targeted Nf1 mutation impacts oligodendrocyte signaling, myelin ultrastructure, WM connectivity, and sensory-motor behaviors in mice; however, any impact on learning and memory remains unknown. Here, we adapted a voluntary running test-the complex wheel (CW; a wheel with unevenly spaced rungs)-to delineate fine motor skill learning curves following induction of an Nf1 mutation in pre-existing myelinating cells (pNf1 mice). We found that pNf1 mutant females experience delayed or impaired learning in the CW, while proper learning in pNf1 males is predominantly disrupted; these phenotypes add complexity to the gender-dependent learning differences in the mouse strain used. No broad differences in memory of acquired CW skills were detected in any gender, but gene-dose effects were observed at the studied time points. Finally, nitric oxide signaling regulation differentially impacted learning in wild type (WT)/pNf1, male/female mice. Our results provide evidence for fine motor skill learning issues upon induction of an Nf1 mutation in mature myelinating cells. Together with previous connectivity, cellular, and molecular analyses, these results diversify the potential treatments for neurological issues in NF1.

iMS-Bmal1-/- mice show evident signs of sarcopenia that are counteracted by exercise and melatonin therapies

Sarcopenia is an age-related disease characterized by a reduction in muscle mass, strength, and function and, therefore, a deterioration in skeletal muscle health and frailty. Although the cause of sarcopenia is still unknown and, thus, there is no treatment, increasing evidence suggests that chronodisruption, particularly alterations in Bmal1 clock gene, can lead to those deficits culminating in sarcopenia. To gain insight into the cause and mechanism of sarcopenia and the protective effect of a therapeutic intervention with exercise and/or melatonin, the gastrocnemius muscles of male and female skeletal muscle-specific and inducible Bmal1 knockout mice (iMS-Bmal1-/- ) were examined by phenotypic tests and light and electron microscopy. Our results revealed a disruption of the normal activity/rest rhythm, a drop in skeletal muscle function and mass, and increased frailty in male and female iMS-Bmal1-/- animals compared to controls. A reduction in muscle fiber size and increased collagenous tissue were also detected, accompanied by reduced mitochondrial oxidative capacity and a compensatory shift towards a more oxidative fiber type. Electron microscopy further supports mitochondrial impairment in mutant mice. Melatonin and exercise ameliorated the damage caused by loss of Bmal1 in mutant mice, except for mitochondrial damage, which was worsened by the latter. Thus, iMS-Bmal1-/- mice let us to identify Bmal1 deficiency as the responsible for the appearance of sarcopenia in the gastrocnemius muscle. Moreover, the results support the exercise and melatonin as therapeutic tools to counteract sarcopenia, by a mechanism that does not require the presence of Bmal1.

Sex and age differences in mice models of effort-based decision-making and anergia in depression: the role of dopamine, and cerebral-dopamine-neurotrophic-factor

Mesolimbic dopamine (DA) regulates vigor in motivated behavior. While previous results have mainly been performed in male rodents, the present studies compared CD1 male and female mice in effort-based decision-making tests of motivation. These tests offered choices between several reinforcers that require different levels of effort (progressive ratio/choice task and 3-choice-T-maze task). Sweet reinforcers were used in both tasks. In the operant tasks, females worked harder as the task required more effort to access a 10% sucrose solution. Although males and females did not differ in preference for 10% vs 3% solutions under free concurrent presentation, females consumed more of the 10% solution when tested alone. The operant task requires a long period of training and changes in the DA system due to age can be mediating long-term changes in effort. Thus, age and sex factors were evaluated in the T-maze task, which requires only a short training period. Both sexes and ages were equally active when habituated to the running wheel (RW), but females consumed more sweet pellets than males, especially at an older age. Both sexes had a strong preference for the RW compared to more sedentary reinforcers in the 3-choice-T-maze test, but older animals spent less time running and ate more than the young ones. The DA-depleting agent tetrabenazine reduced time running in older mice but not in adolescents. Cerebral-dopamine-neurotrophic-factor was reduced in older mice of both sexes compared to adolescent mice. These results emphasize the importance of taking into account differences in sex and age when evaluating willingness to exert effort for specific reinforcers.

A convolutional neural network to characterize mouse hindlimb foot strikes during voluntary wheel running

Voluntary wheel running (VWR) is widely used to study how exercise impacts a variety of physiologies and pathologies in rodents. The primary activity readout of VWR is aggregated wheel turns over a given time interval (most often, days). Given the typical running frequency of mice (∼4 Hz) and the intermittency of voluntary running, aggregate wheel turn counts, therefore, provide minimal insight into the heterogeneity of voluntary activity. To overcome this limitation, we developed a six-layer convolutional neural network (CNN) to determine the hindlimb foot strike frequency of mice exposed to VWR. Aged female C57BL/6 mice (22 months, n = 6) were first exposed to wireless angled running wheels for 2 h/d, 5 days/wk for 3 weeks with all VWR activities recorded at 30 frames/s. To validate the CNN, we manually classified foot strikes within 4800 1-s videos (800 randomly chosen for each mouse) and converted those values to frequency. Upon iterative optimization of model architecture and training on a subset of classified videos (4400), the CNN model achieved an overall training set accuracy of 94%. Once trained, the CNN was validated on the remaining 400 videos (accuracy: 81%). We then applied transfer learning to the CNN to predict the foot strike frequency of young adult female C57BL6 mice (4 months, n = 6) whose activity and gait differed from old mice during VWR (accuracy: 68%). In summary, we have developed a novel quantitative tool that non-invasively characterizes VWR activity at a much greater resolution than was previously accessible. This enhanced resolution holds potential to overcome a primary barrier to relating intermittent and heterogeneous VWR activity to induced physiological responses.

