Occurrence and co-occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins in wheat grains and wheat flour from Romania

Microbiological and Mycotoxicological Quality of Common Wheat in Romania in the Extremely Dry 2023-2024 Agricultural Year

This study examines the microbiological and mycotoxicological quality of common wheat in Romania in the extremely dry 2023-2024 agricultural year. Common wheat grown in the West Plain, Southern Hilly Area, Transylvania, and northern Moldavia (45-48° N, 21-27° E) had higher moisture content, water activity, Fusarium-damaged kernels, and deoxynivalenol levels. This was due to moderate temperatures, abundant precipitation, and soil water reserves in May, followed by moderate drought from June to August. Conversely, common wheat from the Oltenia Plain, the Southern Plain, and southern Moldavia (43-46° N, 23-28° E) had the lowest contamination levels, attributed to extreme temperatures and drought during June-August. Common wheat from Dobrogea (45° N, 28° E) showed the highest total fungi contamination, which was influenced by precipitation at harvest. Although microbiological and mycotoxicological contamination was low, it negatively affected the physico-chemical and sensory-colorimetric parameters of common wheat, particularly in the West Plain, Oltenia Plain, and Dobrogea. Consequently, there could be significant economic losses for farmers, storekeepers, millers, and bakers, as well as a decline in the quality of finished foods. Moreover, the coexistence of deoxynivalenol and total aflatoxins in common wheat grown in the northwest of the country indicates the spread of contamination due to dry conditions and climate change.

Cytotoxic Profiles of Beauvericin, Citrinin, Moniliformin, and Patulin and Their Binary Combinations: A Literature-Based Comparison and Experimental Validation in SH-SY5Y Cells

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds found in food and feed that pose significant risks to human and animal health. This work reviews recent studies on the cytotoxic effects of four mycotoxins: beauvericin (BEA), citrinin (CTN), moniliformin (MON), and patulin (PAT) in various cell lines. Additionally, an experimental study evaluates the effects of these mycotoxins and their binary combinations on human neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) after 24 and 48 h of exposure using the 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide (MTT) assay. This analysis is driven by the additional risks posed by the frequent occurrence of these combinations in agricultural and food products, as well as the lack of studies addressing their effects, interactions, and regulatory frameworks. This research focuses on comparing the cytotoxicity data obtained in the SH-SY5Y cell line with previously reported findings in the literature for other cell lines exposed to BEA, CTN, MON, and PAT, individually and in binary combination. The literature highlights significant scientific interest in understanding the cytotoxic effects of these mycotoxins, with findings varying based on exposure time and concentration. Experimentally, PAT demonstrated the highest toxicity in SH-SY5Y cells, while MON was the least toxic. Among combinations, BEA + MON and CTN + PAT showed the greatest reduction in cell viability. However, medium inhibitory concentration (IC50) values were not reached for most combinations involving MON, reflecting its lower potency under the studied conditions. These findings underscore the importance of further investigation and enhanced regulations to address the health risks posed by mycotoxins, as their cytotoxic effects remain a pressing issue in food safety.

Mycotoxin Prevalence and Microbiological Characteristics of Locally Produced Elected Freekeh Products

Freekeh is produced from roasted, immature wheat grains. It is very popular in Middle Eastern and North African nations. This study aimed to evaluate the occurrence of different types of mycotoxins, physical impurities, and microbiological contamination in local freekeh products. Lateral flow competitive immunochromatographic assay was used to evaluate the occurrence of mycotoxins. It was found that physical impurities for some tested products exceeded the permitted limit (>2% of straw and foreign grains). Moreover, our findings showed that total aerobic bacterial and fungal counts in Freekeh products varied from 1 to 4 logs and from 1.39 to 4.3 logs, respectively. The incidence ranges of aflatoxins and ochratoxin were 3.17-3.33 ppb and 4.63-8.17 ppb, respectively. The levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) and T2/HT2 (trichothecene T2 and deacetylated form HT2) were less than the limit of detection. More than 78% of Freekeh samples tested had aflatoxin and ochratoxin contents higher than the limit permitted by the European Commission (4 and 5 ppb). In conclusion, gaining knowledge about the quality, safety, and labeling of freekeh products can help increase their commercial potential. Further investigations are needed to evaluate the factors affecting contamination levels within the freekeh supply chain.

Optimization, Validation, and Application of Cleanup-Coupled Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry for the Simultaneous Analyses of 35 Mycotoxins and Their Derivatives in Cereals

Mycotoxins occur singly or as co-contaminants and are primarily present in carbohydrate-rich foods such as cereals and cereal-based products. To effectively monitor mycotoxin co-contamination in cereals and cereal-based products, the simultaneous analysis of mycotoxins and their derivatives is required. Therefore, we coupled cleanup with LC-MS/MS for the rapid and robust quantitation of 35 analytes in wheat samples, including ergot alkaloids (EAs), which are rarely included in such analyses. To investigate the effects of different mycotoxin types on adsorbents, various dispersive solid-phase extraction sorbents were evaluated; a C18 end-capped sorbent exhibited the most effective cleanup performance. The method was validated by analyzing samples fortified with the mycotoxins at three concentration levels. The results exhibited high linearity, high recoveries, and repeatability. The methodology was applied for commercial cereal samples. The cereal samples were found to be 74% contaminated, and two samples measured levels of EAs at 609.63 μg/kg and 294.93 μg/kg, exceeding the limits defined by the EU for rye milling products. These findings highlight the validity of our novel method and the necessity of continuously monitoring mycotoxin levels in cereals to ensure food safety.

Mycobiome mediates the interaction between environmental factors and mycotoxin contamination in wheat grains

Environmental factors significantly impact grain mycobiome assembly and mycotoxin contamination. However, there is still a lack of understanding regarding the wheat mycobiome and the role of fungal communities in the interaction between environmental factors and mycotoxins. In this study, we collected wheat grain samples from 12 major wheat-producing provinces in China during both the harvest and storage periods. Our aim was to evaluate the mycobiomes in wheat samples with varying deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination levels and to confirm the correlation between environmental factors, the wheat mycobiome, and mycotoxins. The results revealed significant differences in the wheat mycobiome and co-occurrence network between contaminated and uncontaminated wheat samples. Fusarium was identified as the main differential taxon responsible for inducing DON contamination in wheat. Correlation analysis identified key factors affecting mycotoxin contamination. The results indicate that both environmental factors and the wheat mycobiome play significant roles in the production and accumulation of DON. Environmental factors can affect the wheat mycobiome assembly, and wheat mycobiome mediates the interaction between environmental factors and mycotoxin contamination. Furthermore, a random forest (RF) model was developed using key biological indicators and environmental features to predict DON contamination in wheat with accuracies exceeding 90 %. The findings provide data support for the accurate prediction of mycotoxin contamination and lay the foundation for the research on biological control technologies of mycotoxin through the assembly of synthetic microbial communities.

