Gender differences in the influence of personality traits on spicy food liking and intake

Oral Somatosensory Sensitivity in the Clinical Assessment of Gustatory Dysfunction

OBJECTIVE

Food perception has multimodal contributions by taste, smell, and somatosenses. The objective of this study was to investigate oral somatosensory function in patients with gustatory dysfunction.

METHODS

This case-control study was conducted from May 1, 2022 to June 30, 2023 at a tertiary smell and taste clinic. Patients with gustatory complaints and controls were recruited. All participants underwent tests for gustatory function (taste spray, taste strips), oral mechanosensation (letter recognition) and oral irritation (chili powder: 1, 2, 5 and 7 mg). Primary outcome measures were Taste Strips scores, size of oral letter recognition, and self-rated oral irritation intensity.

RESULTS

There were 43 patients with gustatory dysfunction and 26 controls. Patients with gustatory dysfunction had significantly lower Taste Strips scores compared to controls (8.0 [7.0-12.0] vs. 13.0 [12.0-15.0], p < 0.001). Patients with gustatory dysfunction rated significantly lower oral intensities of chili at 2 mg (11.4 [4.8-25.2]% vs. 28.6 [23.8-44.8]%, p = 0.002), 5 mg (26.2 [10.0-42.9]% vs. 48.6 [39.0-69.5]%, p = 0.005) and 7 mg (39.5 [24.8-68.1]% vs. 68.6 [50.5-90.5]%, p = 0.008) compared to controls. There was no significant difference in the size of oral letter recognition between patients and controls. Among patients with gustatory complaints, 21 (52.5%) scored ≥ 9 on Taste Strips (considered a normal score); These patients perceived lower oral intensities with 2 mg of chili compared to controls (14.3 [4.8-39.5]% vs. 28.6 [23.8-44.8]%, p = 0.066).

CONCLUSION

Altered gustatory perception may be related to changes in chemesthetic sensitivity. Clinical assessment using lower concentrations of chili could be considered in patients with subtle gustatory dysfunction.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 2

Dietary habit helps improve people's adaptability to hot climates: a case study of hotpot in Chongqing, China

Global warming has raised significant concerns about mitigation and adaptation strategies in recent years. This study investigated if consuming spicy food can help improve people's adaptability to hot environment. Onsite measurement and thermal questionnaires were conducted at Chongqing university in summer and winter aged 18 ∼ 30 years old. Participants were categorized into two groups, including frequently eating hotpot (Group-yes) and not (Group-no), and there were respectively 590 and 570 surveys. The results indicated that: (1) Eating hotpot could lower expectations of meteorological conditions. (2) It can decrease thermal sensitivity and expand neutral physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) range (14.89 ∼ 24.74 ℃ in Group-yes and 16.66 ∼ 23.98 ℃ in Group-no). (3) The acceptable PET range in Group-yes was 5.46 ℃ wider than Group-no with a higher preferred PET in Group-yes (24.04 ℃) compared to Group-no (22.63 ℃). (4) Respondents' thermal perception in Group-yes demonstrated a less susceptibility to meteorological variations compared to Group-no, and respondents in Group-no were more influenced by RH in summer. These findings suggest that consuming hotpot can improve thermal adaptation, thereby underscoring the significant influence of dietary habits on thermal adaptability.

A systematic review of the relationship between taste and personality traits: Phenomena and possible mechanisms

Individuals exhibit variability in taste preferences, and personality plays a role in those variations. This study provides a comprehensive review of the relationship between taste preferences and personality traits, focusing on the five basic tastes (sweet, bitter, sour, salty, and umami) and spiciness. Through a systematic review of the literature from the past 30 years, 24 of 2182 articles were selected using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis protocol. This review identifies stable associations between certain tastes and specific personality traits. For instance, a preference for sweetness is linked to neuroticism and agreeableness, whereas preferences for bitter and sour tastes are associated with antisocial personality traits, such as Machiavellianism. Spiciness preference is closely related to sensation-seeking, extraversion, and impulsivity. Additionally, this review explores the potential physiological and psychological mechanisms underlying these associations, including (1) the direct impact of personality factors, (2) the role of brain functions (e.g. the insula), (3) the embodied metaphor theory, and (4) the potential effects of eating behaviour on personality. Despite these findings, the reliability of existing research is limited by small sample sizes and inconsistent measurement tools. Future studies should expand the sample diversity, develop more standardised measurement instruments, and further investigate the long-term effects of taste preferences on personality traits. This review offers new insights into the complex relationship between taste and personality and provides insights for future research and practical applications in real life.

