Nano-encapsulation of catechin in starch nanoparticles: Characterization, release behavior and bioactivity retention during simulated in-vitro digestion

Encapsulation of chrysin and rutin using self-assembled nanoparticles of debranched quinoa, maize, and waxy maize starches

Chrysin and rutin are natural polyphenols with multifaceted biological activities but their applications face challenges in bioavailability. Encapsulation using starch nanoparticles (SNPs) presents a promising approach to overcome the limitations. In this study, chrysin and rutin were encapsulated into self-assembled SNPs derived from quinoa (Q), maize (M), and waxy maize (WM) starches using enzyme-hydrolysis. Encapsulation efficiencies ranged from 74.3 % to 79.1 %, with QSNPs showing superior performance. Simulated in vitro digestion revealed sustained release and higher antioxidant activity in QSNPs compared to MSNPs and WMSNPs. Variations in encapsulation properties among SNPs from different sources were attributed to the differences in the structural properties of the starches. The encapsulated SNPs exhibited excellent stability, retaining over 90 % of chrysin and 85 % of rutin after 15 days of storage. These findings underscore the potential of SNP encapsulation to enhance the functionalities of chrysin and rutin, facilitating the development of fortified functional foods with enhanced bioavailability and health benefits.

Preparation of catechin-starch nanoparticles composites and its application as a Pickering emulsion stabilizer

Starch is a biopolymer commonly used for nanoparticle synthesis. Starch nanoparticles (SNPs) have potential as encapsulation agents and Pickering emulsion stabilizers. Here, we prepared SNPs by dry heating under mildly acidic conditions to encapsulate catechin. Catechin (30 mg) and SNPs (50-150 mg) were dispersed in distilled water and freeze-dried to prepare catechin-SNP composites. Isothermal titration calorimetry and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy revealed that the binding of catechin to SNP may involve spontaneous hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions. SNPs exhibited encapsulation efficiency for catechin, with 100 % catechin retention when 150 mg of SNP was used to prepare the composites. The catechin-SNP composites had a particle size of 54.2-74.9 nm. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed the formation of small amounts of inclusion complexes in catechin-SNP composites. As the amount of SNPs added for encapsulation increased, the catechin encapsulated in the SNP composites exhibited higher water solubility and UV stability than the pure catechin. The catechin-SNP composite with 150 mg of catechin exhibited the highest contact angle (51.37°) and formed a stable emulsion without notable droplet size changes. Therefore, catechin-SNP composites improved the encapsulation efficiency, water-solubility, stability of catechins, and Pickering emulsion stability.

In vitro release modeling of beta-carotene from Bene oleosome and electrosprayed Quince seed hydrocolloids loaded with oleosomes containing beta-carotene

This research aimed to extract oleosome from the Bene kernel as a carrier of beta-carotene (3, 5, and 10 % w/w) and then use oleosomes in the Quince seed gum (QSG) electrosprayed nanoparticles for the sustained release of beta-carotene in food simulant. Oleosomes loaded with 5 % w/w beta-carotene had the highest encapsulation efficiency (94.53 % ± 1.23 %) and were used at 1, 3, and 5 % w/w in the QSG electrosprayed nanoparticles. Electrospray feed solutions containing 5 % oleosomes loaded with beta-carotene had the highest zeta potential (-34.45 ± 0.58 mV) and the lowest surface tension (23.47 ± 1.10 mN/m). FESEM images showed that with the increase of oleosomes up to 3 % w/w, the average size of the electrosprayed particles decreases. The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) test proved the presence of protein in the oleosomes and their successful extraction from Bene seeds. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and FTIR proved the successful entrapment of beta-carotene in the oleosomes structure and the successful placement of oleosomes containing beta-carotene in the electrosprayed nanoparticles. The predominant driving force involving the release of beta-carotene from the designed structures in food simulants was the Fickian release mechanism. The Peleg model was introduced as the best model describing the beta-carotene release.

Fabrication and characterization of electrospun catechins-loaded nanofibres for fortification of milk

Catechins in their free form are bitter in taste, and undergo deterioration and oxidation during processing and storage that limit their use as nutraceuticals in foods. Therefore, catechins were electrospun using zein as encapsulating polymer into nanofibres at 15, 18 and 21% w/w concentrations, 16, 20 and 24 kV applied voltage and 0.5 and 1.0 mL/h feed rate. The electrospinning conditions were optimized using Taguchi L18 (21 × 32) design. Encapsulation efficiency as high as 92.8% and mean fibre diameter as low as 95.2 nm were obtained at 18% concentration of zein, 0.5 mL/h feed rate and 20 kV applied voltage. Scanning electron and atomic force micrographs revealed that the nanofibres produced at zein concentration of 18% and above were clean and beadfree, with cylindrical morphology and non-porous topography. The hydrodynamic diameter, zeta potential and polydispersity index of catechins-loaded nanofibres at optimized conditions were 172.3 nm, -26.3 mV and 0.15. FTIR spectroscopy and X-ray diffractometry confirmed that catechins were encapsulated within the nanofibres. The catechins got released from loaded nanofibres in a controlled and sustained manner, while their antioxidant property was retained. The physico-chemical and sensory qualities of milk were not affected after fortification with catechins-loaded nanofibres.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05891-0.

Fabrication and characterization of pectin-zein nanoparticles containing tanshinone using anti-solvent precipitation method

Tanshinone compounds are secondary metabolites which their application in food and pharmaceutical industry is limited due to the low solubility in water and sensitivity to heat. This study aimed to develop a novel biopolymer nanocarriers system based on pectin/zein for the encapsulation of tanshinone compounds using the anti-solvent precipitation method. The concentration of pectin and mass ratio of tanshinone/zein in the final formulation of nanoparticles were optimized. According to the results, a pectin concentration of 1 g/L and a tanshinone/zein ratio of 0.1:1 g/g were considered the optimal nanoparticle formulation. The resulting nanoparticles exhibited a spherical core-shell structure, with approximate values for size, zeta potential, TSI, and encapsulation efficiency of 132 ± 0.002 nm, -38.6 ± 0.019 mV, 0.600 ± 0.084, and 79.41 ± 0.62 %, respectively. The FTIR test confirmed the presence of hydrophobic, hydrogen, and electrostatic interactions among the constituents within the nanoparticles. Additionally, XRD and DSC tests verified the amorphous nature of the nanoparticles. Morphological examination conducted through TEM, and SEM revealed the characteristics of the resulting nanoparticles. Furthermore, this carrier system significantly enhanced the solubility of tanshinone compounds in water.