Fungal and Toxin Contaminants in Cereal Grains and Flours: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Cereal grains serve as the cornerstone of global nutrition, providing a significant portion of humanity's caloric requirements. However, the presence of fungal genera, such Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria, known for their mycotoxin-producing abilities, presents a significant threat to human health due to the adverse effects of these toxins. The primary objective of this study was to identify the predominant fungal contaminants in cereal grains utilized in breadmaking, as well as in flour and bread. Moreover, a systematic review, including meta-analysis, was conducted on the occurrence and levels of mycotoxins in wheat flour from the years 2013 to 2023. The genera most frequently reported were Fusarium, followed by Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria. Among the published reports, the majority focused on the analysis of Deoxynivalenol (DON), which garnered twice as many reports compared to those focusing on Aflatoxins, Zearalenone, and Ochratoxin A. The concentration of these toxins, in most cases determined by HPLC-MS/MS or HPLC coupled with a fluorescence detector (FLD), was occasionally observed to exceed the maximum limits established by national and/or international authorities. The prevalence of mycotoxins in flour samples from the European Union (EU) and China, as well as in foods intended for infants, exhibited a significant reduction compared to other commercial flours assessed by a meta-analysis investigation.

Global distribution, toxicity to humans and animals, biodegradation, and nutritional mitigation of deoxynivalenol: A review

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the main types of B trichothecenes, and it causes health-related issues in humans and animals and imposes considerable challenges to food and feed safety globally each year. This review investigates the global hazards of DON, describes the occurrence of DON in food and feed in different countries, and systematically uncovers the mechanisms of the various toxic effects of DON. For DON pollution, many treatments have been reported on the degradation of DON, and each of the treatments has different degradation efficacies and degrades DON by a distinct mechanism. These treatments include physical, chemical, and biological methods and mitigation strategies. Biodegradation methods include microorganisms, enzymes, and biological antifungal agents, which are of great research significance in food processing because of their high efficiency, low environmental hazards, and drug resistance. And we also reviewed the mechanisms of biodegradation methods of DON, the adsorption and antagonism effects of microorganisms, and the different chemical transformation mechanisms of enzymes. Moreover, nutritional mitigation including common nutrients (amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and microelements) and plant extracts was discussed in this review, and the mitigation mechanism of DON toxicity was elaborated from the biochemical point of view. These findings help explore various approaches to achieve the best efficiency and applicability, overcome DON pollution worldwide, ensure the sustainability and safety of food processing, and explore potential therapeutic options with the ability to reduce the deleterious effects of DON in humans and animals.

Modified Mycotoxins and Multitoxin Contamination of Food and Feed as Major Analytical Challenges

Mycotoxins, as natural products of molds, are often unavoidable contaminants of food and feed, to which the increasingly evident climate changes contribute a large part. The consequences are more or less severe and range from economic losses to worrying health problems to a fatal outcome. One of the best preventive approaches is regular monitoring of food and feed for the presence of mycotoxins. However, even under conditions of frequent, comprehensive, and conscientious controls, the desired protection goal may not be achieved. In fact, it often happens that, despite favorable analytical results that do not indicate high mycotoxin contamination, symptoms of their presence occur in practice. The most common reasons for this are the simultaneous presence of several different mycotoxins whose individual content does not exceed the detectable or prescribed values and/or the alteration of the form of the mycotoxin, which renders it impossible to be analytically determined using routine methods. When such contaminated foods enter a living organism, toxic effects occur. This article aims to shed light on the above problems in order to pay more attention to them, work to reduce their impact, and, eventually, overcome them.

Potential toxicity assessment of mycotoxin fusaric acid with the spectral shift profile on DNA

In this study, the multiple toxicities induced by three different doses (1, 5, and 10 μM) of fusaric acid (FA), a mycotoxin, was investigated with Allium test. Physiological (percent germination, root number, root length, and weight gain), cytogenetic (micronucleus = MN, chromosomal abnormalities = CAs, and mitotic index = MI), biochemical (proline level, malondialdehyde = MDA level, catalase = CAT activity, and superoxide dismutase = SOD activity), and anatomical parameters were used as indicators of toxicity. Allium cepa L. bulbs were divided into four groups as one control and three applications. The bulbs in the control group were germinated with tap water for 7 days, and the bulbs in the treatment groups were germinated with three different doses of FA for 7 days. As a result, FA exposure caused a decrease in all physiological parameters examined at all three doses. Besides, all FA doses caused a decrease in MI and an increase in the frequency of MN and the number of CAs. FA promoted CAs such as nucleus with vacuoles, nucleus buds, irregular mitosis, bridge, and misdirection in root meristem cells. DNA and FA interactions, which are the possible causes of genotoxic effects, were examined by spectral analysis, and FA could interact with DNA through intercalation, causing bathochromic and hypochromic shifts in the spectrum. FA also causes toxicity by inducing oxidative stress in cells, confirming this; dose-related increases in root MDA and proline levels were measured as a result of FA exposure. In the root SOD and CAT enzyme activities, increases up to 5 μM doses and decreases at 10 μM doses were measured. FA exposure induced anatomical damage such as necrosis, epidermis cell damage, flattened cell nucleus, thickening of the cortex cell wall, and unclear vascular tissue in root tip meristem cells. As a result, FA caused a comprehensive toxicity by showing an inhibitory effect in A. cepa test material, and the Allium test was a very useful test in determining this toxicity.

Impact of Enniatin and Deoxynivalenol Co-Occurrence on Plant, Microbial, Insect, Animal and Human Systems: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives

Fusarium mycotoxins commonly contaminate agricultural products resulting in a serious threat to both animal and human health. The co-occurrence of different mycotoxins in the same cereal field is very common, so the risks as well as the functional and ecological effects of mycotoxins cannot always be predicted by focusing only on the effect of the single contaminants. Enniatins (ENNs) are among the most frequently detected emerging mycotoxins, while deoxynivalenol (DON) is probably the most common contaminant of cereal grains worldwide. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the simultaneous exposure to these mycotoxins, with emphasis on the combined effects in multiple organisms. Our literature analysis shows that just a few studies on ENN-DON toxicity are available, suggesting the complexity of mycotoxin interactions, which include synergistic, antagonistic, and additive effects. Both ENNs and DON modulate drug efflux transporters, therefore this specific ability deserves to be explored to better understand their complex biological role. Additionally, future studies should investigate the interaction mechanisms of mycotoxin co-occurrence on different model organisms, using concentrations closer to real exposures.