Ovariectomy aggravates the pathophysiological response to exertional heat stroke in mice

Female mice have a greater capacity for exercising in the heat than male mice, reaching greater power output and longer times of heat exposure before succumbing to exertional heat stroke (EHS). Differences in body mass, size, or testosterone do not explain these distinct sex responses. Whether the ovaries could account for the superior exercise capacity in the heat in females remains unknown. Here, we determined the influence of ovariectomy (OVX) on exercise capacity in the heat, thermoregulation, intestinal damage, and heat shock response in a mouse EHS model. We performed bilateral OVX (n = 10) or sham (n = 8) surgeries in young adult (4 mo) female C57/BL6J mice. Upon recovery from surgeries, mice exercised on a forced wheel placed inside an environmental chamber set at 37.5 °C and 40% relative humidity until experiencing loss of consciousness (LOC). Terminal experiments were performed 3 h after LOC. OVX increased body mass by the time of EHS (sham = 3.8 ± 1.1, OVX = 8.3 ± 3.2 g, P < 0.05), resulted in shorter running distance (sham = 753 ± 189, OVX = 490 ± 87 m, P < 0.05), and shorter time to LOC (sham = 126.3 ± 21, OVX = 99.1 ± 19.8 min, P < 0.05). Histopathological assessment of the intestines revealed damage in the jejunum (sham = 0.2 ± 0.7, OVX = 2.1 ± 1.7 AU, P < 0.05) and ileum (sham = 0.3 ± 0.5, OVX = 1.8 ± 1.4 AU, P < 0.05). OVX increased mesenteric microvascular density (sham = 101 ± 25, OVX = 156 ± 66 10-2 mm/mm2, P < 0.05) and decreased concentration of circulatory heat shock protein 72 (HSP72) (sham = 26.7 ± 15.8, OVX = 10.3 ± 4.6 ng/mL, P < 0.05). No differences were observed in cytokines or chemokines between groups. Our findings indicate that OVX aggravates the pathophysiological response to EHS in mice.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Females outperform males in a mouse model of exertional heat stroke (EHS). Here, we show for the first time the impact of ovariectomy (OVX) on EHS pathophysiology. OVX resulted in a shorter exercise capacity in the heat, greater intestinal damage, and lower heat shock response following EHS.

Voluntarily wheel running inhibits the growth of CRPC xenograft by inhibiting HMGB1 in mice

INTRODUCTION

Exercise has been proved to reduce the risk of recurrence and mortality of cancer. Emerging evidence indicated that exercise may regulate both systematical and local metabolism, immunity and other ways. Although the role of exercise in inhibiting castration-resistant prostate cancer is well established, the underlying mechanism remains unclear.

METHOD

Twenty C57BL/6 male mice were used to construct CRPC xenograft models and randomly divided into exercise group (n = 10) and control group (n = 10). After exercised with voluntarily wheel running for 21 days, the mice were sacrificed and the tumor tissues and serum were collected. TUNEL staining was used to detect the apoptosis of tumor cells. The expression of PI3K signal pathway and apoptosis related proteins were detected by Western blot. The expression of AR and HMGB1 were examined by Western blot and Immunohistochemical staining. IFN-γ, TNF-α, TGF-β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10 in serum was examined using ELISA kits.

RESULTS

Voluntarily wheel running inhibited the growth of CRPC xenografts, inhibited the proliferation of tumor cells and promoted the apoptosis of tumor cells. HMGB1 levels in serum and tumor tissues were significantly reduced after exercise, which enhanced local immunity by inducing more leukocyte infiltration and inhibited systemic inflammatory response by regulating cytokines.

CONCLUSION

Voluntary wheel running can down-regulate the expression of HMGB1 in serum and transplanted tumor tissues, inhibit proliferation and promote apoptosis of tumor cells, enhance immune cell infiltration and systemic inflammatory response, and regulate local anti-tumor effects in tumor microenvironment.

Interplay between Learning and Voluntary Wheel Running in Male C57BL/6NCrl Mice

Exercise is shown to improve cognitive function in various human and animal studies. Laboratory mice are often used as a model to study the effects of physical activity and running wheels provide a voluntary and non-stressful form of exercise. The aim of the study was to analyze whether the cognitive state of a mouse is related to its wheel-running behavior. Twenty-two male C57BL/6NCrl mice (9.5 weeks old) were used in the study. The cognitive function of group-housed mice (n = 5-6/group) was first analyzed in the IntelliCage system followed by individual phenotyping with the PhenoMaster with access to a voluntary running wheel. The mice were divided into three groups according to their running wheel activity: low, average, and high runners. The learning trials in the IntelliCage showed that the high-runner mice exhibited a higher error rate at the beginning of learning trials but improved their outcome and learning performance more compared to the other groups. The high-runner mice ate more compared to the other groups in the PhenoMaster analyses. There were no differences in the corticosterone levels between the groups, indicating similar stress responses. Our results demonstrate that high-runner mice exhibit enhanced learning capabilities prior to access to voluntary running wheels. In addition, our results also show that individual mice react differently when introduced to running wheels, which should be taken into consideration when choosing animals for voluntary endurance exercise studies.