Oat protein isolate-Pleurotus ostreatus β-glucan conjugate nanoparticles bound to β-carotene effectively alleviate immunosuppression by regulating gut microbiota

Individuals with immune disorders cannot establish an adequate defense to pathogens, leading to gut microbiota dysbiosis. β-Carotene can regulate immune response, but its bioavailability in vivo is very low. Herein, we developed a glycosylated oat protein-based nanoparticle to improve the application of β-carotene for mitigating cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression and gut microbiota imbalance in mice. The results showed that the nanoparticles facilitated a conversion of β-carotene to retinol or retinyl palmitate into the systemic circulation, leading to an increased bioavailability of β-carotene. The encapsulated β-carotene bolstered humoral immunity by elevating immunoglobulin levels, augmenting splenic T lymphocyte subpopulations, and increasing splenic cytokine concentrations in immunosuppressed mice. This effect was accompanied by the alleviation of pathological features observed in the spleen. In addition, the encapsulated β-carotene restored the abnormal gut microbiota associated with immunosuppression, including Erysipelotrichaceae, Akkermansia, Bifidobacterium and Roseburia. This study suggested that nanoparticles loaded with β-carotene have great potential for therapeutic intervention in human immune disorders by specifically targeting the gut microbiota.

Polymorphic nanostarch-mediated assembly of bioactives

Starch as an edible, biosafe, and functional biopolymer, has been tailored at nanoscale to deliver bioactive guests. Nanostarches fabricated in various morphologies including nanosphere, nanorod, nanoworm, nanovesicle, nanopolyhedron, nanoflake, nanonetwork etc., enable them to assemble different kinds of bioactives due to structural particularity and green modification. Previous studies have reviewed nanostarch for its preparation and application in food, however, no such work has been done for the potential of delivery system via polymorphic nanostarches. In this review, we focus on the merits of nanostarch empowered by multi-morphology for delivery system, and also conclude the assembly strategies and corresponding properties of nanostarch-based carrier. Additionally, the advantages, limitations, and future perspectives of polymorphic nanostarch are summarized to better understand the micro/nanostarch architectures and their regulation for the compatibility of bioactive molecules. According to the morphology of carrier, nanostarch effectively captures bioactives on the surface and/or inside core to form tight complexes, which maintains their stability in the human microenvironment. It improves the bioavailability of bioactive guests by different assembly approaches of carrier/guest surface combination, guest@carrier embedment, and nanostarch-mediated encapsulation. Targeted release of delivery systems is stimulated by the microenvironment conditions based on the complex structure of nanostarch loaded with bioactives.

Starch nanoparticles containing phenolic compounds from green propolis: Characterization and evaluation of antioxidant, antimicrobial and digestibility properties

This study investigated the production of nanoparticles through nanoprecipitation using cassava and potato starches as carriers to stabilize phenolic compounds (PC) from green propolis extract (PE). Additionally, the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of PC stabilized with starch nanoparticles (SNPs), as well as their release under gastrointestinal conditions were investigated. PE exhibited antioxidant and antibacterial properties, especially PE3 (PE produced using sonication by 20 min and stirring at 30 °C for 24 h) had the highest concentrations of p-coumaric acid, rutin, kaempferol and quercetin. SNPs displayed bimodal distribution with particle size lower than 340 nm. The stabilization of PC increased surface charge and hydrophobicity in SNPs. Moreover, SNPs containing PC from PE exhibited antibacterial activity against Listeria monocytogenes, at a concentration of 750 mg/mL. Low release of PC was observed from the nanoparticles when exposed under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. These nanomaterials could be used as natural ingredients with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties.

Modulating the glycemic response of starch-based foods using organic nanomaterials: strategies and opportunities

Traditionally, diverse natural bioactive compounds (polyphenols, proteins, fatty acids, dietary fibers) are used as inhibitors of starch digestive enzymes for lowering glycemic index (GI) and preventing type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In recent years, organic nanomaterials (ONMs) have drawn a great attention because of their ability to overcome the stability and solubility issues of bioactive. This review aimed to elucidate the implications of ONMs in lowering GI and as encapsulating agents of enzymes inhibitors. The major ONMs are presented. The mechanisms underlying the inhibition of enzymes, the stability within the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and safety of ONMs are also provided. As a result of encapsulation of bioactive in ONMs, a more pronounced inhibition of enzymes was observed compared to un-encapsulated bioactive. More importantly, the lower the size of ONMs, the higher their inhibitory effects due to facile binding with enzymes. Additionally, in vivo studies exhibited the potentiality of ONMs for protection and sustained release of insulin for GI management. Overall, regulating the GI using ONMs could be a safe, robust and viable alternative compared to synthetic drugs (acarbose and voglibose) and un-encapsulated bioactive. Future researches should prioritize ONMs in real food products and evaluate their safety on a case-by-case basis.

Microencapsulation of Bacillus subtilis and oat β-glucan and their application as a synbiotic in fish feed

To improve survival during storage and exposure to adverse conditions, Bacillus subtilis was microencapsulated with oat β-glucan by spray-drying technology. The characterisation of the microcapsules was designed to compare free and microencapsulated cells through exposure to simulated gastric fluids (SGF) throughout storage for 90 days at different temperatures. The characterisation included analysis of efficiency, morphology, moisture, water activity, hygroscopicity, particle size, and zeta potential. The microcapsules presented a particle size of 1.5 ± 0.34 μm and an encapsulation efficiency of 77.9 ± 3.06%. After SGF, the survival of microencapsulated cells was 8.4 ± 0.07 log CFU mL-1 while that of free cells was 7.6 ± 0.06 log CFU mL-1. After 90 days of storage, only microencapsulated cells remained above 6 log-unit of viability. In conclusion, spray-drying technique combined with the addition of oat β-glucan proved to be an efficient method to protect B. subtilis under storage and SGF with potential application in fish feed.

Production of Kudzu Starch Gels with Superior Mechanical and Rheological Properties through Submerged Ethanol Exposure and Implications for In Vitro Digestion

Producing starch gels with superior mechanical attributes remains a challenging pursuit. This research sought to develop a simple method using ethanol exposure to produce robust starch gels. The gels' mechanical properties, rheology, structural characteristics, and digestion were assessed through textural, rheological, structural, and in vitro digestion analyses. Our investigation revealed an improvement in the gel's strength from 62.22 to178.82 g. The thermal transitions were accelerated when ethanol was elevated. The exposure to ethanol resulted in a reduction in syneresis from 11% to 9.5% over a period of 6 h, with noticeable changes in size and color. Rheologically, the dominating storage modulus and tan delta (<0.55) emphasized the gel's improved elasticity. X-ray analysis showed stable B- and V-type patterns after ethanol exposure, with relative crystallinity increasing to 7.9%. Digestibility revealed an ethanol-induced resistance, with resistant starch increasing from 1.87 to 8.73%. In general, the exposure to ethanol played a crucial role in enhancing the mechanical characteristics of kudzu starch gels while simultaneously preserving higher levels of resistant starch fractions. These findings have wide-ranging implications in the fields of confectioneries, desserts, beverages, and pharmaceuticals, underscoring the extensive academic and industrial importance of this study.