Fusarium Head Blight on Wheat: Biology, Modern Detection and Diagnosis and Integrated Disease Management

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a major threat for wheat production worldwide. Most reviews focus on Fusarium graminearum as a main causal agent of FHB. However, different Fusarium species are involved in this disease complex. These species differ in their geographic adaptation and mycotoxin profile. The incidence of FHB epidemics is highly correlated with weather conditions, especially rainy days with warm temperatures at anthesis and an abundance of primary inoculum. Yield losses due to the disease can reach up to 80% of the crop. This review summarizes the Fusarium species involved in the FHB disease complex with the corresponding mycotoxin profiles, disease cycle, diagnostic methods, the history of FHB epidemics, and the management strategy of the disease. In addition, it discusses the role of remote sensing technology in the integrated management of the disease. This technology can accelerate the phenotyping process in the breeding programs aiming at FHB-resistant varieties. Moreover, it can support the decision-making strategies to apply fungicides via monitoring and early detection of the diseases under field conditions. It can also be used for selective harvest to avoid mycotoxin-contaminated plots in the field.

Underreported Human Exposure to Mycotoxins: The Case of South Africa

South Africa (SA) is a leading exporter of maize in Africa. The commercial maize farming sector contributes to about 85% of the overall maize produced. More than 33% of South Africa’s population live in rural settlements, and their livelihoods depend entirely on subsistence farming. The subsistence farming system promotes fungal growth and mycotoxin production. This review aims to investigate the exposure levels of the rural population of South Africa to dietary mycotoxins contrary to several reports issued concerning the safety of South African maize. A systematic search was conducted using Google Scholar. Maize is a staple food in South Africa and consumption rates in rural and urban communities are different, for instance, intake may be 1–2 kg/person/day and 400 g/person/day, respectively. Commercial and subsistence maize farming techniques are different. There exist differences influencing the composition of mycotoxins in food commodities from both sectors. Depending on the levels of contamination, dietary exposure of South Africans to mycotoxins is evident in the high levels of fumonisins (FBs) that have been detected in SA home-grown maize. Other potential sources of exposure to mycotoxins, such as carryover effects from animal products and processed foods, were reviewed. The combined effects between FBs and aflatoxins (AFs) have been reported in humans/animals and should not be ignored, as sporadic breakouts of aflatoxicosis have been reported in South Africa. These reports are not a true representation of the entire country as reports from the subsistence-farming rural communities show high incidence of maize contaminated with both AFs and FBs. While commercial farmers and exporters have all the resources needed to perform laboratory analyses of maize products, the greater challenge in combatting mycotoxin exposure is encountered in rural communities with predominantly subsistence farming systems, where conventional food surveillance is lacking.

Assessment of occupational and dietary exposures of feed handling workers to mycotoxins in rural areas from São Paulo, Brazil

In the current study, the occupational and dietary exposures of feed handling workers (N = 28) to aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), toxins T-2 and HT-2 were assessed for the first time in animal-producing farms and feed factories from São Paulo, Brazil. Mycotoxins in food (n = 244) and airborne dust (n = 27), as well as biomarkers in urine (n = 97) samples were determined by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. FBs were detected in all airborne dust samples, with concentrations ranging from 7.85 to 16,839 ng/m³. The mean probable daily intake (PDI) based on food data were 0.005, 0.769, 0.673 and 0.012 μg/kg of body weight (bw)/day for AFs, FBs, DON and ZEN, respectively. Mean PDI values obtained through urinary biomarkers were 0.29, 0.10, 0.50, 9.72 and 0.10 μg/kg body weight/day for AFB₁, DON, OTA, FB₁ and ZEN, respectively. The analyses based on urinary biomarkers revealed a potential health concern for OTA and FBs, although no potential health concern was observed with PDI calculated through food data. Results of this trial stress the need for preventive measures to avoid health risks of workers in Brazilian animal-producing farms and feed industries.

The Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Regulated, Emerging, and Masked Mycotoxins in Rice Bran and Maize from Southeast Asia

Raw feed materials are often contaminated with mycotoxins, and co-occurrence of mycotoxins occurs frequently. A total of 250 samples i.e., rice bran and maize from Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand were analysed using state-of-the-art liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for monitoring the occurrence of regulated, emerging, and masked mycotoxins. Seven regulated mycotoxins – aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisin B₁, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, HT-2, and T-2 toxin were detected as well as some emerging mycotoxins, such as beauvericin, enniatin type B, stachybotrylactam, sterigmatocystin, and masked mycotoxins, specifically zearalenone-14-glucoside, and zearalenone-16-glucoside. Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins were the most prevalent compounds identified, especially aflatoxins and fumonisin B₁ in 100% and 95% of samples, respectively. Of the emerging toxins, beauvericin and enniatin type B showed high occurrences, with more than 90% of rice bran and maize contaminated, whereas zearalenone-14-glucoside and zearalenone-16-glucoside were found in rice bran in the range of 56–60%. Regulated mycotoxins (DON and ZEN) were the most frequent mycotoxin combination with emerging mycotoxins (BEA and ENN type B) in rice bran and maize. This study indicates that mycotoxin occurrence and co-occurrence are common in raw feed materials, and it is critical to monitor mycotoxin levels in ASEAN’s feedstuffs so that mitigation strategies can be developed and implemented.

The control of Fusarium growth and decontamination of produced mycotoxins by lactic acid bacteria

Global crop and food contamination with mycotoxins are one of the primary worldwide concerns, while there are several restrictions regarding approaching conventional physical and chemical mycotoxins decontamination methods due to nutrition loss, sensory attribute reduction in foods, chemical residual, inconvenient operation, high cost of equipment, and high energy consumption of some methods. In this regard, the overarching challenges of mycotoxin contamination in food and food crops require the development of biological decontamination strategies. Using certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as generally recognized safe (GRAS) compounds is one of the most effective alternatives due to their potential to release antifungal metabolites against various fungal factors species. This review highlights the potential applications of LAB as biodetoxificant agents and summarizes their decontamination activities against Fusarium growth and Fusarium mycotoxins released into food/feed. Firstly, the occurrence of Fusarium and the instrumental and bioanalytical methods for the analysis of mycotoxins were in-depth discussed. Upgraded knowledge on the biosynthesis pathway of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium offers new insightful ideas clarifying the function of these secondary metabolites. Moreover, the characterization of LAB metabolites and their impact on the decontamination of the mycotoxin from Fusarium, besides the main mechanisms of mycotoxin decontamination, are covered. While the thematic growth inhibition of Fusarium and decontamination of their mycotoxin by LAB is very complex, approaching certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is worth deeper investigations.