Sex differences in body composition, voluntary wheel running activity, balance performance, and auditory function in CBA/CaJ mice across the lifespan

Hearing loss is the third most prevalent chronic health condition affecting older adults and age-related hearing loss (ARHL) is the most common form of hearing impairment. Significant sex differences in hearing have been documented in humans and rodents. In general, the results of these studies show that men lose their hearing more rapidly than women. However, the cellular mechanism underlying sex differences in hearing or hearing loss remains largely unknown, and to our knowledge, there is no well-established animal model for studying sex differences in hearing. In the current study, we examined sex differences in body composition, voluntary wheel running activity, balance performance, auditory function, and cochlear histology in young, middle-age, and old CBA/CaJ mice, a model of age-related hearing loss. As expected, body weight of young females was lower than that of males. Similarly, lean mass and total water mass of young, middle-age, and old females were lower than those of males. Young females showed higher voluntary wheel running activity during the dark cycle, an indicator of mobility, physical activity, and balance status, compared to males. Young females also displayed higher auditory brainstem response (ABR) wave I amplitudes at 8 kHz, wave II, III, V amplitudes at 8 and 48 kHz, and wave IV/I and V/I amplitude ratios at 48 kHz compared to males. Collectively, our findings suggest that the CBA/CaJ mouse strain is a useful model to study the cellular mechanisms underlying sex differences in physical activity and hearing.

The effects of voluntary binge-patterned ethanol ingestion and daily wheel running on signaling of muscle protein synthesis and degradation in female mice

Excessive ethanol ingestion can reduce skeletal muscle protein synthesis (MPS) through the disruption of signaling along the Akt-mTOR pathway and increase muscle protein degradation (MPD) through the Ubiquitin Proteasome Pathway (UPP) and autophagy. Identification of interventions that curb the disrupting effects of alcohol misuse on MPS and MPD are of central importance for the prevention of chronic health complications that arise from muscle loss. Physical activity is one potential strategy to combat the deleterious effects of alcohol on skeletal muscle. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the interaction between daily wheel running and binge-patterned ethanol consumption, through episodes of voluntary binge-patterned ethanol drinking, on signaling factors along the Akt-mTOR, Ubiquitin-Proteasome, and autophagy pathways. Adult female C57BL/6J mice received daily access to cages with or without running wheels for 2.5 h/day for five weeks. During the final five days of the study, mice received 2-4 h of daily access to sipper tubes containing water (n = 14 sedentary; n = 15 running) or 20% ethanol (n = 14 sedentary; n = 16 running) 30 min after running wheel access, using the "Drinking in the Dark" (DID) model of binge-patterned ethanol consumption. Immediately after the final episode of DID, gastrocnemius muscle was extracted. Western blotting was performed to measure proteins along Akt-mTOR, Ubiquitin-Proteasome, and autophagy pathways, and PCR was used to assess mRNA expression of atrogenes. Ethanol access increased expression of MAFbx by 82% (p = 0.048), but did not robustly influence Akt-mTOR or UPP signaling. Daily wheel access did not prevent alcohol-induced MAFbx expression; however, ethanol access decreased the phosphorylation of p70S6K by 45% in running mice (p = 0.020). These results suggest that physical activity may be insufficient to prevent alcohol-induced changes to signaling factors along pathways involved in muscle loss. Instead, binge-patterned ethanol ingestion may impair the benefits of physical activity on factors involved in MPS.

Voluntary physical activity improves spatial and recognition memory deficits induced by post-weaning chronic exposure to a high-fat diet

Childhood and adolescent exposure to obesogenic environments has contributed to the development of several health disorders, including neurocognitive impairment. Adolescence is a critical neurodevelopmental window highly influenced by environmental factors that affect brain function until adulthood. Post-weaning chronic exposure to a high-fat diet (HFD) adversely affects memory performance; physical activity is one approach to coping with these dysfunctions. Previous studies indicate that voluntary exercise prevents HFD's detrimental effects on memory; however, it remains to evaluate whether it has a remedial/therapeutical effect when introduced after a long-term HFD exposure. This study was conducted on a diet-induced obesity mice model over six months. After three months of HFD exposure (without interrupting the diet) access to voluntary physical activity was provided. HFD produced weight gain, increased adiposity, and impaired glucose tolerance. Voluntary physical exercise ameliorated glucose tolerance and halted weight gain and fat accumulation. Additionally, physical activity mitigated HFD-induced spatial and recognition memory impairments. Our data indicate that voluntary physical exercise starting after several months of periadolescent HFD exposure reverses metabolic and cognitive alterations demonstrating that voluntary exercise, in addition to its known preventive effect, also has a restorative impact on metabolism and cognition dysfunctions associated with obesity.

Animal Models of Exercise From Rodents to Pythons

Acute and chronic animal models of exercise are commonly used in research. Acute exercise testing is used, often in combination with genetic, pharmacological, or other manipulations, to study the impact of these manipulations on the cardiovascular response to exercise and to detect impairments or improvements in cardiovascular function that may not be evident at rest. Chronic exercise conditioning models are used to study the cardiac phenotypic response to regular exercise training and as a platform for discovery of novel pathways mediating cardiovascular benefits conferred by exercise conditioning that could be exploited therapeutically. The cardiovascular benefits of exercise are well established, and, frequently, molecular manipulations that mimic the pathway changes induced by exercise recapitulate at least some of its benefits. This review discusses approaches for assessing cardiovascular function during an acute exercise challenge in rodents, as well as practical and conceptual considerations in the use of common rodent exercise conditioning models. The case for studying feeding in the Burmese python as a model for exercise-like physiological adaptation is also explored.

