Quantitative allergenicity risk assessment of food products containing yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor)

IgE-based analysis of sensitization and cross-reactivity to yellow mealworm and edible insect allergens before their widespread dietary introduction

The European Commission authorized the use of dried yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor - TM) as a food ingredient under Regulation EU 2021/882. As TM emerges as an important allergen source, sensitization and allergy to TM in various populations need investigation. The aim of this study was to assess the incidence of sensitization to TM before its introduction as a food ingredient in Poland, as well as checking the occurrence of co-sensitivity to TM and other invertebrate allergenic extracts and molecules. This analysis was performed using serum allergen-specific immunoglobulin E (sIgE) results in 6,173 individuals using the ALEX2 test to detect sensitivity to TM and other related allergens. A total of 4.3% of the study population had sIgE to TM extract, with 0.7% of those individuals being mono-sensitized to TM. Sensitization to TM was most commonly associated with a positive response to house cricket and migratory locust allergens. sIgE antibodies against TM significantly more commonly (p < 0.001) co-occurred with sIgE against other invertebrate allergens. Patients with sIgE against TM were most likely sensitised to tropomyosins (49.1% of patients), Niemann-Pick C2 protein (43.8%), group 5/21 allergen (38.6%), class III chitinases (37.1%), and cysteine proteases (34.1%). Based on the serum asIgE levels to TM prior to this ingredient being introduced as a food in Poland, we hypothesised that this primary sensitization may be associated with invertebrate allergies. Our analysis showed that sensitisation to TM was most commonly associated with a positive reaction to house dust mites and shrimp tropomyosins. Therefore, we speculate that individuals allergic to shrimp should exercise caution when consuming foods containing TM.

Precision risk assessment in wheat allergy: Leveraging advanced quantitative models for safer food consumption

Food allergy is a significant public health concern and food safety issue. Deriving from classical toxicology principle, the food allergen risk assessment has been considered a science-based strategy to identify, quantify, and manage the food allergy risks as such risk represent a significant food safety. Moreover, the implication of the precautionary allergen labeling in most jurisdictions is voluntary, resulting potential risk to allergic consumers. In this study, a quantitative risk assessment technique was employed to evaluate the risk of wheat allergy in prepackaged foods. The assessment utilized probabilistic models, including the lognormal, Weibull, Gamma distributions, and Bayesian model averaging. The predicted allergic reactions were determined to be 682, 854, 677, and 721 incidents per 10,000 eating occasions within wheat allergic population, respectively. The findings of this study revealed that the consumption of prepackaged foods containing gluten without wheat/gluten summary (i.e., ingredient) labeling would potentially pose the risk of allergic reactions to wheat allergic individuals. The utilization of quantitative risk assessment methodology at different points of the food system facilitates alleviating unnecessary concerns to stakeholders while maintaining a reasonable knowledge of allergy risk and providing valuable guidance in formulating effective management strategies to mitigate the risk of food allergies, thereby contributing to the overall safety of the sustainable food system.

Assessing the impact of insect protein sources on intestinal health and disease: insights from human ex vivo and rat in vivo models

The exploration of edible insects, specifically Alphitobius diaperinus and Tenebrio molitor, as sustainable sources of protein for human consumption is an emerging field. However, research into their effects on intestinal health, especially in relation to inflammation and permeability, remains limited. Using ex vivo and in vivo models of intestinal health and disease, in this study we assess the impact of the above insects on intestinal function by focusing on inflammation, barrier dysfunction and morphological changes. Initially, human intestinal explants were exposed to in vitro-digested extracts of these insects, almond and beef. Immune secretome analysis showed that the inflammatory response to insect-treated samples was comparatively lower than it was for samples exposed to almond and beef. Animal studies using yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) and buffalo (Alphitobius diaperinus) flours were then used to evaluate their safety in healthy rats and LPS-induced intestinal dysfunction rats. Chronic administration of these insect-derived flours showed no adverse effects on behavior, metabolism, intestinal morphology or immune response (such as inflammation or allergy markers) in healthy Wistar rats. Notably, in rats subjected to proinflammatory LPS-induced intestinal dysfunction, T. molitor consumption did not exacerbate symptoms, nor did it increase allergic responses. These findings validate the safety of these edible insects under healthy conditions, demonstrate their innocuity in a model of intestinal dysfunction, and underscore their promise as sustainable and nutritionally valuable dietary protein sources.