Cytochrome P450 isoforms contribution, plasma protein binding, toxicokinetics of enniatin A in rats and in vivo clearance prediction in humans

Emerging mycotoxins, such as enniatin A (ENNA), are becoming a worldwide concern owing to their presence in different types of food and feed. However, comprehensive toxicokinetic data that links intake, exposure and toxicological effects of ENNA has not been elucidated yet. Therefore, the present study investigated the in vitro (rat and human) and in vivo (rat) toxicokinetic properties of ENNA. Towards this, an easily applicable and sensitive bioanalytical method was developed and validated for the estimation of ENNA in rat plasma. ENNA exhibited high plasma protein binding (99%), high hepatic clearance and mainly underwent metabolism via CYP3A4 (74%). The in-house predicted hepatic clearance (54 mL/min/kg) and observed in vivo rat clearance (55 mL/min/kg) were comparable. The predicted in vivo human hepatic clearance was 18 mL/min/kg. ENNA underwent slow absorption (T_max = 4 h) and rapid elimination following oral administration to rats. The absolute oral bioavailability was 47%. The toxicokinetic findings for ENNA from this study will help in designing and interpreting toxicological studies in rats. Besides, these findings could be used in physiologically based toxicokinetic (PBTK) model development for exposure predictions and risk assessment for ENNA in humans.

Powerful toxic activity of citrinin, a fungal phytotoxin, and its mode of action in onion cells

The dose-related effects of citrinin (CTN) on various physiological, cytogenetic, biochemical, and anatomical parameters using Allium cepa L. bulbs as a test material were researched in the present study. The physiological parameters examinated were fresh weight, root length, root number, and germination percentage; the cytogenetic parameters were micronucleus (MN) frequency, chromosome aberration (CA), and mitotic index (MI); the biochemical parameters were catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, malondialdehyde (MDA) level, and free proline contents. And the anatomical changes in root tip cells were investigated by cross-sections. For this aim, onion bulbs were splitted four groups as three applications and one control. The bulbs in the control group were treated with distilled water; the bulbs in the application groups were treated with 1 μM, 5 μM, and 10 μM doses of CTN for 7 days. CTN application caused a decrease in the physiological parameters compared to the control group. This treatment created an increase in the frequency of MN and CA, and a reduce in the MI. In addition, it induced a dose-dependent increase in CAT and SOD activities and MDA and proline contents compared to the control group. Moreover, after CTN application, anatomical changes such as flattened nucleus, cell wall thickening, and cell deformation were identified and it was found that these changes reached their maximum at 10 mg/L dose CTN. Concequently, CTN caused inhibitory effects and the Allium test material was found to be a useful bioindicator for monitoring these effects.

Multi-mycotoxin occurrence in feed, metabolism and carry-over to animal-derived food products: A review

The world requests for raw materials used in animal feed has been steadily rising in the last years driven by higher demands for livestock production. Mycotoxins are frequent toxic metabolites present in these raw materials. The exposure of farm animals to mycotoxins could result in undesirable residues in animal-derived food products. Thus, the potential ingestion of edible animal products (milk, meat and fish) contaminated with mycotoxins constitutes a public health concern, since they enter the food chain and may cause adverse effects upon human health. The present review summarizes the state-of-the-art on the occurrence of mycotoxins in feed, their metabolism and carry-over into animal source foodstuffs, focusing particularly on the last decade. Maximum levels (MLs) for various mycotoxins have been established for a number of raw feed materials and animal food products. Such values are sometimes exceeded, however. Aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), trichothecenes (TCs) and zearalenone (ZEN) are the most prevalent mycotoxins in animal feed, with aflatoxin M₁ (AFM1) predominating in milk and dairy products, and OTA in meat by-products. The co-occurrence of mycotoxins in feed raw materials tends to be the rule rather than the exception, and the carry-over of mycotoxins from feed to animal source foods is more than proven.

Enniatin B and Deoxynivalenol Activity on Bread Wheat and on Fusarium Species Development

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a devastating wheat disease, mainly caused by Fusarium graminearum (FG)-a deoxynivalenol (DON)-producing species. However, Fusarium avenaceum (FA), able to biosynthesize enniatins (ENNs), has recently increased its relevance worldwide, often in co-occurrence with FG. While DON is a well-known mycotoxin, ENN activity, also in association with DON, is poorly understood. This study aims to explore enniatin B (ENB) activity, alone or combined with DON, on bread wheat and on Fusarium development. Pure ENB, DON, and ENB+DON (10 mg kg-1) were used to assess the impacts on seed germination, seedling growth, cell death induction (trypan blue staining), chlorophyll content, and oxidative stress induction (malondialdehyde quantification). The effect on FG and FA growth was tested using ENB, DON, and ENB+DON (10, 50, and 100 mg kg-1). Synergistic activity in the reduction of seed germination, growth, and chlorophyll degradation was observed. Conversely, antagonistic interaction in cell death and oxidative stress induction was found, with DON counteracting cellular stress produced by ENB. Fusarium species responded to mycotoxins in opposite directions. ENB inhibited FG development, while DON promoted FA growth. These results highlight the potential role of ENB in cell death control, as well as in fungal competition.