Simple and novel icariin-loaded pro-glycymicelles as a functional food: physicochemical characteristics, in vitro biological activities, and in vivo experimental hyperlipidemia prevention evaluations

A novel functional food for hyperlipidemia named icariin (ICA) pro-glycymicelles (ICA-PGs) using glycyrrhizin as a phytonanomaterial was easily prepared with improved storage, pH, and salt stabilities. ICA-PGs can easily dissolve in water to self-assemble into a clear glycymicelle solution with high ICA encapsulation efficiency. The ICA in ICA-PGs exhibits significantly increased aqueous solubility, faster in vitro release, and higher bioaccessibility than bare ICA. The ICA-PGs exhibited improved in vitro activities including antioxidant, anti-α-glucosidase, anti-lipase, and anti-cholesterol esterase activities. The ICA-PG also demonstrated improved antioxidant activity in cells. In vivo evaluation confirmed that the ICA-PG demonstrated a significant protective effect against experimental hyperlipidemia in mice, exhibiting decreasing levels of triglycerides (TGs), total cholesterol (TC), and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) in the serum, and restoring the hepatic morphology to the normal state. These results indicated that the ICA-PG could improve in vitro/in vivo profiles of ICA, providing a new concept and a promising functional food for hyperlipidemia.

Chitosan-PEG Gels Loaded with Jatropha mollissima (Pohl) Baill. Ethanolic Extract: An Efficient and Effective Biomaterial in Hemorrhage Control

A lack of control over blood loss can have catastrophic implications, including death. Although several hemostatic medications have been employed to reduce bleeding, a vast majority of them are ineffective, expensive, or pose health risks to the patient. To overcome these constraints, chitosan-polyethylene glycol (CS-PEG) hemostatic gels loaded with ethanolic extract of Jatropha mollissima sap (EES) were prepared and their hemostatic, physicochemical, and cytotoxic properties were evaluated. The gels were produced by mixing CS with PEG (an external plasticizer) and EES. The phytochemical analysis revealed a significant concentration of total polyphenols and tannins content in the extract and catechin was identified as one of the key compounds of EES. Infrared spectroscopy analysis revealed the presence of EES in the gels, as well as the chemical interaction between CS and PEG. The gels were thermally stable between 25 and 37 °C (ambient and human body temperature range), had pseudoplastic deformation behavior (rheological properties preserved after shearing), were simple to inject (compression force 30 N), and were biocompatible. In vivo experiments showed that both CS-PEG-EES gels exhibited greater hemostatic action in preventing tail hemorrhage in Wistar rats, with decreased bleeding time and blood weight compared with unloaded CS-PEG gels (control groups) and Hemostank, a commercial product. However, the gel prepared with acetic acid was more efficient in controlling bleeding. These findings reveal that CS-PEG-EES gels can reduce hemorrhages and are a potent, simple, and safe hemostatic agent.

Synthesis of Metallo-Chromone Porphyrin Nano-Starch Sensitizers as Photodynamic Therapeutics for the Eradication of Enterococci Dental Pathogens

Photodynamic therapy (PDT), as an advanced, alternative, and promising treatment, can inhibit dental pathogens. PDT employs the activation of photosensitizers via the light of a particular wavelength and molecular oxygen to inhibit dental pathogens. Herein, we present a comprehensive study on the synthesis and characterization of three chromone-porphyrins [Zn(II)-5-[4-chromone]-15-(4-phenyl)porphyrin (ZnCP), 5-[4-chromone]-15-(4-12 phenyl)porphyrin (DMCP), and Pd(II)-5-[4-chromone]-15-(4-phenyl)porphyrin (PdCP)]. Next, the computational study was also performed to establish the correlation between photophysical properties and theoretical calculations for those chromone-porphyrins using density functional theory and time-dependent density functional theory. Furthermore, chromone-porphyrins were encapsulated in starch nanoparticles to develop soluble nano-starch sensitizers (ZnCP-SNPs, DMCP-SNPs, and PdCP-SNPs) via the nanoprecipitation technique. Upon green light exposure, these nano-starch sensitizers exhibited excellent singlet oxygen generation ability. Moreover, final nanoformulations have been explored for pH responsiveness. Based on our intriguing findings, the chromone-porphyrin-loaded nano-starch sensitizers displayed great potential as prospective PDT to treat enterococci dental pathogens.

Chitooligosaccharide-catechin conjugate loaded liposome using different stabilising agents: characteristics, stability, and bioactivities

AIM

To determine the optimum condition for preparing chitooligosaccharide-catechin conjugate (COS-CAT) liposomes using different stabilising agents.

METHODS

COS-CAT liposomes (0.1-1%, w/v) were prepared using soy phosphatidylcholine (SPC) (50-200 mM) and glycerol or cholesterol (25-100 mg). Encapsulation efficiency (EE), loading capacity (LC), physicochemical characteristics, FTIR spectra, thermal stability, and structure of COS-CAT liposomes were assessed.

RESULTS

COS-CAT loaded liposome stabilised by cholesterol (COS-CAT-CHO) showed higher stability as shown by the highest EE (76.81%) and LC (4.57%) and the lowest zeta potential (ZP) (-76.51 mV), polydispersity index (PDI) (0.2674) and releasing efficiency (RE) (53.54%) (p < 0.05). COS-CAT-CHO showed the highest retention and relative remaining bioactivities of COS-CAT under various conditions (p < 0.05). FTIR spectra revealed the interaction between the choline group of SPC and -OH groups of COS-CAT. Phase transition temperature of COS-CAT-CHO was shifted to 184 °C, which was higher than others (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

SPC and cholesterol-based liposome could be used as a promising vesicle for maintaining bioactivities of COS-CAT.