Motor impulsivity and spicy food craving: A mediation analysis of insula-based resting state functional connectivity

In China, the rate of spicy food consumption is rising, and chili pepper is among the most popular spicy foods consumed nationwide. However, little effort has been made to understand the mechanism behind spicy food craving. This exploratory study aimed to investigate differences in insula-based resting state functional connectivity (rsFC) between spicy food cravers and non-cravers, and the association between rsFC, impulsivity and spicy food craving. A group of extreme cravers (n = 49) and a group of age- and sex-matched non-cravers (n = 46) completed a resting-state fMRI scan, during which participants were instructed to keep their eyes closed, to not think of anything in particular, and to remain awake. Participants completed the Spicy Food Craving Questionnaire, Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, Sensation Seeking Scale and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, and rated the frequency of spicy food intake. Results revealed increased insula-occipital lobe resting-state functional connectivity in individuals with spicy food cravings, and the positive correlations between insula-middle occipital gyrus rsFC, impulsivity and spicy food craving. Specifically, the insula-middle occipital gyrus rsFC strength mediated the relationship between the motor impulsivity and spicy food craving. It is hoped that our exploratory findings may shed new insights into the neural mechanisms of spicy food craving and motivate further exploration of spicy food craving in diverse contexts and cultures.

Ayurvedic perspective of dietary risk factors of colorectal cancers - A hospital-based case control study

BACKGROUND

The rising prevalence of colorectal cancer (CRC) may be attributed to various nutritional and behavioural factors, making both factors as important topics for discussion to the layman and the oncology community.

OBJECTIVE

To explore additional dietary risk factors, other than those already known, according to the Ayurvedic perspective in CRC patients.

METHODS

Detail dietary data was collected from 420 patients of CRC and 116 healthy volunteers registered at our institute with the help of a food frequency questionnaire. Descriptive analysis was done by plotting radar charts, whereas the logistic regression models were used to calculate the adjusted Odd Ratios (ORs) associated with consumption of green chilli, red chilli powder and curd, individually and in combinations.

RESULTS

The controls in the present study were younger, had more males, the majority of them belonged to middle- and lower-income groups and had a family history of cancer as compared with cohort of case studies. Green chilli consumption was found to be the maximum within the lower-income group (n = 18, 66.67%), while that of red chilli (n = 150, 48.23%), and curd (n = 107, 34.04%) within the middle class. Maximum consumption of green chillies (Males n = 48, 29.27%; Females n = 36, 21.95%), red chillies (Males n = 40, 29.85%; Females n = 16, 24.61%) and curd (Males n = 31, 28.97%) was observed in the age group 46 to 60 irrespective of sex. Tobacco was found to be the most common addiction in all groups. The maximum number of patients frequently consuming these three dietary items presented majorly with rectal cancer, and liver metastasis and were in advanced grade and stage of cancer. Curd and curd with red chilli powder had a significant association with the development of CRC with an OR of 2.7280 (95% CI 1.6346 to 4.5531) and 5.0806 (95% CI 2.4015 to 10.7485), respectively, which was highly significant (p < 0.0001). Green chilli was notably an associated risk with an OR of 2.0095 (95% CI 1.3258 to 3.0458), which was also statistically significant (p = 0.001). Red chilli powder and green chilli with curd had ORs as 1.6917 (95% CI 1.1105 to 2.5771) and 2.1778 (95% CI 1.1591 to 4.0918) with p = 0.0144 and 0.0156, respectively.

CONCLUSION

In the present study, green chilli, red chilli, and curd are identified as additional dietary risk factors for colorectal cancers, owing to their ability to produce chronic inflammation leading to various inflammatory conditions including cancer.