Organisation of Multi-Mycotoxin Proficiency Tests: Evaluation of the Performances of the Laboratories Using the Triple A Rating Approach

In accordance with the International Standard Organization ISO 17043, two proficiency tests (PTs) for the simultaneous determination of aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2); deoxynivalenol; fumonisins FB1, FB2, and B3; ochratoxin A, the T-2 toxin; and the HT-2 toxin were conducted in 2019 and 2020 using cornflakes and rusk flours that were prepared in house. The homogeneity and the stability of these materials were verified according to the criteria laid down in ISO 13528 using randomly selected samples. Most of the targeted toxins were found to be homogenously distributed in both materials with no significant changes during the timescale of the PTs. Next, the materials were distributed to approximately 25 participating laboratories from Europe, Canada, and the United States. The obtained datasets were computed using robust statistics. The outliers were checked and removed, and the toxin concentrations were assigned as the consensus value of the results of the participants at Horwitz ratios <1.2. The z scores were generated for all mycotoxins, and the results were pooled to calculate the relative sum of squared z scores (SZ2) indexes and were clustered according to the triple A rating. Overall, at least 80% of the participating laboratories achieved good and acceptable performances. The most frequent categories assigned to good performances (SZ2 ≤ 2) were AAA (51%) and BAA (13%). Clusters of BBA + CBA (6%) included laboratories reporting acceptable z scores <90% of the total z scores for less than 90% or 50% of the mycotoxins targeted in the 2 matrices. The triple A rating seems to be appropriate in evaluating the performances of laboratories involved in multi-mycotoxin analyses. Accredited and non-accredited analytical methods achieved good and acceptable performances.

Transcriptional Changes after Enniatins A, A1, B and B1 Ingestion in Rat Stomach, Liver, Kidney and Lower Intestine

Enniatins (ENs) are depsipeptide mycotoxins produced by Fusarium fungi. They are known for their capacity to modulate cell membrane permeability and disruption of ionic gradients, affecting cell homeostasis and initiating oxidative stress mechanisms. The effect of the acute toxicity of ENs A, A1, B and B1 at two different concentrations after 8 h of exposure was analysed in Wistar rats by a transcriptional approach. The following key mitochondrial and nuclear codified genes related to the electron transport chain were considered for gene expression analysis in stomach, liver, kidney and lower intestine by quantitative Real-Time PCR: mitochondrially encoded NADH dehydrogenase 1 (MT-ND1), mitochondrially encoded cytochrome c oxidase 1 (MT-COX1), succinate dehydrogenase flavoprotein subunit A and ATP synthase F1 subunit alpha, respectively. Moreover, the expression of markers involved in oxidative stresssuperoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), glutathione peroxidase 1 (Gpx1), heme oxygenase 1, apoptosis B-cell lymphoma 2, Bcl2 Associated protein X (Bax), tumor suppressor protein (p53), inhibition of apoptosis nuclear factor kappa of activated B cells, immune system interleukin 1β and intestinal tight junction Occludin merely in lower intestine tissues have been investigated. For mitochondrial genes, the main differences were observed for MT-ND1 and MT-COX1, showing its deficiency in all selected organs. With regard to the intestinal barrier’s cellular response to oxidative stress, the activity of the antioxidant gene SOD1 was decreased in a dose-dependent manner. Similarly, the catalytic enzyme GPx1 was also downregulated though merely at medium dose employed. On the contrary, the pro-apoptotic Bax and p53 regulators were activated after ENs exposure, reporting a significant increase in their expression. Furthermore, the alteration of intestinal permeability was assessed by the abnormal activity of the tight junction protein occludin. In summary, ENs may generate mitochondrial disorders and induce oxidative stress in intestinal barrier function.

Study of locomotion response and development in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos and larvae exposed to enniatin A, enniatin B, and beauvericin

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by a variety of fungi that contaminate food and feed resources, and are capable of inducing a wide range of toxicity. Here, we studied the developmental and behavioral toxicity in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos and larvae exposed to three mycotoxins: beauvericin (BEA), Enniatin A (ENN A), and Ennitain B (ENN B). Zebrafish embryos were collected after fertilization, treated individually from 1 to 6 dpf with BEA at 8, 16, 32 and, 64 μM and for both enniatins at 3.12, 6.25, 12.5 and, 25 μM. Mixture of mycotoxins were assayed as follows: i) for BEA + ENN A and BEA + ENN B at [32 + 12.5] μM and [16 + 6.25] μM; ii) for ENN A + ENN B at [12.5 + 12.5] μM and [6.25 + 6.25] μM and, iii) for BEA + ENN A + ENN B at [32 + 12.5 + 12.5] μM and [16 + 6.25 + 6.25] μM. Response was collected after a white light-flash intermittent coming on for 5 s during 2 h with a imaging platform. Outcomes measured were: time to death, response to light, and circadian rhythm. This last outcome was measured in a plate where embryos had evolved in natural intervals of light and dark until day 7 or in a plate maintained in darkness. Images of all stages and evolution were collected. Results indicated that mycotoxins induced toxicity at the concentrations tested. All exposed zebrafish induced developmental defects, specifically hatching time and motion activity. After exposure, fish showed enhanced baseline activity but they lost their responsiveness to light.

Mycotoxins in wheat flour: occurrence and co-occurrence assessment in samples from Southern Brazil

The goal of this survey was to evaluate the presence and concentration as well as the co-occurrence of legislated and non-legislated mycotoxins in wheat flour samples from Brazil. A total of 200 wheat flour samples were analysed by a validated multi-mycotoxins method. DON was the mycotoxin with the highest occurrence, being present in 100% of the analysed samples and showing contamination in both years and regions (53-2905 μg kg^-1). ZEN was detected in 51% (<LOQ-50 μg kg^-1) of the samples, while T-2 (not legislated in Brazil) was detected in 13.5% (<LOQ-1506 μg kg^-1) of all samples. Regarding co-occurrence, all samples were contaminated with two to three mycotoxins.

The Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Raw Materials and Fish Feeds in Europe and the Potential Effects of Deoxynivalenol (DON) on the Health and Growth of Farmed Fish Species-A Review

The first part of this study evaluates the occurrence of mycotoxin patterns in feedstuffs and fish feeds. Results were extrapolated from a large data pool derived from wheat (n = 857), corn (n = 725), soybean meal (n = 139) and fish feed (n = 44) samples in European countries and based on sample analyses by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in the period between 2012-2019. Deoxynivalenol (DON) was readily present in corn (in 47% of the samples) > wheat (41%) > soybean meal (11%), and in aquafeeds (48%). Co-occurrence of mycotoxins was frequently observed in feedstuffs and aquafeed samples. For example, in corn, multi-mycotoxin occurrence was investigated by Spearman's correlations and odd ratios, and both showed co-occurrence of DON with its acetylated forms (3-AcDON, 15-AcDON) as well as with zearalenone (ZEN). The second part of this study summarizes the existing knowledge on the effects of DON on farmed fish species and evaluates the risk of DON exposure in fish, based on data from in vivo studies. A meta-analytical approach aimed to estimate to which extent DON affects feed intake and growth performance in fish. Corn was identified as the ingredient with the highest risk of contamination with DON and its acetylated forms, which often cannot be detected by commonly used rapid detection methods in feed mills. Periodical state-of-the-art mycotoxin analyses are essential to detect the full spectrum of mycotoxins in fish feeds aimed to prevent detrimental effects on farmed fish and subsequent economic losses for fish farmers. Because levels below the stated regulatory limits can reduce feed intake and growth performance, our results show that the risk of DON contamination is underestimated in the aquaculture industry.