Plant-derived polyphenolic compounds: nanodelivery through polysaccharide-based systems to improve the biological properties

Plant-derived polyphenols are naturally occurring compounds widely distributed in plants. They have received greater attention in the food and pharmaceutical industries due to their potential health benefits, reducing the risk of some chronic diseases due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, cardioprotective, and neuro-action properties. Polyphenolic compounds orally administered can be used as adjuvants in several treatments but with restricted uses due to chemical instability. The review discusses the different structural compositions of polyphenols and their influence on chemical stability. Despite the potential and wide applications, there is a need to improve the delivery of polyphenolics to target the human intestine without massive chemical modifications. Oral administration of polyphenols is unfeasible due to instability, low bioaccessibility, and limited bioavailability. Nano-delivery systems based on polysaccharides (starch, pectin, chitosan, and cellulose) have been identified as a viable option for oral ingestion, potentiate biological effects, and direct-controlled delivery in specific tissues. The time and dose can be individualized for specific diseases, such as intestinal cancer. This review will address the mechanisms by which polysaccharides-based nanostructured systems can protect against degradation and enhance intestinal permeation, oral bioavailability, and the potential application of polysaccharides as nanocarriers for the controlled and targeted delivery of polyphenolic compounds.

Development of protein-polyphenol particles to stabilize high internal phase Pickering emulsions by polyphenols' structure

Protein-polyphenol colloidal particles are promising stabilizers for high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs). However, the relationship between the structure of the polyphenols and its ability to stabilize HIPPEs has not been studied thus far. In this study, bovine serum albumin (BSA)-polyphenols (B-P) complexes were prepared, and their ability to stabilize HIPPEs was investigated. The polyphenols were bound to BSA via non-covalent interactions. Optically isomeric polyphenols formed similar bonds with BSA, whereas a greater number of trihydroxybenzoyl groups or hydroxyl groups in the dihydroxyphenyl moieties of polyphenols increased the B-P interactions. Polyphenols also reduced the interfacial tension and enhanced the wettability at the oil-water interface. The HIPPE stabilized by BSA-tannic acid complex exhibited the highest stability among the B-P complexes and resisted demixing and aggregation during centrifugation. This study promotes the potential applications of polyphenol-protein colloidal particles-stabilized HIPPEs in the food industry.

Cellular and Non-cellular Antioxidant Properties of Vitamin E-Loaded Metallic-Quercetin/Polycaprolactone Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Melanogenesis

Inhibition of melanogenesis by quercetin and vitamin E is extensively reported in the literature, independently, with limitations in antioxidant potential owing to less permeation, solubility, decreased bioavailability, and reduced stability. Thus, the aim of the present study was to synthesize a novel complex of metal ions (copper and zinc) with quercetin to enhance antioxidant properties which were confirmed by docking studies. Polycaprolactone-based nanoparticles of the synthesized complex (PCL-NPs, Q-PCL-NPs, Zn-Q-PCL-NPs, Cu-Q-PCL-NPs) were made later loaded with vitamin E which made the study more interesting in enhancing antioxidant profile. Nanoparticles were characterized for zeta size, charge, and polydispersity index, while physiochemical analysis of nanoparticles was strengthened by FTIR. Cu-Q-PCL-NPs-E showed maximum in vitro release of vitamin E, i.e., 80 ± 0.54%. Non-cellular antioxidant effect by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl was observed at 93 ± 0.23% in Cu-Q-PCL-NPs-E which was twofold as compared to Zn-Q-PCL-NPs-E. Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 (MCF-7) cancer cell lines were used to investigate the anticancer and cellular antioxidant profile of loaded and unloaded nanoparticles. Results revealed reactive oxygen species activity of 90 ± 0.32% with the addition of 89 ± 0.64% of its anticancer behavior shown by Cu-Q-PCL-NPs-E after 6 and 24h. Similarly, 80 ± 0.53% inhibition of melanocyte cells and 95 ± 0.54% increase of keratinocyte cells were also shown by Cu-Q-PCL-NPs-E that confirmed the tyrosinase enzyme inhibitory effect. Conclusively, the use of zinc and copper complex in unloaded and vitamin E-loaded nanoparticles can provide enhanced antioxidant properties with inhibition of melanin, which can be used for treating diseases of melanogenesis.

Self-assembled chitosan-insulin oral nanoparticles - A critical perspective review

Chitosan is an abundant natural cationic polysaccharide with excellent biodegradability, bioadhesion, and biocompatibility. Chitosan is extensively researched for various particulate oral insulin drug delivery systems. Oral insulin is economically efficient and more convenient than injections, with greater patient compliance. Electrostatic ionic interaction between cationic chitosan and anionic polymer or insulin leads to the formation of spontaneously self-assembled nanoparticles. This simple technique attracted many researchers as it can be carried out quickly in mild conditions without harmful solvents, such as surfactants or chemical cross-linkers that might degrade the insulin structure. The formulated chitosan nanoparticles help to protect the core insulin from enzymatic degradation in the digestive system and improve paracellular intestinal uptake from the enterocytes due to mucoadhesion and reversible tight junction opening. Moreover, functionalized chitosan nanoparticles create newer avenues for targeted and prolonged delivery. This review focuses on modified chitosan-insulin nanoparticles and their implications on oral insulin delivery. Dependent variables and their optimal concentration ranges used in self-assembly techniques for chitosan-insulin nanoparticular synthesis are summarized. This review provides a comprehensive guide to fine-tune the essential factors to formulate stable insulin-chitosan nanoparticles using mild ionic interactions.

Unification of medicines and excipients: The roles of natural excipients for promoting drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

Drug delivery systems (DDSs) formed by natural active compounds be instrumental in developing new green excipients and novel DDS from natural active compounds (NACs). 'Unification of medicines and excipients'(UME), the special inherent nature of the natural active compounds, provides the inspiration and conduction to achieve this goal.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes the typical types of NACs from herbal medicine, such as saponins, flavonoids, polysaccharides, etc. that act as excipients and their main application in DDS. The comparison of the drug delivery systems formed by NACs and common materials and the primary formation mechanisms of these NACs are also introduced to provide a deepened understanding of their performance in DDS.

EXPERT OPINION

Many natural bioactive compounds, such as saponins, polysaccharides, etc. have been used in DDS. Diversity of structure and pharmacological effects of NACs turn out the unique advantages in improving the performance of DDSs like targeting ability, adhesion, encapsulation efficiency(EE), etc. and enhancing the bioavailability of loaded drugs.