A review of assessment methods for measuring individual differences in oral somatosensory perception

While taste and smell perception have been thoroughly investigated, our understanding of oral somatosensory perception remains limited. Further, assessing and measuring individual differences in oral somatosensory perception pose notable challenges. This review aimed to evaluate the existing methods to assess oral somatosensory perception by examining and comparing the strengths and limitations of each method. The review highlighted the lack of standardized assessment methods and the various procedures within each method. Tactile sensitivity can be assessed using several methods, but each method measures different tactile dimensions. Further investigations are needed to confirm its correlation with texture sensitivity. In addition, measuring a single textural attribute may not provide an overall representation of texture sensitivity. Thermal sensitivity can be evaluated using thermal-change detection or temperature discrimination tests. The chemesthetic sensitivity tests involve either localized or whole-mouth stimulation tests. The choice of an appropriate method for assessing oral somatosensory sensitivity depends on several factors, including the specific research objectives and the target population. Each method has its unique intended purpose, strengths, and limitations, so no universally superior approach exists. To overcome some of the limitations associated with certain methods, the review offers alternative or complementary approaches that could be considered. Researchers can enhance the comprehensive assessment of oral somatosensory sensitivity by carefully selecting and potentially combining methods. In addition, a standardized protocol remains necessary for each method.

Sex-specific association between regional gray matter volume and spicy food craving or consumption

Both food cravings and long-term food consumption have been associated with brain changes. Sex differences in food craving are robust and substantial. The current study examined the potential sex-specific neuroanatomical correlates of spicy food craving and habitual spicy food consumption. One hundred and forty-nine participants completed the Spicy Food Consumption Questionnaire and the Spicy Food Craving Questionnaire while their structural brain images were acquired using a 3-T scanner. Multiple regression analysis was used to examine regional gray matter volume (GMV) in relation to questionnaire scores. GMV of the right supplementary motor area (SMA) and the dorsal superior frontal gyrus were significantly correlated with spicy food craving in women, whereas spicy food craving was associated with greater GMV of the inferior temporal gyrus and the occipital gyrus in men. In addition, habitual spicy food consumption was correlated with increased GMV of the bilateral putamen, left postcentral gyrus, and right paracentral lobule, which was more pronounced among female participants. These findings suggest distinct central neuroanatomical reflections of trait craving or habitual exposure to spicy flavors. The sex-specific correlation between spicy food craving and brain anatomical features may be related to food-related sensory imagery or cognitive control.

The contribution of subliminal perceptions, dietary habits, and psychological traits to the perception of oral tingling and burning sensations

The tingling evoked by Sichuan pepper and the burning elicited by chili pepper constitutes the typical flavor of Sichuan cuisine and is a component of leisure food. Although factors affecting the burning sensation have extensively been studied, few studies have examined the factors of individual sensitivity, personality traits, and dietary habits that contribute to the perception of oral tingling sensation, which hinders the formulation of tingling products and the development of new products. In contrast, many studies have examined the factors influencing the burning sensation. In this web-based survey, 68 participants disclosed their dietary habits, liking for tingling and hot foods, and psychological traits. Individual sensitivity to the tingling and burning sensation produced by a range of Sichuan pepper oleoresin and capsaicin solutions was determined using rated differences from control, generalized labeled magnitude scale method and ranking test. The consistency score indicated the accuracy of individual ranking results while also providing an indirect response to the sensitivity of the participant to supra-threshold for burning or tingling. Individual ratings for medium Sichuan pepper oleoresin concentrations significantly correlated with the just noticeable difference (p < 0.01), and ratings for medium and high capsaicin concentrations correlated significantly with 6-n-propylthiouracil ratings (p < 0.01). Notably, the power exponent of burning was significantly correlated with the burning recognition threshold (p < 0.01), and the power exponent of tingling and burning were significantly correlated (r = 0.340, p < 0.05). There was a negative correlation between supra-threshold tingling and burning sensation perceptions and life satisfaction ratings. Further, intensity ratings for oral tingling and burning sensation did not always correspond with individual sensitivity indicators (e.g., recognition threshold, 6-n-propylthiouracil, just noticeable difference, and consistency score). Thus, this study provides new insight into establishing a sensory selection method for chemesthetic sensation panelists and theoretical guidelines for formulation design and in-depth analysis of popular tingling dishes and foods.