Remembering how to run: a descriptive wheel run analysis in CF1 males and females mice

Physical exercise is known to have beneficial effects on general health and wellbeing in humans and it is also related to neuronal plasticity, increasing neurogenesis and consequently leading to improvements in processes such as learning and memory. In this sense, wheel running performance in mice appears as an extensively used behavioral approach for neurobiological studies. Here, we explored the running patterns in CF1 male and female mice allowing voluntary wheel running for 20 min along three consecutive days. We analyzed differences in the accumulated distance traveled, instant velocity, and latency to run and breaks taken in both males and females, comparing performance between days. Results revealed that after a first experience with the wheel, animals that had learnt how to run on day 1 quickly look forward to stepping into the wheel in subsequent training days, reflected by a significant increase in daily running distance and velocity. Further, no differences were found in the running performance between males and females. In summary, in a first experience with the wheel, animals get familiarized with the wheel and grow accustomed to it.

Myogenic Precursor Cells Show Faster Activation and Enhanced Differentiation in a Male Mouse Model Selected for Advanced Endurance Exercise Performance

Satellite cells (SATC), the most abundant skeletal muscle stem cells, play a main role in muscle plasticity, including the adaptive response following physical activity. Thus, we investigated how long-term phenotype selection of male mice for high running performance (Dummerstorf high Treadmill Performance; DUhTP) affects abundance, creatine kinase activity, myogenic marker expression (Pax7, MyoD), and functionality (growth kinetics, differentiation) of SATC and their progeny. SATC were isolated from sedentary male DUhTP and control (Dummerstorf Control; DUC) mice at days 12, 43, and 73 of life and after voluntary wheel running for three weeks (day 73). Marked line differences occur at days 43 and 73 (after activity). At both ages, analysis of SATC growth via xCELLigence system revealed faster activation accompanied by a higher proliferation rate and lower proportion of Pax7+ cells in DUhTP mice, indicating reduced reserve cell formation and faster transition into differentiation. Cultures from sedentary DUhTP mice contain an elevated proportion of actively proliferating Pax7+/MyoD+ cells and have a higher fusion index leading to the formation of more large and very large myotubes at day 43. This robust hypertrophic response occurs without any functional load in the donor mice. Thus, our selection model seems to recruit myogenic precursor cells/SATC with a lower activation threshold that respond more rapidly to external stimuli and are more primed for differentiation at the expense of more primitive cells.

Cross-fostering selectively bred High Runner mice affects adult body mass but not voluntary exercise

While nursing, mammals progress through critical developmental periods for the cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, and central nervous systems. The suckling period in mammals is therefore especially vulnerable to environmental factors that may affect the "developmental programming" of many complex traits. As a result, various aspects of maternal behavior and physiology can influence offspring in ways that have lasting effects into adulthood. Several recent studies of animal models have shown that maternal effects can partially program adult activity behaviors, which has important implications for health and locomotor performance. Here, we used cross-fostering to test for possible maternal effects on adult wheel-running behavior (voluntary exercise), maximal aerobic capacity during forced exercise (VO₂max), body mass and composition, and organ masses. Subjects were from a line of mice that has been selectively bred for ∼90 generations for high voluntary wheel-running behavior (High Runner; HR) and a non-selected Control (C) line. Adult HR mice run ∼3-fold the daily distances of C mice and have evolved other differences associated with exercise capacity, including elevated VO₂max, reduced body mass and fat mass, and larger hearts. At birth, we fostered offspring to create 4 experimental groups: C pups to other C dams (in-foster), HR pups to other HR dams (in-foster), C pups to HR dams (cross-foster), HR pups to C dams (cross-foster). Thus, all pups were fostered to a different mother. Mice were weaned 3 weeks later, and adult testing began at ∼6 weeks of age. At weaning, pups raised by HR dams were smaller than those raised by C dams for both sexes and as expected, HR pups raised by HR dams weighed less than C pups raised by C dams. As adults, mice raised by HR dams continued to have reduced body masses. As expected, adult HR mice ran approximately 3-fold more than their C counterparts and females ran more than males. However, cross-fostering did not statistically affect any aspect of wheel-running behavior (distance, duration, speed). Similarly, with body mass as a covariate, HR mice had higher VO₂max than C mice, and males had higher VO₂max than females, but cross-fostering had no effect. With body mass as a covariate, cross-fostering had variable effects on adult organ masses in a sex-specific manner. Overall, our results indicate that development of the adult High Runner phenotype does not require rearing by an HR dam, suggesting that high adult activity in humans may be independent of high maternal activity.

Lysine methyltransferase 2D regulates muscle fiber size and muscle cell differentiation

Kabuki syndrome (KS) is a rare genetic disorder caused primarily by mutations in the histone modifier genes KMT2D and KDM6A. The genes have broad temporal and spatial expression in many organs, resulting in complex phenotypes observed in KS patients. Hypotonia is one of the clinical presentations associated with KS, yet detailed examination of skeletal muscle samples from KS patients has not been reported. We studied the consequences of loss of KMT2D function in both mouse and human muscles. In mice, heterozygous loss of Kmt2d resulted in reduced neuromuscular junction (NMJ) perimeter, decreased muscle cell differentiation in vitro and impaired myofiber regeneration in vivo. Muscle samples from KS patients of different ages showed presence of increased fibrotic tissue interspersed between myofiber fascicles, which was not seen in mouse muscles. Importantly, when Kmt2d‐deficient muscle stem cells were transplanted in vivo in a physiologic non‐Kabuki environment, their differentiation potential is restored to levels undistinguishable from control cells. Thus, the epigenetic changes due to loss of function of KMT2D appear reversible through a change in milieu, opening a potential therapeutic avenue.