Advanced Proteomic and Bioinformatic Tools for Predictive Analysis of Allergens in Novel Foods

In recent years, novel food is becoming an emerging trend increasingly more demanding in developed countries. Food proteins from vegetables (pulses, legumes, cereals), fungi, bacteria and insects are being researched to introduce them in meat alternatives, beverages, baked products and others. One of the most complex challenges for introducing novel foods on the market is to ensure food safety. New alimentary scenarios drive the detection of novel allergens that need to be identified and quantified with the aim of appropriate labelling. Allergenic reactions are mostly caused by proteins of great abundance in foods, most frequently of small molecular mass, glycosylated, water-soluble and with high stability to proteolysis. The most relevant plant and animal food allergens, such as lipid transfer proteins, profilins, seed storage proteins, lactoglobulins, caseins, tropomyosins and parvalbumins from fruits, vegetables, nuts, milk, eggs, shellfish and fish, have been investigated. New methods for massive screening in search of potential allergens must be developed, particularly concerning protein databases and other online tools. Moreover, several bioinformatic tools based on sequence alignment, motif identification or 3-D structure predictions should be implemented as well. Finally, targeted proteomics will become a powerful technology for the quantification of these hazardous proteins. The ultimate objective is to build an effective and resilient surveillance network with this cutting-edge technology.

Alternative Protein Sources and Novel Foods: Benefits, Food Applications and Safety Issues

The increasing size of the human population and the shortage of highly valuable proteinaceous ingredients has prompted the international community to scout for new, sustainable, and natural protein resources from invertebrates (e.g., insects) and underutilized legume crops, unexploited terrestrial and aquatic weeds, and fungi. Insect proteins are known for their nutritional value, being rich in proteins with a good balance of essential amino acids and being a valuable source of essential fatty acids and trace elements. Unconventional legume crops were found rich in nutritional, phytochemical, and therapeutic properties, showing excellent abilities to survive extreme environmental conditions. This review evaluates the recent state of underutilized legume crops, aquatic weeds, fungi, and insects intended as alternative protein sources, from ingredient production to their incorporation in food products, including their food formulations and the functional characteristics of alternative plant-based proteins and edible insect proteins as novel foods. Emphasis is also placed on safety issues due to the presence of anti-nutritional factors and allergenic proteins in insects and/or underutilized legumes. The functional and biological activities of protein hydrolysates from different protein sources are reviewed, along with bioactive peptides displaying antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and/or antimicrobial activity. Due to the healthy properties of these foods for the high abundance of bioactive peptides and phytochemicals, more consumers are expected to turn to vegetarianism or veganism in the future, and the increasing demand for such products will be a challenge for the future.

Insects and Public Health: An Overview

Insects are, by far, the most common animals on our planet. The ubiquity and plethora of ecological niches occupied by insects, along with the strict and sometimes forced coexistence between insects and humans, make insects a target of public health interest. This article reports the negative aspects historically linked to insects as pests and vectors of diseases, and describes their potential as bioindicators of environmental pollution, and their use as food and feed. Both negative and positive impacts of insects on human and animal health need to be addressed by public health professionals who should aim to strike a balance within the wide range of sometimes conflicting goals in insect management, such as regulating their production, exploiting their potential, protecting their health and limiting their negative impact on animals and humans. This requires increased insect knowledge and strategies to preserve human health and welfare. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of traditional and emerging topics bridging insects and public health to highlight the need for professionals, to address these topics during their work. The present and future role and activities of public health authorities regarding insects are analyzed.

Monitoring Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) as a Potential Novel Allergenic Food: Effect of Food Processing and Matrix

The consumption of insects has increased in western countries, raising concerns about their potential to induce food allergic reactions in sensitized/allergic individuals. This work intended to develop a real-time PCR approach for the detection/quantification of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) as a potential allergenic food in complex matrices. For this purpose, reference mixtures simulating the production of pork sausages and wheat biscuits containing known amounts of mealworm were used. Real-time PCR with TaqMan probe targeting the cytochrome b gene of T. molitor was able to detect up to 2 fg of insect DNA, and 1.0 and 0.1 mg/kg of mealworm flour in autoclaved sausages and baked biscuits, respectively. Generally, the method showed acceptable analytical performance parameters, confirming its suitability/applicability for a wide range of foods. However, real-time PCR data showed significant differences among food matrix and processing, highlighting the importance of using appropriate calibration models for quantitative analysis. Finally, the real-time PCR approach was successfully validated with blind mixtures and applied to commercial samples, demonstrating its efficacy and reliability in the quantification of mealworm in processed foodstuffs.

Insects in food and their relevance regarding allergenicity assessment

Within the European Green Deal, the 'Farm-to-Fork' strategy aims to accelerate the transition to a sustainable food system and to make food systems fair, healthy and environmentally friendly. Insects contribute to the circularity of agriculture, and are ideal candidates to complement traditional sources of protein. In this context, a working programme within the European Food Risk Assessment (EU-FORA) Fellowship Programme framework was developed at the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment in collaboration with the Spanish National Research Council. The purpose of this technical report is to describe the activities in which the fellow was involved. As part of the training, the fellow performed a literature search regarding insects as food and allergenicity resulting in 493 hits. Out of the literature search a comprehensive scientific database with 200 publications has been built using the application 'EndNote'. Furthermore, an extensive scientific review with the title 'Sustainable food systems: EU regulatory framework and contribution of insects to the Farm-to-Fork strategy' approaching several important issues regarding insects (Regulatory frame, Market situation, Labelling and Control, Application as food/feed, Consumer acceptance and Allergenicity risk assessment) has been drafted and sent for publication in a peer reviewed journal. In order to analyse the impact of food processing on the allergenicity of insects, different food samples were prepared and artificially digested using a protocol simulating the gastrointestinal tract. Further laboratory work to analyse the readouts, including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), has been discussed and proposed, scheduled for the end of July. In conclusion, the present working programme, together with additional activities and training provided by different institutions, enabled the fellow to gain a broader perspective in food safety, particularly concerning insects as novel foods and their safety assessment.