Sourness impacts envy and jealousy in Chinese culture

In the present study, five experiments (N = 233) were designed to explore whether sourness as a sensory experience could implicitly impact social emotions of envy and jealousy in Chinese culture. Experiment 1 (n = 63) explored the implicit conceptual association between sourness words (vs. bitterness words) and envy/jealousy words. Experiment 2 (n = 70) and 3 (n = 20) examined the priming effects of imagined and tasted sourness (vs. bitterness and sweetness) on self-rated emotional intensity in envy- and jealousy-arousing situations, respectively. Experiment 4 (n = 40) and 5 (n = 40) further testified the priming effects of imagined and tasted sourness (vs. bitterness and sweetness) on self-rated emotional intensity in four types of social situations (i.e., envy, jealousy, sad and happy events), respectively. In the results, sourness was found as the only taste that not only conceptually associated with envy/jealousy, but also significantly primed envy/jealousy feelings. The possible mechanism underlying the association of sourness-envy/jealousy was discussed.

The Total Dietary Antioxidant Capacity, Its Seasonal Variability, and Dietary Sources in Cardiovascular Patients

The favourable role of dietary antioxidants in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and protection from them is widely discussed, and total dietary antioxidant capacity (TAOX) is perceived as a diet-quality marker. Data concerning TAOX and its dietary sources related to seasonal variability are limited. We aimed to analyse the TAOXs, seasonal variability, and sources in the daily diets of CVD patients. A total of 143 subjects (82 men, 61 women) since CVD problems were studied. Seasonal recalls were collected regarding dietary sources of antioxidant compounds in spring, summer, autumn, and winter. A food frequency questionnaire was used. The total dietary antioxidant capacity (in μmolTE/day) was calculated for each season. The primary sources of antioxidants in cardiovascular patients' diets were drinks (33%), fruits (28%), vegetables (16%), and black tea (14%). The TAOXs of CVD patients' diets significantly depended on the season (p < 0.001) and were highest in the summer and lowest in the spring. This seasonal variation in consumption was noted. Our findings suggest that a diet characterised with a TAOX might be subjected to fluctuations between seasons. We suggest considering modifications in the dietary recommendations for cardiovascular patients with a low antioxidant capacity between seasons.

Parsing Intra- and Inter-Individual Covariation Between the Sensory Attributes and Appeal of E-Cigarettes: Associations and Gender Differences

INTRODUCTION

Perceived sensory attributes of e-cigarettes may associate with their appeal. However, limited studies have accounted for individuals' variability in sensory attributes or have addressed how associations of sensory attributes with appeal may differ by gender.

METHODS

Individuals (n = 119, 32.8% female) who currently used combustible cigarettes and/or e-cigarettes attended one laboratory session in which they completed a standardized e-cigarette puffing procedure according to a 10 Flavor (green apple, strawberry, chocolate, vanilla, menthol, koolada, peppermint, spearmint, subtle tobacco, and full-flavored tobacco) × 2 Nicotine Formulation (free-base, salt) double-blind factorial design. The mean nicotine concentration was 23.4 (SD = 0.9) mg/mL in the nicotine salt formulations and 23.8 (SD = 1.7) mg/mL in the free-base formulations. Following each trial, participants completed ratings of sensory attributes (sweet, smooth, cool, bitter, harsh) and appeal (mean of liking, disliking [reverse-scored], and willingness-to-use-again ratings). Sensory attributes were partitioned into between-person and within-person variables. Gender was tested as a moderator of associations of sensory attributes with appeal.

RESULTS

Sweet, smooth, and cool sensory attributes positively associated with appeal at the between- and within-person level (ps < .001). Bitter and harsh negatively associated with appeal at the between- and within-person level (ps < .001). The associations of between-person sweet, smooth, and cool ratings with appeal was larger in males compared to females. The associations of within-person smooth, bitter, and harsh with appeal was larger in females compared to males.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed important gender differences in associations of sensory attributes and appeal.