Occurrence, Impact on Agriculture, Human Health, and Management Strategies of Zearalenone in Food and Feed: A Review

Mycotoxins represent an assorted range of secondary fungal metabolites that extensively occur in numerous food and feed ingredients at any stage during pre- and post-harvest conditions. Zearalenone (ZEN), a mycotoxin categorized as a xenoestrogen poses structural similarity with natural estrogens that enables its binding to the estrogen receptors leading to hormonal misbalance and numerous reproductive diseases. ZEN is mainly found in crops belonging to temperate regions, primarily in maize and other cereal crops that form an important part of various food and feed. Because of the significant adverse effects of ZEN on both human and animal, there is an alarming need for effective detection, mitigation, and management strategies to assure food and feed safety and security. The present review tends to provide an updated overview of the different sources, occurrence and biosynthetic mechanisms of ZEN in various food and feed. It also provides insight to its harmful effects on human health and agriculture along with its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

Fusarium Cyclodepsipeptide Mycotoxins: Chemistry, Biosynthesis, and Occurrence

Most of the fungi from the Fusarium genus are pathogenic to cereals, vegetables, and fruits and the products of their secondary metabolism mycotoxins may accumulate in foods and feeds. Non-ribosomal cyclodepsipeptides are one of the main mycotoxin groups and include beauvericins (BEAs), enniatins (ENNs), and beauvenniatins (BEAEs). When ingested, even small amounts of these metabolites significantly affect human and animal health. On the other hand, in view of their antimicrobial activities and cytotoxicity, they may be used as components in drug discovery and processing and are considered as suitable candidates for anti-cancer drugs. Therefore, it is crucial to expand the existing knowledge about cyclodepsipeptides and to search for new analogues of these compounds. The present manuscript aimed to highlight the extensive variability of cyclodepsipeptides by describing chemistry, biosynthesis, and occurrence of BEAs, ENNs, and BEAEs in foods and feeds. Moreover, the co-occurrence of Fusarium species was compared to the amounts of toxins in crops, vegetables, and fruits from different regions of the world.

In silico methods for metabolomic and toxicity prediction of zearalenone, α-zearalenone and β-zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEA), α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) (ZEA's metabolites) are co/present in cereals, fruits or their products. All three with other compounds, constitute a cocktail-mixture that consumers (and also animals) are exposed and never entirely evaluated, nor in vitro nor in vivo. Effect of ZEA has been correlated to endocrine disruptor alterations as well as its metabolites (α-ZEL and β-ZEL); however, toxic effects associated to metabolites generated once ingested are unknown and difficult to study. The present study defines the metabolomics profile of all three mycotoxins (ZEA, α-ZEL and β-ZEL) and explores the prediction of their toxic effects proposing an in silico workflow by using three programs of predictions: MetaTox, SwissADME and PASS online. Metabolomic profile was also defined and toxic effect evaluated for all metabolite products from Phase I and II reaction (a total of 15 compounds). Results revealed that products describing metabolomics profile were: from O-glucuronidation (1z and 2z for ZEA and 1 ab, 2 ab and 3 ab for ZEA's metabolites), S-sulfation (3z and 4z for ZEA and 4 ab, 5 ab and 6 ab for ZEA's metabolites) and hydrolysis (5z and 7 ab for ZEA's metabolites, respectively). Lipinsky's rule-of-five was followed by all compounds except those coming from O-glucuronidation (HBA>10). Metabolite products had better properties to reach blood brain barrier than initial mycotoxins. According to Pa values (probability of activation) order of toxic effects studied was carcinogenicity > nephrotoxic > hepatotoxic > endocrine disruptor > mutagenic (AMES TEST) > genotoxic. Prediction of inhibition, induction and substrate function on different isoforms of Cytochrome P450 (CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2C9 and CYP3A4) varied for each compounds analyzed; similarly, for activation of caspases 3 and 8. Relying to our findings, the metabolomics profile of ZEA, α-ZEL and β-ZEL analyzed by in silico programs predicts alteration of systems/pathways/mechanisms that ends up causing several toxic effects, giving an excellent sight and direct studies before starting in vitro or in vivo assays contributing to 3Rs principle; however, confirmation can be only demonstrated by performing those assays.

Pearl millet populations characterized by Fusarium prevalence, morphological traits, phenolic content, and antioxidant potential

BACKGROUND

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) has become increasingly attractive due to its health benefits. It is grown as food for human consumption and fodder for livestock in Africa and Asia. This study focused on five pearl millet populations from different agro-ecological zones from Tunisia, and on characterization by morphological traits, total phenolic and flavonoid content, antioxidant activity, and occurrence of Fusarium.

RESULTS

Analysis of variance revealed highly significant differences between populations for the quantitative traits. The highest grain weights occurred in the pearl millet cultivated in Zaafrana and Gergis of Tunisia. Early flowering and early maturing populations cultivated in the center (Zaafrana, Rejiche) and south (Gergis) of Tunisia tended to have a higher grain yield. The Zaafrana population showed the highest value of green fodder potentiel (number and weight of leaves/cultivar and the weight of tillers and total plant/cultivar) followed by Gergis and Rejiche. The Kelibia population showed the highest total phenolic and flavonoid content. Rejiche exhibited the greatest antioxidant activity. Trans-cinnamic, protocatechuic, and hydroxybenzoic acids were the major phenolic compounds in all the extracts. Three Fusarium species were identified in Tunisian pearl millet populations based on morphologic and molecular characterization. Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum occurred most frequently. The average incidence of the three Fusarium species was relatively low (<5%) in all populations. The lowest infection rate (0.1%) was recorded in the samples from Zaafrana.