Effects of Polystyrene Diet on the Growth and Development of Tenebrio molitor

In recent years, the role of Tenebrio molitor in degrading polystyrene foam through its gut microbes has become the focus of research. However, little literature has reported the effect of feeding on polystyrene foam on the growth and development of Tenebrio molitor. In this study, we investigated the impacts of different polystyrene by evaluating the vital signs of Tenebrio molitor fed in the intestines and excrement fluids using RNA-Seq t.echnology and then verifying the transcriptome sequencing findings using qRT-PCR technology. The average weight of Tenebrio molitor larvae in the wheat bran group increased significantly. Tenebrio molitor larvae in the PS group, on the other hand, didn't grow as much and had a much lower average weight than those in the wheat bran group. Compared to the bran group, the excrement of Tenebrio molitor fed only on polystyrene foam was flaky and coarse, increased nitrogen and phosphorus atomic concentration ratios by about 50%, decreased potassium atomic concentration ratios by 63%, with the enterocytes and circular muscle of Tenebrio molitor falling as well. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment indicated that the differential genes were mainly related to metabolic pathways. There was an agreement between qRT-PCR and RNA-Seq analyses for the growth and development genes chitinase, heat shock protein 70, and cytochrome P450. Only feeding polystyrene foam shall lead to the growth and development retardation of Tenebrio molitor.

Recent Insight on Edible Insect Protein: Extraction, Functional Properties, Allergenicity, Bioactivity, and Applications

Due to the recent increase in the human population and the associated shortage of protein resources, it is necessary to find new, sustainable, and natural protein resources from invertebrates (such as insects) and underutilized plants. In most cases, compared to plants (e.g., grains and legumes) and animals (e.g., fish, beef, chicken, lamb, and pork), insect proteins are high in quality in terms of their nutritional value, total protein content, and essential amino acid composition. This review evaluates the recent state of insects as an alternative protein source from production to application; more specifically, it introduces in detail the latest advances in the protein extraction process. As an alternative source of protein in food formulations, the functional characteristics of edible insect protein are comprehensively presented, and the risk of allergy associated with insect protein is also discussed. The biological activity of protein hydrolyzates from different species of insects (Bombyx mori, Hermetia illucens, Acheta domesticus, Tenebrio molitor) are also reviewed, and the hydrolysates (bioactive peptides) are found to have either antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial activity. Finally, the use of edible insect protein in various food applications is presented.

Consumers' acceptance of the first novel insect food approved in the European Union: Predictors of yellow mealworm chips consumption

Climate and environmental-related challenges are high on the agenda of the European Union (EU). One priority is to redesign the existing food system into a more sustainable one, where the link between healthy people and a balanced environment is considered. The EU bets on the role of insect farming in supporting the transition toward healthier and future-proof diets. Following this orientation, we investigated consumers' attitude toward yellow mealworm chips (YMC) and identified the predictors of YMC consumption. The causal relationships between constructs were explored using the structural equation modeling (SEM) based on partial least squares (PLS) using SmartPLS software. The perceived lower environmental impact of YMC compared to meat was the most appreciated characteristic of YMC. The study identified five predictors of YMC consumption, among which the perceived characteristics of YMC have the strongest influence on the consumption probability. Against the expectations of the authors, disgust with the accidental encounter of insects in foods did not influence the probability of eating YMC. Age was another predictor of YMC consumption. It is known that food preferences and eating behaviors are mainly developed during childhood and tend to manifest in adult life. Consequently, it can be inferred that acceptance and preference for insect-based foods (IBF) should be stimulated from early childhood. Finally, practical implications are advanced as possible solutions to overcome the obstacles toward YMC consumption.

Allergens from Edible Insects: Cross-reactivity and Effects of Processing

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The recent introduction of edible insects in Western countries has raised concerns about their safety in terms of allergenic reactions. The characterization of insect allergens, the sensitization and cross-reactivity mechanisms, and the effects of food processing represent crucial information for risk assessment.

RECENT FINDINGS

Allergic reactions to different insects and cross-reactivity with crustacean and inhalant allergens have been described, with the identification of new IgE-binding proteins besides well-known pan-allergens. Depending on the route of sensitization, different potential allergens seem to be involved. Food processing may affect the solubility and the immunoreactivity of insect allergens, with results depending on species and type of proteins. Chemical/enzymatic hydrolysis, in some cases, abolishes immunoreactivity. More studies based on subjects with a confirmed insect allergy are necessary to identify major and minor allergens and the role of the route of sensitization. The effects of processing need to be further investigated to assess the risk associated with the ingestion of insect-containing food products.