IMPLICATIONS

While evidence suggests that sensory attributes may contribute to the appeal of e-cigarettes, there is little experimental evidence accounting for individual variability in sensory attributes and whether sensory attribute-appeal associations differ by gender. The current study provides evidence that average sweet, cool, and smooth ratings positively associated with appeal and that these associations were larger in males. Within-person bitter, harsh, and smooth ratings significantly associated with appeal in both genders, but these associations were larger in females compared to males. Data from the current report reinforces the need for researchers to study gender stratified effects in tobacco regulatory science.

Effect of palm stearin on the physicochemical characterization and capsaicinoid digestion of Sichuan hotpot oil

Beef tallow (BT) is the common hotpot oil used in Sichuan hotpot, increasing its characteristic flavors and making it taste better. However, the cholesterol content in BT is high, which may induce cardiovascular diseases. In this study, the effect of palm stearin (PS) on Sichuan hotpot oil was evaluated. The PS: BT blends showed similar physicochemical properties to BT from the results of sensory evaluation, pulsed NMR, DSC, and polar light micrograph (PLM). Furthermore, since spiciness is the essential characteristic of Sichuan hotpot, the digestive properties of capsaicinoids in hotpot oil were used as an evaluation index. The results showed that the digestive properties of capsaicinoids in hotpot oil containing PS were consistent with those without PS. In conclusion, PS can be partially used to replace BT, which can broaden the types of oil used for hotpot and help develop a new hotpot oil.

Parsing the link between reinforcement sensitivity theory and eating behavior: A systematic review

The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) is a widely studied psychobiological model of personality. RST factors seem to influence eating behavior, but how these personality traits are associated with distinct features of eating behavior is still unclear. In the present systematic review, we analyzed the relationship between RST personality factors and eating behavior using a parsing approach in which BMI-related results, self-reported results, and behavioral results were distinguished. Our analysis revealed that reward and punishment sensitivity seem to correlate and influence distinct features of eating behavior. The association between BMI and RST factors was uncertain, but nonlinear associations between reward sensitivity and weight need further testing. Reward sensitivity was linked to most eating behavior phenotypes (e.g., emotional eating and restrained eating), but only punishment sensitivity was primarily correlated with eating pathology. Reward sensitivity was the main factor linked with reactivity to food stimuli on many behavioral measures. The neurobiological personality factors of RST offer parsimonious concepts to understand eating behavior outcomes and the differential relationships observed are useful to translational research.

Consumer perception of natural hot-pepper cheeses

Hot-pepper cheese (HPC) is a growing category of flavored natural cheese. The objective of this study was to evaluate consumer perception of HPC using a combination of quantitative survey methods and consumer evaluation of HPC. An online survey (n = 510) was conducted to understand drivers of purchase for the HPC category. Consumers of HPC answered maximum difference exercises and an adaptive choice-based conjoint activity focused on HPC attributes. Subsequently, natural HPC were manufactured in duplicate with 5 different hot-pepper blends with a range of heat intensities and distinct color differences. Trained panel profiling and consumer-acceptance testing (n = 194 consumers) were conducted on the cheeses. Three clusters of consumers were identified from the online survey. Cluster 1 (n = 175) were traditional HPC consumers, and cluster 2 (n = 152) preferred milder HPC. Cluster 3 (n = 183) showed preference for spicier HPC as well as novel HPC, such as those made with habanero peppers or white Cheddar cheese. Conceptually, the overall ideal HPC was a Monterey Jack with medium-sized, multicolored pieces of jalapeno peppers and a medium heat and spiciness. Heat and spiciness intensity and type of cheese were the most important attributes. The 5 HPC used in consumer testing had a distinct range (low to high) of hot-pepper burn and heat intensity by trained panel profiling. Consumer overall liking increased as hot-pepper burn and heat intensity increased to a certain point, indicating HPC consumers may have an optimal point for heat and spiciness in HPC. Consumers also preferred HPC with multicolored pepper pieces over those with a single pepper color, consistent with survey results. Consumers who self-reported that they prefer mild- or medium-spicy foods (mild consumers) preferred HPC that were less intense in hot-pepper burn than consumers who self-reported preference for hot or spicy foods (hot consumers). Most HPC consumers preferred HPC with higher heat intensity and were also motivated by visual characteristics of HPC.