CONCLUSION

Chemometric analysis confirmed the usefulness of the above traits for discrimination of pearl millet populations, where a considerable variation according to geographical origin and bioclimatic conditions was observed. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Determination of Fungi and Multi-Class Mycotoxins in Camelia Sinensis and Herbal Teas and Dietary Exposure Assessment

In this paper, a study of fungal and multi-mycotoxin contamination in 140 Camellia sinensis and 26 herbal teas marketed in Latvia is discussed. The analysis was performed using two-dimensional liquid chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (2D-LC-TOF-MS) and MALDI-TOF-MS. In total, 87% of the tea samples tested positive for 32 fungal species belonging to 17 genera, with the total enumeration of moulds ranging between 1.00 × 10¹ and 9.00 × 10⁴ CFU g⁻¹. Moreover, 42% of the teas (n = 70) were contaminated by 1 to 16 mycotoxins, and 37% of these samples were positive for aflatoxins at concentrations ranging between 0.22 and 41.7 µg kg⁻¹. Deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives co-occurred in 63% of the tea samples, with their summary concentrations reaching 81.1 to 17,360 µg kg⁻¹. Ochratoxin A (OTA), enniatins, and two Alternaria toxins were found in 10–37% of the teas at low concentrations. The dietary exposure assessment based on the assumption of a probable full transfer of determined mycotoxins into infusions indicated that the analysed teas are safe for consumers: the probable maximum daily exposure levels to OTA and the combined DON mycotoxins were only 0.88 to 2.05% and 2.50 to 78.9% of the tolerable daily intake levels.

Mitigation of nivalenol using alcoholic fermentation and magnetic field application

This study aimed at evaluating mitigation of nivalenol (NIV) in alcoholic fermentation with magnetic field application (MF). Mitigation was related to both the glutathione (GSH) redox molecule and the enzyme peroxidase (PO), which were synthesized by Saccharomyces cerevisiae US-05. Conditions under evaluation were NIV (0.2 µg mL^-1), MF application (35 mT) and simultaneous use of mycotoxin and MF. The GSH content and the PO activity were increased when the culture contained NIV and the alcohol profile was altered after 48 h of fermentation. At the end of the alcoholic fermentation, NIV was mitigated by 56.5%. Therefore, this process is a promising method to reduce contamination by NIV, although the mycotoxin affects the chemical characteristics of the final product.

Multiple Fungal Metabolites Including Mycotoxins in Naturally Infected and Fusarium-Inoculated Wheat Samples

In this study, the occurrence of multiple fungal metabolites including mycotoxins was determined in four different winter wheat varieties in a field experiment in Croatia. One group was naturally infected, while the second group was inoculated with a Fusarium graminearum and F. culmorum mixture to simulate a worst-case infection scenario. Data on the multiple fungal metabolites including mycotoxins were acquired with liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) multi-(myco)toxin method. In total, 36 different fungal metabolites were quantified in this study: the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON), DON-3-glucoside (D3G), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON), culmorin (CULM), 15-hydroxyculmorin, 5-hydroxyculmorin, aurofusarin, rubrofusarin, enniatin (Enn) A, Enn A1, Enn B, Enn B1, Enn B2, Enn B3, fumonisin B1, fumonisin B2, chrysogin, zearalenone (ZEN), moniliformin (MON), nivalenol (NIV), siccanol, equisetin, beauvericin (BEA), and antibiotic Y; the Alternaria mycotoxins alternariol, alternariolmethylether, altersetin, infectopyron, tentoxin, tenuazonic acid; the Aspergillus mycotoxin kojic acid; unspecific metabolites butenolid, brevianamid F, cyclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr), cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val), and tryptophol. The most abundant mycotoxins in the inoculated and naturally contaminated samples, respectively, were found to occur at the following average concentrations: DON (19,122/1504 µg/kg), CULM (6109/1010 µg/kg), 15-hydroxyculmorin (56,022/1301 µg/kg), 5-hydroxyculmorin (21,219/863 µg/kg), aurofusarin (43,496/1266 µg/kg). Compared to naturally-infected samples, Fusarium inoculations at the flowering stage increased the concentrations of all Fusarium mycotoxins, except enniatins and siccanol in Ficko, the Aspergillus metabolite kojic acid, the Alternaria mycotoxin altersetin, and unspecific metabolites brevianamid F, butenolid, cyclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr), and cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val). In contrast to these findings, because of possible antagonistic actions, Fusarium inoculation decreased the concentrations of the Alternaria toxins alternariol, alternariolmethylether, infectopyron, tentoxin, tenuazonic acid, as well as the concentration of the nonspecific metabolite tryptophol.

Individual and Combined Effect of Zearalenone Derivates and Beauvericin Mycotoxins on SH-SY5Y Cells

Beauvericin (BEA) and zearalenone derivatives, α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL), are produced by several Fusarium species. Considering the impact of various mycotoxins on human's health, this study determined and evaluated the cytotoxic effect of individual, binary, and tertiary mycotoxin treatments consisting of α-ZEL, β-ZEL, and BEA at different concentrations over 24, 48, and 72 h on SH-SY5Y neuronal cells, by using the MTT assay (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5diphenyltetrazoliumbromide). Subsequently, the isobologram method was applied to elucidate if the mixtures produced synergism, antagonism, or additive effects. Ultimately, we determined the amount of mycotoxin recovered from the media after treatment using liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-qTOF-MS). The IC50 values detected at all assayed times ranged from 95 to 0.2 μM for the individual treatments. The result indicated that β-ZEL was the most cytotoxic mycotoxin when tested individually. The major effect detected for all combinations assayed was synergism. Among the combinations assayed, α-ZEL + β-ZEL + BEA and α-ZEL + BEA presented the highest cytotoxic potential with respect to the IC value. At all assayed times, BEA was the mycotoxin recovered at the highest concentration in individual form, and β-ZEL + BEA was the combination recovered at the highest concentration.

Natural Occurrence of Deoxynivalenol and Its Acetylated Derivatives in Chinese Maize and Wheat Collected in 2017

Deoxynivalenol (DON), along with 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON) and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON), occur in grains and cereal products and is often hazardous to humans and livestock. In this study, 579 wheat samples and 606 maize samples intended for consumption were collected from China in 2017 and analyzed to determine the co-occurrence of type-B trichothecenes (DON, 3-ADON, and 15-ADON). All the wheat samples tested positive for DON, while 99.83% of the maize samples were DON-positive with mean DON concentrations of 165.87 and 175.30 μg/kg, respectively. Per the Chinese standard limits for DON, 3.63% of wheat and 2.97% of the maize samples were above the maximum limit of 1000 μg/kg. The DON derivatives (3-ADON and 15-ADON) were less frequently found and were present at lower levels than DON in wheat. 3-ADON and 15-ADON had incidences of 13.53% and 76.40%, respectively, in maize. By analyzing the distribution ratio of DON and its derivatives in wheat and maize, DON (95.51%) was the predominant toxin detected in wheat samples, followed by 3.97% for the combination of DON + 3-ADON, while DON + 3-ADON + 15-ADON and DON + 15-ADON were only found in 0.17% and 0.35% of wheat samples, respectively. Additionally, a large amount of the maize samples were contaminated with DON + 15-ADON (64.19%) and DON (22.11%). The samples with a combination of DON + 3-ADON and DON + 3-ADON + 15-ADON accounted for 1.32% and 12.21%, respectively. Only one maize sample did not contain all three mycotoxins. Our study shows the necessity of raising awareness of the co-occurrence of mycotoxin contamination in grains from China to protect consumers from the risk of exposure to DON and its derivatives.