Rolling out physical exercise and energy homeostasis: Focus on hypothalamic circuitries

Energy balance is the fine regulation of energy expenditure and energy intake. Negative energy balance causes body weight loss, while positive energy balance promotes weight gain. Modern societies offer a maladapted way of life, where easy access to palatable foods and the lack of opportunities to perform physical activity are considered the roots of the obesity pandemic. Physical exercise increases energy expenditure and, consequently, is supposed to promote weight loss. Paradoxically, physical exercise acutely drives anorexigenic-like effects, but the mechanisms are still poorly understood. Using an evolutionary background, this review aims to highlight the potential involvement of the melanocortin system and other hypothalamic neural circuitries regulating energy balance during and after physical exercise. The physiological significance of these changes will be explored, and possible signalling agents will be addressed. The knowledge discussed here might be important for clarifying obesity aetiology as well as new therapeutic approaches for body weight loss.

Short-term running exercise alters DNA methylation patterns in neuronal nitric oxide synthase and brain-derived neurotrophic factor genes in the mouse hippocampus and reduces anxiety-like behaviors

Running exercise has beneficial effects on brain health. However, the effects of relatively short-term running exercise (STEx) on behavior, and its underlying signaling pathways, are poorly understood. In this study, we evaluated the possibility that the regulation by STEx of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS, encoded by NOS1), which are important molecules for anxiety regulation, might involve mechanisms of epigenetic modification, such as DNA methylation. C57BL/6J male mice were divided into sedentary (SED, n = 12) and STEx (EX, n = 15) groups; STEx was conducted with the mice for a duration of 11 days. STEx reduced anxiety-like behaviors, and STEx reduced Nos1α and increased Bdnf exon I and IV mRNA levels in the hippocampus. Interestingly, behavioral parameters were associated with Bdnf exon I and IV and Nos1α mRNA levels in the ventral, but not dorsal, hippocampal region. However, STEx had no effect on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator 1α (Pgc-1α) or fibronectin type III domain-containing 5 (Fndc5) mRNA levels, which are relatively long-term exercise-induced upstream regulators of BDNF. In parallel with gene expression changes, we found, for the first time, that STEx downregulated Bdnf promoter IV and upregulated Nos1 DNA methylation levels in the hippocampus, and these patterns were partially different between the dorsal and ventral regions. These findings suggest that the beneficial effects of running exercise on mood regulation may be controlled by alterations in epigenetic mechanisms, especially in the ventral hippocampus. These effects occur even after a relatively short-term period of exercise.

Use of running plates by floor housed rats: A pilot study

The outfit of husbandry facilities of, and the enrichment provided for, experimental rodents plays an important role in the animals' welfare, and hence also for the societal acceptance of animal experiments. Whether rats and mice benefit from being provided with running wheels or plates is discussed controversially. Here we present observations from a feeding experiment, where rats were provided a running plate. As a pilot study, six identical cages, with three animals per cage, were filmed for six days, and the resulting footage was screened for the number of bouts and the time the animals spent on the plates. The main activities observed on the plate in descending order were sitting (18.5 ± 13.8 bouts or 8.0 ± 13.7 min/animal per day), standing (10.2 ± 11.6 bouts, 3.8 ± 4.2 min), running (8.2 ± 13.3 bouts, 10.1 ± 21.4 min), grooming (2.0 ± 2.8 bouts, 6.7 ± 25.7 min), sleeping (1.0 ± 2.6 bouts, 24.0 ± 61.8 min) and playing (0.5 ± 0.9 bouts, 0.1 ± 0.5 min). Most of these activities (91% of all bouts, 90% of total time) occurred at night, similar to previous studies on running wheel usage. The running plate seems well-accepted as cage enrichment, even though in further studies, the motivating triggers and the effects of long-term use could be evaluated more in-depth.

The Effects of Physical Exercise on Tumor Vasculature: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

A wealth of evidence supports an association between physical exercise, decreased tumor growth rate, and reduced risk of cancer mortality. In this context, the tumor vascular microenvironment may play a key role in modulating tumor biologic behavior. The present systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to summarize the evidence regarding the effects of physical exercise on tumor vasculature in pre-clinical studies. We performed a computerized research on the PubMed, Scopus, and EBSCO databases to identify pre-clinical studies that evaluated the effect of physical exercise on tumor vascular outcomes. Mean differences were calculated through a random effects model. The present systematic review included 13 studies involving 373 animals. From these, 11 studies evaluated chronic intratumoral vascular adaptations and 2 studies assessed the acute intratumoral vascular adaptations to physical exercise. The chronic intratumoral vascular adaptations resulted in higher tumor microvessel density in 4 studies, increased tumor perfusion in 2 studies, and reduced intratumoral hypoxia in 3 studies. Quantitatively, regular physical exercise induced an increased tumor vascularization of 2.13 [1.07, 3.20] (p<0.0001). The acute intratumoral vascular adaptations included increased vascular conductance and reduced vascular resistance, which improved tumor perfusion and attenuated intratumoral hypoxia. In pre-clinical studies, physical exercise seems to improve tumor vascularization.

Female Outperformance in Voluntary Running Persists in Dystrophin-Null and Klotho-Overexpressing Mice

BACKGROUND

Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a degenerative muscle disease that results from impairment of the dystrophin gene. The disease causes progressive loss in muscle mass and function.

OBJECTIVE

The anti-aging protein, α-klotho, has been implicated in the regulation of muscle regeneration. We previously discovered that mice harboring reduced α-klotho levels exhibited a decline in muscle strength and running endurance.

METHOD

To investigate the ability of α-klotho to improve overall endurance in a dystrophin null murine model, we examined the voluntary wheel running performance of dystrophin-null, mdx4cv mice overexpressing an α-klotho transgene.