Toxic effects of zinc oxide nanoparticles as a food additive in goat mammary epithelial cells

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have recently been used as food preservatives and additives because of their good antibacterial and nutritional functions. This study performed RNA-seq analyses to evaluate the potential toxicity of ZnO NPs on goat mammary epithelial cells (GMECs) in vitro. Our results suggested that the ZnO NP treatment significantly reduced GMEC viability in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Transcriptomic analysis showed that ZnO NP exposure changed the expression levels of more than 500 genes in GMECs, including various biological pathways. We observed that decreased mitochondrial membrane potential caused mitochondrial dysfunction. Further study indicated that the treatment of cells with ZnO NPs resulted in the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which led to oxidative stress. Meanwhile, the expression of genes (TNFα, TNFR1, FADD, Caspase 8 and Caspase 6) associated with the death receptor pathway was upregulated, which indicated the death receptor-mediated extrinsic apoptosis pathway was activated. Moreover, the expression levels of Bax, Cytc, Caspase 3 and Caspase 9 were upregulated, while the expression levels of Bcl2 were downregulated, which indicated mitochondria-mediated intrinsic apoptosis pathway was activated. More notably, ZnO NP exposure increased the expression levels of ER stress-related genes (PERK, ATF4, eIF2α and CHOP) and proteins (p-PERK, p-eIF2α, PERK and CHOP). Furthermore, gene ontology (GO) terms and genes related to autophagy were altered, suggesting that exposure to ZnO NPs might activate autophagy in GMECs. In summary, our findings showed that ZnO NPs could exert significant toxic effects on GMECs through multiple mechanisms. These pathways are related to each other and influence each other to participate in ZnO NPs-induced the damage of GMECs. Thus, their safe use in the feed and food industry should be considered. Meanwhile, RNA-seq might represent a new method of assessing the toxicity mechanisms of nanomaterials.

Preparation of pH-sensitive chitosan-deoxycholic acid-sodium alginate nanoparticles loaded with ginsenoside Rb1 and its controlled release mechanism

Ginsenoside is a natural extract of the genus ginseng, which has tumor preventive and inhibiting effects. In this study, ginsenoside loaded nanoparticles were prepared by an ionic cross-linking method with sodium alginate to enable a sustained slow release effect of ginsenoside Rb₁ in the intestinal fluid through an intelligent response. Chitosan grafted hydrophobic group deoxycholic acid was used to synthesize CS-DA, providing loading space for hydrophobic Rb₁. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that the nanoparticles was spherical with smooth surfaces. The encapsulation rate of Rb₁ enhanced with the increase of sodium alginate concentration and could reach to 76.62 ± 1.78 % when concentration was 3.6 mg/mL. It was found that the release process of CDA-NPs was most consistent with the primary kinetic model which is a diffusion-controlled release mechanism. CDA-NPs exhibited good pH sensitivity and controlled release properties in buffer solutions of different pH's at 1.2 and 6.8. The cumulative release of Rb₁from CDA-NPs in simulated gastric fluid was <20 % within 2 h, while could release completely around 24 h in the simulated gastrointestinal fluid release system. It was demonstrated that CDA_3.6-NPs can effectively control release and intelligently deliver ginsenoside Rb₁, which is a promising alternative way for oral delivery.

Co-encapsulation of multivitamins in micro & nano-sized starch, target release, capsule characterization and interaction studies

This study aims to protect sensitive vitamins D, E, B1 and B2 by co-encapsulation in micro and nanoparticles of water chestnut starch for synergistic effects. The encapsulation efficiency, particle size, thermal properties and molecular configuration & interactions studies were analysed. The nano-sized starch with a particle size of 362 nm showed better encapsulation potential than micro-sized starch having an average particle size of 3.47 μm. The encapsulation efficiency was found to be 35 %, 81.17 %, 83.13 %, & 76.07 % and 46.27 %, 89.29 %, 84.91 %, & 77.60 % for vitamin D, E, B1 and B2 in micro and nano-sized starch, respectively. Fluorescence spectroscopy showed higher intensity for non-covalent interactions within the internal matrix of capsules. The FTIR peak at 877 cm^-1 belonging to vitamin ring structures was prominent and confirmed the presence of vitamins in encapsulated powders. The nano starch capsules of vitamins showed better thermal stability with low crystallinity than micro starch capsules of vitamins. The study suggests the use of co-encapsulated vitamins in food fortification/supplementation to overcome the issues related to vitamin deficiencies.

Microencapsulated and Ready-to-Eat Beetroot Soup: A Stable and Attractive Formulation Enriched in Nitrate, Betalains and Minerals

Beetroot is a tuber rich in antioxidant compounds, i.e., betanin and saponins, and is one of the main sources of dietary nitrate. The aim of the present study was to microencapsulate a ready-to-eat beetroot soup by lyophilization using different encapsulating agents, which supply the required amount of bioactive nutrients. Particle size distributions ranged from 7.94 ± 1.74 to 245.66 ± 2.31 µm for beetroot soup in starch and from 30.56 ± 1.66 to 636.34 ± 2.04 µm in maltodextrin. Microparticle yields of powdered beetroot soup in starch varied from 77.68% to 88.91%, and in maltodextrin from 75.01% to 80.25%. The NO3− and total betalain contents at a 1:2 ratio were 10.46 ± 0.22 mmol·100 g−1 fresh weight basis and 219.7 ± 4.92 mg·g−1 in starch powdered beetroot soup and 8.43 ± 0.09 mmol·100 g−1 fresh weight basis and 223.9 ± 4.21 mg·g−1 in maltodextrin powdered beetroot soup. Six distinct minerals were identified and quantified in beetroot soups, namely Na, K, Mg, Mn, Zn and P. Beetroot soup microencapsulated in starch or maltodextrin complied with microbiological quality guidelines for consumption, with good acceptance and purchase intention throughout 90 days of storage. Microencapsulated beetroot soup may, thus, comprise a novel attractive strategy to offer high contents of bioaccessible dietary nitrate and antioxidant compounds that may aid in the improvement of vascular-protective effects.

Cold plasma treatment with alginate oligosaccharide improves the digestive stability and bioavailability of nutrient-delivered particles: An in vitro INFOGEST gastrointestinal study

To improve the stability and bioavailability of the delivered hydrophobic nutrients, the zein-based delivery system was modified by alginate oligosaccharide (AOS), cold plasma (CP) treatments, and synergistically. The digestive behavior of each was investigated in an INFOGEST static in vitro digestion model. The results showed that AOS and CP treatments and their synergistic effects improved the dispersion and stability of the delivery system, leading to a more concentrated particle size distribution and higher particle surface charge. Both CP treatments and AOS increased the release rate of Curcumin (Cur) at small intestine (11.8 % to 20.5 % and 11.8 % to 24.64 %, respectively), and the synergistic effect was higher (11.8 % to 43.84 %). The wall material modified showed a higher encapsulation efficiency of Cur (52.83 % to 85.17 %). Cur release rate measurements showed that the wall material modified could have a positive effect on the slow release of Cur. SDS-page electrophoresis revealed that the slow release was due to the enhanced resistance of wall material to digestive fluids. Thus, treatment with AOS and CP treatments, and the synergism are suitable for modifying zein-based delivery systems for the encapsulation, stabilization, and slow release of hydrophobic nutrients during digestion in the field of functional foods.