Beauvericin and ochratoxin A mycotoxins individually and combined in HepG2 cells alter lipid peroxidation, levels of reactive oxygen species and glutathione

The co-presence of more than one mycotoxin in food is being evidenced in last food surveys as reported in the literature. Beauvericin (BEA) is a non-legislated emergent mycotoxin while Ochratoxin A (OTA) has been widely studied and legislated. Concentration range individually studied was from 2.5 to 0.3 μM for BEA and from 25 to 3.1 μM for OTA; binary mixture [BEA + OTA] comprised concentrations of 1:10 ratio from [2.5 + 25] to [3.1 + 0.3] μM. Potential of toxicity of BEA in HepG2 cells was the highest at all times assayed (24, 48 and 72h). LPO was performed through malondyaldehyde (MDA) detection denoting in the binary mixture for [1.25 + 12.5] μM and at 24 and 72h the highest disturbance values. ROS denoted differences respect to the control at different times specially for OTA, while in binary combination only for few point times was denoted. Effects detected for ROS and LPO were connected with alterations detected for glutathione levels of oxidized and reduced form. A real scenario of consumers chronically exposed to different mycotoxins and their mixtures is here presented highlighting the good methodology to assess the risk from exposure to combinations of chemicals in food.

Biodegradation of Deoxynivalenol by a Novel Microbial Consortium

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a common mycotoxin of type B trichothecene, is produced mainly by several Fusarium species. DON causes great losses in farming and poses severe safety risks to human and animal health. Thus, DON contamination in cereals and DON toxicity are of worldwide concern. In this study, we screened the bacterial consortium C20, which efficiently degraded almost 70 μg ml⁻¹ DON within 5 days. The bacterial consortium also had the ability to degrade 15-acetyl-DON, 3-acetyl-DON, and T-2 toxin. The bacterial consortium C20 was able to degrade DON under a wide range of pH and temperature conditions. The optimal temperature and pH for DON degradation were 30°C and pH 8.0, respectively. The bacterial consortium C20 comprised of different bacterial genera, and several strains were found to significantly increase when cultured in Mineral Medium with 100 μg ml⁻¹ DON based on the analysis of the sequences of the hypervariable V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. 3-keto-DON was confirmed as a degradation product of DON by liquid chromatography/time-of-flight/mass spectrometry (LC-TOF-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses. The results indicated that the bacterial consortium C20 is a potential candidate for the biodegradation of DON in a safe and environmentally friendly manner.

Plant-based milks: unexplored source of emerging mycotoxins. A proposal for the control of enniatins and beauvericin using UHPLC-MS/MS

Mycotoxins have become one of the most common contaminants reported worldwide. Current legislation has established maximum levels only for some well-known mycotoxins; however, there are many other "emerging mycotoxins" for which there is no regulation, as enniatins and beauvericin. An analytical method based on salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction followed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry is proposed for determination of enniatin A, A1, B, B1, and beauvericin in different plant-based milks, as a possible source of these contaminants, is proposed. The method showed good precision and trueness (RSD <8% and recoveries between 84-97%) with a moderate matrix effect. From a total of 32 samples of plant-based milks of different compositions (including 8 rice milks, 8 oat milks and 16 soy milks), 3 samples were contaminated with the five mycotoxins, while 5 samples were contaminated with four of them, being oat milk the most susceptible for contamination.

Emerging Fusarium Mycotoxins Fusaproliferin, Beauvericin, Enniatins, and Moniliformin in Serbian Maize

Emerging mycotoxins such as moniliformin (MON), enniatins (ENs), beauvericin (BEA), and fusaproliferin (FUS) may contaminate maize and negatively influence the yield and quality of grain. The aim of this study was to determine the content of emerging Fusarium mycotoxins in Serbian maize from the 2016, 2017, and 2018 harvests. A total of 190 samples from commercial maize production operations in Serbia were analyzed for the presence of MON, ENs, BEA, and FUS using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The obtained results were interpreted together with weather data from each year. MON, BEA, and FUS were major contaminants, while other emerging mycotoxins were not detected or were found in fewer samples (<20%). Overall contamination was highest in 2016 when MON and BEA were found in 50–80% of samples. In 2017 and 2018, high levels of MON, FUS, and BEA were detected in regions with high precipitation and warm weather during the silking phase of maize (July and the beginning of August), when the plants are most susceptible to Fusarium infections. Since environmental conditions in Serbia are favorable for the occurrence of mycotoxigenic fungi, monitoring Fusarium toxins is essential for the production of safe food and feed.

Cytotoxicity, Genotoxicity and Disturbance of Cell Cycle in HepG2 Cells Exposed to OTA and BEA: Single and Combined Actions

Mycotoxins are produced by a number of fungal genera spp., for example, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, Fusarium, and Claviceps. Beauvericin (BEA) and Ochratoxin A (OTA) are present in various cereal crops and processed grains. This goal of this study was to determine their combination effect in HepG2 cells, presented for the first time. In this study, the type of interaction among BEA and OTA through an isobologram method, cell cycle disturbance by flow cytometry, and genotoxic potential by in vitro micronucleus (MN) assay following the TG 487 (OECD, 2016) of BEA and OTA individually and combined in HepG2 cells are presented. Cytotoxic concentration ranges studied by the MTT assay over 24, 48, and 72 h were from 0 to 25 µM for BEA and from 0 to 100 µM for OTA, while BEA + OTA combinations were at a 1:10 ratio from 3.4 to 27.5 µM. The toxicity observed for BEA was higher than for OTA at all times assayed; additive and synergistic effects were detected for their mixtures. Cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase was detected for OTA and BEA + OTA treatments in HepG2 cells. Genotoxicity revealed significant effects for BEA, OTA, and in combinations underlining the importance of studying real exposure scenarios of chronic exposure to mycotoxins.