RESULTS

As expected, compared to wild type, both male and female dystrophic mice exhibited reduced running ability that was characterized by shorter running duration and longer periods of rest between cycles of activity. While our results did not detect an improvement in running performance with α-klotho overexpression, we identified distinct differences in the running patterns between females and males from all mouse strains analyzed (i.e., mdx4cv, mdx4cv overexpressing α-klotho, α-klotho overexpressing, α-klotho hypomorph, and wild type). For all strains, male mice displayed significantly reduced voluntary running ability compared to females. Further analysis of the mdx4cv strains demonstrated that male mice ran for shorter lengths of time and took longer breaks. However, we did not identify gender-associated differences in the actual speed at which mdx4cv mice ran.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest key differences in the running capabilities of female and male mice, which are of particular relevance to studies of dystrophin-null mice.

Skeletal muscle-specific calpastatin overexpression mitigates muscle weakness in aging and extends life span

Calpain activation has been postulated as a potential contributor to the loss of muscle mass and function associated with both aging and disease, but limitations of previous experimental approaches have failed to completely examine this issue. We hypothesized that mice overexpressing calpastatin (CalpOX), an endogenous inhibitor of calpain, solely in skeletal muscle would show an amelioration of the aging muscle phenotype. We assessed four groups of mice (age in months): 1) young wild type (WT; 5.71 ± 0.43), 2) young CalpOX (5.6 ± 0.5), 3) old WT (25.81 ± 0.56), and 4) old CalpOX (25.91 ± 0.60) for diaphragm and limb muscle (extensor digitorum longus, EDL) force frequency relations. Aging significantly reduced diaphragm and EDL peak force in old WT mice, and decreased the force-time integral during a fatiguing protocol by 48% and 23% in aged WT diaphragm and EDL, respectively. In contrast, we found that CalpOX mice had significantly increased diaphragm and EDL peak force in old mice, similar to that observed in young mice. The impact of aging on the force-time integral during a fatiguing protocol was abolished in the diaphragm and EDL of old CalpOX animals. Surprisingly, we found that CalpOX had a significant impact on longevity, increasing median survival from 20.55 mo in WT mice to 24 mo in CalpOX mice (P = 0.0006).NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first study to investigate the role of calpastatin overexpression on skeletal muscle specific force in aging rodents. Muscle-specific overexpression of calpastatin, the endogenous calpain inhibitor, prevented aging-induced reductions in both EDL and diaphragm specific force and, remarkably, increased life span. These data suggest that diaphragm dysfunction in aging may be a major factor in determining longevity. Targeting the calpain/calpastatin pathway may elucidate novel therapies to combat skeletal muscle weakness in aging.

Experiments confirm a dispersive phenotype associated with a natural gene drive system

Meiotic drivers are genetic entities that increase their own probability of being transmitted to offspring, usually to the detriment of the rest of the organism, thus 'selfishly' increasing their fitness. In many meiotic drive systems, driver-carrying males are less successful in sperm competition, which occurs when females mate with multiple males in one oestrus cycle (polyandry). How do drivers respond to this selection? An observational study found that house mice carrying the t haplotype, a meiotic driver, are more likely to disperse from dense populations. This could help the t avoid detrimental sperm competition, because density is associated with the frequency of polyandry. However, no controlled experiments have been conducted to test these findings. Here, we confirm that carriers of the t haplotype are more dispersive, but we do not find this to depend on the local density. t-carriers with above-average body weight were particularly more likely to disperse than wild-type mice. t-carrying mice were also more explorative but not more active than wild-type mice. These results add experimental support to the previous observational finding that the t haplotype affects the dispersal phenotype in house mice, which supports the hypothesis that dispersal reduces the fitness costs of the t.

Constitutive PGC-1α Overexpression in Skeletal Muscle Does Not Contribute to Exercise-Induced Neurogenesis

Physical exercise can improve age-dependent decline in cognition, which in rodent is partly mediated by restoration of an age-dependent decline in neurogenesis. Exercise-inducible myokines in the circulation present a link in muscle-brain crosstalk. The transcription factor PGC-1α regulates the release of such myokines with neurotrophic properties into the circulation. We study how chronic muscular overexpression of PGC-1α could contribute to exercise-induced effects on hippocampal neurogenesis and if this effect could be enhanced in a running wheel paradigm. We used 3- and 11-month-old transgenic mice with overexpression of PGC-1α under the control of muscle creatinine kinase promoter (MCK-PGC-1α), which have a constitutively developed endurance muscle phenotype. Wild-type and MCK-PGC-1α mice were single housed with free access to running wheels. Four weeks of running in female animals increased the levels of newborn cells, immature neurons, and, for young animals, new mature neurons, compared to sedentary controls. However, no difference in these parameters was observed between wild-type and transgenic mice under sedentary or running conditions. Multiplex analysis of serum cytokines, chemokines, and myokines suggested several differences in serum protein concentrations between genotypes with musclin found to be significantly upregulated 4-fold in male MCK-PGC-1α animals. We conclude that constitutive muscular overexpression of PGC-1α, despite systemic changes and difference in serum composition, does not translate into exercise-induced effects on hippocampal neurogenesis, independent of the age of the animal. This suggests that chronic activation of PGC-1α in skeletal muscle is by itself not sufficient to mimic exercise-induced effects or to prevent decline of neurogenesis in aging.