What is the link between personality and food behavior?

A number of personality characteristics have been linked to various aspects of taste (gustation), trigeminal, and olfactory perception. In particular, personality traits have been linked to olfactory sensory thresholds and olfactory identification abilities, as well as to the sensory-discriminative aspects of taste/flavour perception. To date, much of the research in this area has focused on Sensation Seeking (including Experience Seeking, and Openness to Novel Experiences), with the latter being linked to a preference for spicy, and possibly also crunchy, sour, and bitter foods/drinks. Novelty-seeking has also been linked to a preference for salty foods, while anxious individuals appear to enjoy a much narrower range of foods. A bidirectional link has also been documented between taste and mood. Certain of the personality-based differences in taste/flavour perception and food behaviour have been linked to differences in circulating levels of neurotransmitters and hormones in both normal and clinical populations. Taken together, therefore, the evidence that has been published to date supports a number of intriguing connections between personality traits and taste perception/food behaviour.

Capsaicin burn increases thickness discrimination thresholds independently of chronic chili intake

The trigeminal nerve transduces both chemical irritation and textural sensations suggesting that perception in one may influence perception in the other. Little is known about how the oral burn of capsaicin may affect texture sensitivity. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of burning sensations on thickness discrimination thresholds in liquid foods assessed by consumers who vary in habitual spicy food intake. Forty-seven Caucasian participants (31 females and 16 males; mean age: 25.0 ± 5.7 yrs; mean BMI: 21.5 ± 2.6 kg/m²) were recruited in the Netherlands. Chili pepper intake frequency and preference for chili peppers and spicy foods were assessed using questionnaires. Perceived burn and disliking/liking of bouillon soups thickened with xanthan gum (concentrations ranging from 0.06 to 0.21 g/mL; viscosity at 50 s^-1 (η_50s-1) ranging from 11 to 48 mPas) containing varying amounts of capsaicin (0, 1, or 10 ppm) were determined using generalized scales (gLMS and gDOL). Estimates of thickness discrimination thresholds were determined using the 2-Alternative Forced Choice ascending staircase method. Capsaicin was applied in two ways: (i) capsaicin was added directly to the soups or (ii) a pre-rinse of a capsaicin solution was held in mouth before evaluating soups without capsaicin. As expected, frequent chili pepper consumers reported significantly lower burn intensity and higher hedonic ratings compared to infrequent consumers. Thickness discrimination thresholds (i.e., BET expressed as Δη_50s-1) increased significantly from 11.3 mPas at 0 ppm to 16.1 mPas at 1 ppm (42% increase) to 21.4 mPas at 10 ppm capsaicin (89% increase) on average across all participants. Similar modification of thickness discrimination thresholds were observed regardless of whether capsaicin was added to the soup or was applied as a pre-rinse. No significant differences in thickness discrimination thresholds were observed between infrequent and frequent chili consumers. We conclude that oral burn caused by capsaicin affects thickness discrimination independently of reported chili pepper intake. Also, we suggest the ability of capsaicin to alter thickness discrimination may be due to increased neural noise, attentional effects or cross-modal interactions.

Association of Personality Traits with Dietary Habits and Food/Taste Preferences

Background:

Personality plays an important role in food choices. The aim of this study was to assess the association of personality traits with dietary habits and food preferences.

Methods:

This cross-sectional study was carried out on 224 healthy female students aged 18–30 years with a normal BMI. Dietary habits, food preferences, and personality were assessed using validated questionnaire.

Results:

Our results showed that neuroticism and openness were associated with low scores while conscientiousness was related to high scores of dietary habits (r = -0.33 P < 0.001, r = -0.13, P < 0.05 and r = 0.26, P < 0.001, respectively). In addition, neuroticism was correlated with preference to salty, sour and fatty foods and negatively associated with dairy products (P < 0.05). Extraversion showed a positive correlation with preference to fast foods, ice cream, chocolate, cocoa, and negative correlation with meat. Openness was positively correlated with preference for meat and biscuit and negatively correlated with fruits (P < 0.05). Agreeableness was related to having soft drinks and sweetened fruit juices and conscientiousness had a positive association with preference to dairy products, vegetables, nuts, food with salty tastes, and a negative association with biscuits (P < 0.05).