Starches in the encapsulation of plant active ingredients: state of the art and research trends

As a natural polymer, starches and their derivatives have received widespread attention in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, particularly for their use as a coating material. In this sense, as an encapsulating agent, starches stand out, considering the number of compounds that they can trap. Additionally, they provide a nutritional contribution and may improve acceptance by patients. As such, this type of material may serve as an alternative to overcome gaps such as loss of activity of the active principles, low assimilation, or deterioration under environmental and physiological conditions. In this paper, we aim to present the state of the art and research trends on the use of starch as a wall material for the encapsulation of active principles of plant origin. It was found that the most-encapsulated active principles are essential oils and polyphenols; native or modified starches are typically used, either as the sole wall material or in combination with other polymers; and the most widely used methodology is spray drying. The reviewed studies indicate the potential of starches for their use in active ingredient encapsulation processes, improving their viability and expanding their range of applications in different industries, as well as showing a clearly increasing publication trend over the last 10 years.

Graphical abstract

Starch Nanoparticles: Preparation, Properties and Applications

Starch as a natural polymer is abundant and widely used in various industries around the world. In general, the preparation methods for starch nanoparticles (SNPs) can be classified into 'top-down' and 'bottom-up' methods. SNPs can be produced in smaller sizes and used to improve the functional properties of starch. Thus, they are considered for the various opportunities to improve the quality of product development with starch. This literature study presents information and reviews regarding SNPs, their general preparation methods, characteristics of the resulting SNPs and their applications, especially in food systems, such as Pickering emulsion, bioplastic filler, antimicrobial agent, fat replacer and encapsulating agent. The aspects related to the properties of SNPs and information on the extent of their utilisation are reviewed in this study. The findings can be utilised and encouraged by other researchers to develop and expand the applications of SNPs.

High-Stability Bi-Layer Films Incorporated with Liposomes @Anthocyanin/Carrageenan/Agar for Shrimp Freshness Monitoring

High-stability bi-layer films were prepared by incorporating anthocyanin-loaded liposomes into carrageenan and agar (A-CBAL) for non-destructive shrimp freshness monitoring. The encapsulation efficiency of the anthocyanin-loaded liposomes increased from 36.06% to 46.99% with an increasing ratio of lecithin. The water vapor transmission (WVP) of the A-CBAL films, with a value of 2.32 × 10^-7 g · m^-1 · h^-1 · pa^-1, was lower than that of the film with free anthocyanins (A-CBA). The exudation rate of the A-CBA film reached 100% at pH 7 and pH 9 after 50 min, while the A-CBAL films slowed down to a value lower than 45%. The encapsulation of anthocyanins slightly decreased the ammonia sensitivity. Finally, the bi-layer films with liposomes successfully monitored shrimp freshness with visible color changes to the naked eye. These results indicated that films with anthocyanin-loaded liposomes have potential applications in high-humidity environments.

Effect of excipient wall materials on the development of ginger oleoresin microcapsules: assessing the physicochemical, antioxidant and structural properties

BACKGROUND

Ginger oleoresin is prone to destruction from air, light and high temperatures and has a limited shelf life if kept improperly. Its viscous and sticky characteristics also make it difficult to handle and utilize. These issues can be solved via microencapsulation. The goal of this research was to evaluate how different wall materials affect the properties of microencapsulated ginger oleoresin powder.

RESULTS

Ginger oleoresin microcapsules were developed through spray drying technique using gum acacia (GA) and whey protein isolate (WPI) as wall materials. The characteristics of the obtained powder, including water activity, wettability and encapsulation efficiency, were evaluated, corresponded to values of 0.20, 90.54 s and 84.15% for whey protein isolate-based ginger oleoresin powder. Whey protein isolate microcapsules also exhibited higher phenolic content (27.26 mg gallic acid equivalents g-1 ), total flavonoid (2.94 mg quercetin equivalents g-1 ) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity (68.71%) than GA microcapsules. Both WPI- and GA-based oleoresin microcapsules displayed poor flowability, but possessed a metastable amorphous state as indicated by X-ray diffraction. GA-encapsulated oleoresin microcapsules showed a significant increase in particle size (1983 nm) compared to WPI oleoresin microcapsules. Fourier transform infrared analysis of the developed oleoresin microcapsules indicated no change in molecular structure except for a variation in peak intensity.

CONCLUSION

Whey protein isolate proved to be more efficient in maintaining the physicochemical and antioxidant activity of spray-dried ginger oleoresin powder. The present study revealed whey protein-based oleoresin powder could be used as a therapeutic agent in various nutraceutical applications. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Review of Cocos nucifera L. testa-derived phytonutrients with special reference to phenolics and its potential for encapsulation

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) and its value-added products are rich in medium chain triglycerides, polyphenols and flavonoids with a significant anti-oxidant potential. However, coconut and its products are underutilized for the development of nutraceuticals. Coconut testa is a brown cover of the endosperm, which is characterized with the considerable amount of phytonutrients, especially phenolics and flavonoids. The nutrient rich coconut testa is generally diverted for the production of animal feed or abandoned. Around 10-15% of the coconut kernel is removed as testa while preparing coconut desiccated powder. The coconut testa from the virgin coconut oil (VCO) industry also remains underutilized. Nevertheless, biochemical characterization of coconut testa has revealed its enormous anti-oxidant and nutraceutical potential. On the other hand there are reports describing the suitable encapsulation techniques to develop nutraceuticals from the plant-derived bioactives. In this context this review explores the prospect of utilizing the coconut testa-derived phytonutrients in developing a nutraceutical product.

Multifunctional bioactive properties of hydrolysates from colocynth (Citrullus colocynthis) seeds derived proteins: Characterization and biological properties

Citrullus colocynthis (Colocynth) has gained a great deal of interest in their applications as indigenous nutraceutical and as a functional food ingredient. The intact colocynth seed protein was enzymatically hydrolyzed using proteolytic enzymes (alcalase, bromelain, and chymotrypsin) at different time intervals of 3, 6, and 9 h. The highest degree of hydrolysis (87.82%) was observed in chymotrypsin derived colocynth seed protein hydrolysates (CSPH) for 9 h. The CSPHs was further investigated through in-vitro assay to explore its potential biological activity such as antioxidant, inhibition of enzymatic marker related to diabetes (DPP-IV, α-glucosidase and α-amylase) and hyperlipidaemia (cholesteryl esterase and pancreatic lipase). Chymotrypsin hydrolysate showed the strongest DPPH (65.7 mM TEAC) and ABTS (525.2 mM TEAC) radical scavenging activity after 6 h of hydrolysis. Moreover, chymotrypsin-treated CSPH for 6 h inhibited cholesteryl esterase (IC₅₀ = 13.68 μg/mL) and pancreatic lipase (IC₅₀ = 14.12 μg/mL) significantly when compared to native protein. Whereas, bromelain and alcalase treated hydrolysate for 6 h effectively inhibited α-glucosidase and α-amylase at an inhibitory concentration of IC₅₀ = 13.27 μg/mL and of IC₅₀ = 17 μg/mL. Overall, the findings indicated that protein hydrolysates exhibited superior biological activity than intact colocynth seed proteins isolate (CSPI) and could be a sustainable source of bioactive peptides.