'Reinventing the wheel' to advance the development of pain therapeutics

Chronic pain affects approximately one-third of the population worldwide. The primary goal of animal research is to understand the neural mechanisms underlying pain so better treatments can be developed. Despite an enormous investment in time and money, almost no novel treatments for pain have been developed. There are many factors that contribute to this lack of translation in drug development. The mismatch between the goals of drug development in animals (inhibition of pain-evoked responses) and treatment in humans (restoration of function) is a major problem. To solve this problem, a number of pain-depressed behavioral tests have been developed to assess changes in normal behavior in laboratory animals. The use of home cage wheel running as a pain assessment tool is especially useful in that it is easy to use, provides an objective measurement of the magnitude and duration of pain, and is a clinically relevant method to screen novel drugs. Pain depresses activity in humans and animals, and effective analgesic treatments restore activity. Unlike traditional pain-evoked tests (e.g., hot plate, tail flick, von Frey test), restoration of home cage wheel running evaluates treatments for both antinociceptive efficacy and the absence of disruptive side effects (e.g., sedation, paralysis, nausea). This article reviews the literature using wheel running to assess pain and makes the case for home cage wheel running as an effective and clinically relevant method to screen novel analgesics for therapeutic potential.

Voluntary physical activity protects against olanzapine-induced hyperglycemia

Olanzapine (OLZ) is used in the treatment of schizophrenia and a growing number of "off-label" conditions. Although effective in reducing psychoses, OLZ causes rapid impairments in glucose and lipid homeostasis. The purpose of this study was to investigate if voluntary physical activity via wheel running (VWR) would protect against the acute metabolic side effects of OLZ. Male C57BL/6J mice remained sedentary or were provided with running wheels overnight, before treatment with OLZ either at the beginning of the light cycle, or 7 or 24 h following the cessation of VWR. Prior VWR protected against OLZ-induced hyperglycemia immediately and 7 h following a bout of overnight wheel running. Protection against, hyperglycemia immediately following VWR was associated with increased insulin tolerance and an attenuated OLZ-induced increase in the serum glucagon:insulin ratio. The protective effect of VWR against OLZ-induced increases in hyperglycemia and glucagon:insulin ratio was maintained in high-fat fed, and AMPK β1-deficient mice, models which display a potentiated OLZ-induced increase in blood glucose. Repeated OLZ treatment did not impair VWR performance and protection against the acute effects of OLZ on blood glucose was present after 1 wk of daily OLZ treatment in mice given access to running wheels. In contrast to the effects on glucose metabolism, VWR, for the most part, did not impact OLZ-induced perturbations in lipolysis, liver triglyceride accumulation, or whole body substrate oxidation. Collectively, our findings demonstrate the efficacy of voluntary physical activity as an approach to protect against OLZ-induced impairments in glucose metabolism.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The antipsychotic medication olanzapine causes rapid and large increases in blood glucose. We demonstrate that a prior bout of voluntary overnight wheel running can protect against this harmful side effect and is likely mediated by reductions in olanzapine-induced increases in the circulating glucagon to insulin ratio. This study highlights the powerful effects of voluntary activity in conditions of treatment with antipsychotic medications.

The Peripheral Circadian Clock and Exercise: Lessons from Young and Old Mice

Critical biological processes are under control of the circadian clock. Disruption of this clock, e.g. during aging, results in increased risk for development of chronic disease. Exercise is a protective intervention that elicits changes in both age and circadian pathologies, yet its role in regulating circadian gene expression in peripheral tissues is unknown. We hypothesized that voluntary wheel running would restore disrupted circadian rhythm in aged mice. We analyzed wheel running patterns and expression of circadian regulators in male and female C57Bl/6J mice in adult (~4 months) and old (~18 months) ages. As expected, young female mice ran further than male mice, and old mice ran significantly less than young mice. Older mice of both sexes had a delayed start time in activity which likely points to a disrupted diurnal running pattern and circadian disruption. Voluntary wheel running rescued some circadian dysfunction in older females. This effect was not present in older males, and whether this was due to low wheel running distance or circadian output is not clear and warrants a future study. Overall, we show that voluntary wheel running can rescue some circadian dysfunction in older female but not male mice; and these changes are tissue dependent. While voluntary running was not sufficient to fully rescue age-related changes in circadian rhythm, ongoing studies will determine if forced exercise (e.g. treadmill) and/or chrono-timed exercise can improve age-related cardiovascular, skeletal muscle, and circadian dysfunction.

Motor learning rapidly increases synaptogenesis and astrocytic structural plasticity in the rat cerebellum

Motor-skill learning is associated with cerebellar synaptogenesis and astrocytic hypertrophy, but most of these assessments of cerebellar ultrastructure have been completed after one month of training. After one month of training, the motor-skills necessary to complete these tasks have been acquired for weeks. This experiment aimed to characterize cerebellar ultrastructure during the acquisition phase of motor-skill learning, at a point when performance is still improving. Male and female rats trained for four days on the acrobatic motor learning task, which involved traversing challenging obstacles such as narrow beams and ladders. Concurrently, rats in the motor control condition walked a flat alleyway requiring no skilled movements. After training was complete, all rats were euthanized, and tissue was prepared for electron microscopy. Unbiased stereology techniques were used to assess synaptic and astrocytic plasticity. Results indicated that during the initial days of training, female rats made fewer errors and had shorter latencies on the acrobatic course compared to male rats. However, there were no sex differences in cerebellar ultrastructure. Male and female rats that completed four days of acrobatic training displayed an increase in the density of parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses per Purkinje cell and an increase in astrocytic volume, relative to rats in the motor control group.

Changes in Muscle Mass and Composition by Exercise and Hypoxia as Assessed by DEXA in Mice

Background and Objective: Skeletal muscle is critical for overall health and predicts quality of life in several chronic diseases, thus quantification of muscle mass and composition is necessary to understand how interventions promote changes in muscle quality. The purpose of this investigation was to quantify changes in muscle mass and composition in two distinct pre-clinical models of changes in muscle quality using a clinical dual X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), validated for use in mice. Materials and Methods: Adult C57Bl6 male mice were given running wheels (RUN; muscle hypertrophy) or placed in hypobaric hypoxia (HH; muscle atrophy) for four weeks. Animals received weekly DEXA and terminal collection of muscle hind limb complex (HLC) and quadriceps weights and signaling for molecular regulators of muscle mass and composition. Results: HH decreased total HLC muscle mass with no changes in muscle composition. RUN induced loss of fat mass in both the quadriceps and HLC. Molecular mediators of atrophy were upregulated in HH while stimulators of muscle growth were higher in RUN. These changes in muscle mass and composition were quantified by a clinical DEXA, which we described and validated for use in pre-clinical models. Conclusions: RUN improves muscle composition while HH promotes muscle atrophy, though changes in composition in hypoxia remain unclear. Use of the widely available clinical DEXA for use in mice enhances translational research capacity to understand the mechanisms by which atrophy and hypertrophy promote skeletal muscle and overall health.

Chronic Environmental or Genetic Elevation of Galanin in Noradrenergic Neurons Confers Stress Resilience in Mice

The neuropeptide galanin has been implicated in stress-related neuropsychiatric disorders in humans and rodent models. While pharmacological treatments for these disorders are ineffective for many individuals, physical activity is beneficial for stress-related symptoms. Galanin is highly expressed in the noradrenergic system, particularly the locus coeruleus (LC), which is dysregulated in stress-related disorders and activated by exercise. Galanin expression is elevated in the LC by chronic exercise, and blockade of galanin transmission attenuates exercise-induced stress resilience. However, most research on this topic has been done in rats, so it is unclear whether the relationship between exercise and galanin is species specific. Moreover, use of intracerebroventricular (ICV) galanin receptor antagonists in prior studies precluded defining a causal role for LC-derived galanin specifically. Therefore, the goals of this study were twofold. First, we investigated whether physical activity (chronic wheel running) increases stress resilience and galanin expression in the LC of male and female mice. Next, we used transgenic mice that overexpress galanin in noradrenergic neurons (Gal OX) to determine how chronically elevated noradrenergic-derived galanin, alone, alters anxiogenic-like responses to stress. We found that three weeks of ad libitum access to a running wheel in their home cage increased galanin mRNA in the LC of mice, which was correlated with and conferred resilience to stress. The effects of exercise were phenocopied by galanin overexpression in noradrenergic neurons, and Gal OX mice were resistant to the anxiogenic effect of optogenetic LC activation. These findings support a role for chronically increased noradrenergic galanin in mediating resilience to stress.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Understanding the neurobiological mechanisms underlying behavioral responses to stress is necessary to improve treatments for stress-related neuropsychiatric disorders. Increased physical activity is associated with stress resilience in humans, but the neurobiological mechanisms underlying this effect are not clear. Here, we investigate a potential causal mechanism of this effect driven by the neuropeptide galanin from the main noradrenergic nucleus, the locus coeruleus (LC). We show that chronic voluntary wheel running in mice increases stress resilience and increases galanin expression in the LC. Furthermore, we show that genetic overexpression of galanin in noradrenergic neurons causes resilience to a stressor and the anxiogenic effects of optogenetic LC activation. These findings support a role for chronically increased noradrenergic galanin in mediating resilience to stress.

Diverse styles of running-wheel behavior in antelope ground squirrels

The running-wheel behavior of white-tailed antelope squirrels was studied in the laboratory by quantitative analysis of wheel revolutions and by visual inspection of video recordings with the assistance of Google Nest's detection algorithm. There was great interindividual diversity of running styles, although no systematic difference was found between male and female squirrels. Some animals ran on the outside of the wheel instead of inside, some ran consistently inside the wheel but alternating directions every few seconds, some ran on a virtual wheel while avoiding the actual wheel and doing back flips in the air instead, and some ran around the cage and occasionally hit the wheel thus generating a stable record of wheel revolutions. On average, the squirrels woke up an hour after lights-on, started activity on the running wheel about 40 minutes later, ran for 10 hours covering a distance of 2 km, and fell asleep about an hour after lights-off. This pattern of running-wheel behavior partially resembles that of laboratory mice, but its extreme diversity is unique to this species.

Changes in nucleus accumbens gene expression accompany sex-specific suppression of spontaneous physical activity in aromatase knockout mice

Aromatase catalyzes conversion of testosterone to estradiol and is expressed in a variety of tissues, including the brain. Suppression of aromatase adversely affects metabolism and physical activity behavior, but mechanisms remain uncertain. The hypothesis tested herein was that whole body aromatase deletion would cause gene expression changes in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a brain regulating motivated behaviors such as physical activity, which is suppressed with loss of estradiol. Metabolic and behavioral assessments were performed in male and female wild-type (WT) and aromatase knockout (ArKO) mice. NAc-specific differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified with RNAseq, and associations between the measured phenotypic traits were determined. Female ArKO mice had greater percent body fat, reduced spontaneous physical activity (SPA), consumed less energy, and had lower relative resting energy expenditure (REE) than WT females. Such differences were not observed in ArKO males. However, in both sexes, a top DEG was Pts, a gene encoding an enzyme necessary for catecholamine (e.g., dopamine) biosynthesis. In comparing male and female WT mice, top DEGs were related to sexual development/fertility, immune regulation, obesity, dopamine signaling, and circadian regulation. SPA correlated strongly with Per3, a gene regulating circadian function, thermoregulation, and metabolism (r = -0.64, P = .002), which also correlated with adiposity (r = 0.54, P = .01). In conclusion, aromatase ablation leads to gene expression changes in NAc, which may in turn result in reduced SPA and related metabolic abnormalities. These findings may have significance to post-menopausal women and those treated with an aromatase inhibitor.