The Loading of Epigallocatechin Gallate on Bovine Serum Albumin and Pullulan-Based Nanoparticles as Effective Antioxidant

Due to its poor stability and rapid metabolism, the biological activity and absorption of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is limited. In this work, EGCG-loaded bovine serum albumin (BSA)/pullulan (PUL) nanoparticles (BPENs) were successfully fabricated via self-assembly. This assembly was driven by hydrogen bonding, which provided the desired EGCG loading efficiency, high stability, and a strong antioxidant capacity. The encapsulation efficiency of the BPENs was above 99.0%. BPENs have high antioxidant activity in vitro, and, in this study, their antioxidant capacity increased with an increase in the EGCG concentration. The in vitro release assays showed that the BPENs were released continuously over 6 h. The Fourier transform infrared spectra (FTIR) analysis indicated the presence of hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions, and electrostatic interactions, which were the driving forces for the formation of the EGCG carrier nanoparticles. Furthermore, the transmission electron microscope (TEM) images demonstrated that the BSA/PUL-based nanoparticles (BPNs) and BPENs both exhibited regular spherical particles. In conclusion, BPENs are good delivery carriers for enhancing the stability and antioxidant activity of EGCG.

Enhancing Neurological Competence of Nanoencapsulated Cordyceps/Turmeric Extracts in Human Neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y Cells

Introduction

Neurological diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's diseases, and brain cancers, are reportedly caused by genetic aberration and cellular malfunction. Herbs with bioactive compounds that have anti-oxidant effects such as cordyceps and turmeric, are of interest to clinical applications due to their minimal adverse effects. The aim of study is to develop the nanoencapsulated cordyceps and turmeric extracts and investigate their capability to enhance the biological activity and improve neuronal function.

Methods

Human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells were utilized as a neuronal model to investigate the properties of nanoencapsulated cordyceps or turmeric extracts, called CMP and TEP, respectively. SH-SY5Y cells were treated with either CMP or TEP and examined the biological consequences, including neuronal maturation and neuronal function.

Results

The results showed that both CMP and TEP improved cellular uptake efficiency within 6 h by 2.3 and 2.8 times, respectively. Besides, they were able to inhibit cellular proliferation of SH-SY5Y cells up to 153- and 218-fold changes, and increase the expression of mature neuronal markers (TUJ1, PAX6, and NESTIN). Upon the treatment of CMP and TEP, the expression of dopaminergic-specific genes (LMX1B, FOXA2, EN1, and NURR1), and the secretion level of dopamine were significantly improved up to 3.3-fold and 3.0-fold, respectively, while the expression of Alzheimer genes (PSEN1, PSEN2, and APP), and the secretion of amyloid precursor protein were significantly reduced by 32-fold and 108-fold, respectively. Importantly, the autophagy activity was upregulated by CMP and TEP at 6.3- and 5.5-fold changes, respectively.

Conclusions

This finding suggested that the nanoencapsulated cordyceps and turmeric extracts accelerated neuronal maturation and alleviated neuronal pathology in human neural cells. This paves the way for nanotechnology-driven drug delivery systems that could potentially be used as an alternative medicine in the future for neurological diseases.

Alterations in Intestinal Brush Border Membrane Functionality and Bacterial Populations Following Intra-Amniotic Administration (Gallus gallus) of Catechin and Its Derivatives

Catechin is a flavonoid naturally present in numerous dietary products and fruits (e.g., apples, berries, grape seeds, kiwis, green tea, red wine, etc.) and has previously been shown to be an antioxidant and beneficial for the gut microbiome. To further enhance the health benefits, bioavailability, and stability of catechin, we synthesized and characterized catechin pentaacetate and catechin pentabutanoate as two new ester derivatives of catechin. Catechin and its derivatives were assessed in vivo via intra-amniotic administration (Gallus gallus), with the following treatment groups: (1) non-injected (control); (2) deionized H2O (control); (3) Tween (0.004 mg/mL dose); (4) inulin (50 mg/mL dose); (5) Catechin (6.2 mg/mL dose); (6) Catechin pentaacetate (10 mg/mL dose); and (7) Catechin pentabutanoate (12.8 mg/mL dose). The effects on physiological markers associated with brush border membrane morphology, intestinal bacterial populations, and duodenal gene expression of key proteins were investigated. Compared to the controls, our results demonstrated a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in Clostridium genera and E. coli species density with catechin and its synthetic derivative exposure. Furthermore, catechin and its derivatives decreased iron and zinc transporter (Ferroportin and ZnT1, respectively) gene expression in the duodenum compared to the controls. In conclusion, catechin and its synthetic derivatives have the potential to improve intestinal morphology and functionality and positively modulate the microbiome.

Control of eriocitrin release from pH-sensitive gelatin-based microgels to inhibit α-glucosidase: an experimental and computational study

α-Glucosidase is among the intestinal epithelial enzymes that produce absorbable glucose in the final stage of glycan catabolism. It leads to an increase in blood glucose levels as a result of high glucose uptake in diabetic patients. However, inhibition of this essential biochemical process can be a useful therapeutic approach to diabetes mellitus (DM). Eriocitrin (ER) is an abundant "flavanone glycoside" in citrus fruits with rich antioxidant properties whose effects on α-Glu inhibition in the small intestine remain to be determined. Herein, pH-sensitive microgels (MGs) were designed based on cross-linked methacrylate with acrylamide (AM) and acrylic acid (AAc) (molar ratio 70 : 30 of AAc : AM) as a controlled release system for sustained delivery of ER into the small intestine. The presence of amide and acrylate in MGs and the mechanical resistance were determined using FT-IR spectroscopy, rheology, and viscoelastometry. In vitro experiments showed that MGs could protect ER against diffusion in the gastric location and adjust its release in the intestinal milieu. The intestinal α-Glu activity was inhibited by ER (IC₅₀ value of 12.50 ± 0.73 μM) in an uncompetitive dose-dependent manner. The presence of ER altered the structure of α-Glu and reduced the hydrophobic pockets of the enzyme. Molecular docking analysis along with molecular dynamics simulation displayed that ER-α-Glu formation is directed by hydrogen binding with Asp69, Asp215, Glu411, Asp307, and Tyr347 residues. Moreover, in vivo assessment showed that rat blood glucose concentration decreased after ER administration compared with the control group. The results highlight that ER-loaded-MGs can be considered as a useful releasing strategy in treating DM via α-Glu inhibition.

Green tea catechin loaded niosomes: formulation and their characterization for food fortification

The main aim of this study was to deliver green tea catechins with enhanced bioavailability using niosomal system. Catechins-loaded niosomes were prepared using food grade surfactant, Tween 60 and membrane stabilizers namely, lauryl alcohol, cetyl alcohol and cholesterol by thin film hydration technique. Catechins-loaded niosomes exhibited a hydrodynamic diameter of 58.48 nm with a narrow size distribution (PDI = 0.13) and zeta potential of - 31.75 mV, suggestive for homogeneity and good stability. Niosomes entrapped about 85.82% of catechin and showed sustained release under simulated GI conditions. Morphology of niosomal vesicles were carried out using scanning electron microscopy-energy X-ray dispersion spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and High-performance liquid chromatography analysis confirmed successful encapsulation of catechins. Antioxidant activity of catechins was retained in the niosomal form. Fortification of milk with catechins loaded niosomes showed no significant changes on sensory, physicochemical properties and exhibited higher antioxidant property.

Preparation, characterization and evaluation of capsaicin-loaded indica rice starch nanoparticles

Capsaicin (CAP) is an alkaloid with multiple physiological effects, but its application is difficult. In this research, indica rice starch nanoparticles (IRSNPs) based nanocarrier was used to load CAP to obtain capsaicin-loaded indica rice starch nanoparticles (CAP-IRSNPs). The microstructure, characteristics and in vitro release behaviors of CAP-IRSNPs were analyzed. CAP-IRSNPs presented average particle sizes of 617.84 ± 6.38 nm, encapsulation efficiency of 70.05 ± 1.78% and loading capacity of 13.41 ± 0.18%. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed that CAP-IRSNPs might be formed by hydrogen-bonding action. Differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction showed that IRSNPs influenced the crystallization and melting temperatures of CAP. In in vitro release study, CAP-IRSNPs exhibited a sustained release. The CAP concentration, CAP diffusion from matrix and matrix erosion might be the potentially possible mechanisms for capsaicin release from CAP-IRSNPs. These new results concluded that IRSNPs may be a promising nanocarrier for CAP or other hydrophobic bioactive ingredients.

Recent Trends in the Preparation of Nano-Starch Particles

Starch is affected by several limitations, e.g., retro-gradation, high viscosity even at low concentrations, handling issues, poor freeze–thaw stability, low process tolerance, and gel opacity. In this context, physical, chemical, and enzymatic methods have been investigated for addressing such limitations or adding new attributes. Thus, the creation of biomaterial-based nanoparticles has sparked curiosity. Because of that, single nucleotide polymorphisms are gaining a lot of interest in food packaging technology. This is due to their ability to increase the mechanical and water vapor resistance of the matrix, as well as hide its re-crystallization during storage in high-humidity atmospheres and enhance the mechanical properties of films when binding in paper machines and paper coating. In medicine, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are suitable as carriers in the field of drug delivery for immobilized bioactive or therapeutic agents, as well as wastewater treatments as an alternative to expensive activated carbons. Starch nanoparticle preparations can be performed by hydrolysis via acid hydrolysis of the amorphous part of a starch molecule, the use of enzymes such as pullulanase or isoamylase, or a combination of two regeneration and mechanical treatments with the employment of extrusion, irradiation, ultrasound, or precipitation. The possibility of obtaining cheap and easy-to-use methods for starch and starch derivative nanoparticles is of fundamental importance. Nano-precipitation and ultra-sonication are rather simple and reliable methods for nanoparticle production. The process involves the addition of a diluted starch solution into a non-solvent, and ultra-sonication aims to reduce the size by breaking the covalent bonds in polymeric material due to intense shear forces or mechanical effects associated with the collapsing of micro-bubbles by sound waves. The current study focuses on starch nanoparticle manufacturing, characterization, and emerging applications.

Digestive stability and transport ability changes of β-lactoglobulin–catechin complexes by M cell model in vitro

The current research on interaction between catechin and protein has focused on non-covalent crosslinking, however, the mechanism of free radical-induced crosslinking between catechin and β-lactoglobulin (BLG) is not known. In this study, BLG bound to four catechins [epicatechin (EC), epigallocatechin (EGC), epicatechin gallate (ECG), and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)]. The structure change of complex was investigated by circular dichroism spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy and Acid and 8-Anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonic acid (ANS) fluorescence spectroscopy. M cell model was constructed to evaluate the transintestinal epithelial transport capacity of complex digestive products. The results showed that catechins were covalently bound to BLG by C-S and C-N bonds and their binding content was EGCG&gt;EGC&gt;ECG&gt;EC. Moreover, catechins could change the secondary structure of BLG, with the decrease of α-helix and reduction of the irregular coilings, which leads to the loose spatial structure of the protein. Moreover, the catechin could enhance further the digestibility of BLG. Transport capacity of digestive products of M cell model was about twice of that of the Caco-2 cell model, indicating that M cell model had better antigen transport capacity. The difference between groups indicated that the transport efficiency of digestive products was decreased with the presence of catechin, in which BLG-EGCG and BLG-EGC groups were transported more strong than those of BLG-EC and BLG-ECG groups. The transport efficiency of BLG-catechin complexes were lower than that of BLG, indicating that catechin had the protective and repair roles on intestinal barrier permeability.

Characterization of acid hydrolysis based nano-converted mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) starch for morphological, rheological and thermal properties

Mung bean starch nanocrystals (SNC) were fabricated using acid hydrolysis. The resulting nanocrystals were studied for their morphological, thermal, and rheological properties. Irregular or round-shaped nano-scale crystals with average hydrodynamic diameter of 179 nm obtained after acid hydrolysis. The mung bean SNC revealed a C_B-type crystalline pattern with enhanced crystallinity as studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Lower negative zeta potential was obtained for mung bean SNC as compared to its native starch. Thermal peaks disappeared for nanocrystals, which indicated an increased thermal instability of mung bean SNC. A shear-thinning behavior, even at high concentrations of SNC in the suspension was noticed. The elastic behavior was observed at all studied concentrations and it was independent of the frequency change.