Conclusions:

Overall, assessing personality traits could be useful to identify young women who may be at risk of unhealthy dietary habits.

The Use of Demographics and Psychographics to Study Product Effects with Nutrient Supplements: Exploratory Multi-Country Data

Demographics and psychographics are used to study the influence of different consumers on product effects in food development and testing. Demographics have a longer history and are routinely used in most research; psychographics are more recent, raising the question of whether they add to research on food products. The research presented here represents extensive exploratory data that demonstrate that both demographic measures and psychographic measures add to our understanding of consumer's liking ratings for nutrient supplements. The results are discussed in the context of broader research on a range of food products. In addition, the research reported here was conducted in four different countries, demonstrating many country effects. Finally, tests were conducted with users of the products, lapsed users of the product, and users of other nutrient supplements (non-users), and this led to many differences in product testing. These results further suggest that age and gender are not the only demographic variables to be studied, along with psychographic variables. The psychographic variables should be selected for a particular product category under investigation, as effects of specific psychographic measures vary for product categories. Specific variables do not fit all products for both demographics and psychographics.

Male, Female, and Nonbinary Differences in UK Twitter Self-descriptions: A Fine-grained Systematic Exploration

Purpose

Although gender identities influence how people present themselves on social media, previous studies have tested pre-specified dimensions of difference, potentially overlooking other differences and ignoring nonbinary users.

Design/methodology/approach

Word association thematic analysis was used to systematically check for fine-grained statistically significant gender differences in Twitter profile descriptions between 409,487 UK-based female, male, and nonbinary users in 2020. A series of statistical tests systematically identified 1,474 differences at the individual word level, and a follow up thematic analysis grouped these words into themes.

Findings

The results reflect offline variations in interests and in jobs. They also show differences in personal disclosures, as reflected by words, with females mentioning qualifications, relationships, pets, and illnesses much more, nonbinaries discussing sexuality more, and males declaring political and sports affiliations more. Other themes were internally imbalanced, including personal appearance (e.g. male: beardy; female: redhead), self-evaluations (e.g. male: legend; nonbinary: witch; female: feisty), and gender identity (e.g. male: dude; nonbinary: enby; female: queen).

Research limitations

The methods are affected by linguistic styles and probably under-report nonbinary differences.

Practical implications

The gender differences found may inform gender theory, and aid social web communicators and marketers.

Originality/value

The results show a much wider range of gender expression differences than previously acknowledged for any social media site.

Preferences of Serbian consumers towards different pepper fruits

Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is one of the major vegetable species in the world. In Balkan cuisines, as well as in Serbia, pepper has a very diverse use. Knowledge about consumer preferences is of great importance for a breeding process as well as in the market-orientated production. Because of the lack of information about consumer preferences towards pepper types, in the Serbian market, the present research was conducted. Four hundred and two participants, classified into groups, according to gender, age and education, answered the survey questions. According to this research, the most preferred pepper type in Serbia is kapia, while the bell pepper is the second chosen type. Also, it was revealed that the most favourite colour of pepper fruit is red. There is a tendency for higher importance of fruit type rather than fruit colour. The highest percentage of hot pepper consumers prefers medium hot peppers. The obtained trend shows that women generally prefer less spicy pepper fruits than men.

Pungency perception and liking for pasta filata cheeses in consumers from different Italian regions

We aimed to investigate whether the sensitivity to capsaicin had an effect on pungency perception of pasta filata cheeses. In addition, we assessed the effect of several individual variables (gender, age, consumer provenance, PROP status and personality traits) on both consumer liking and choice for pasta filata cheeses. Four pasta filata cheeses at two ripening times and 272 subjects from three different Italian locations were used. Based on sensory data, the PCA discriminated sweet (ripened at 2 months) from pungent cheeses (ripened at 12 months). Cheese pungency perception increased with increasing sensitivity to capsaicin (P < 0.001). There was no clear relationship between sensitivity to capsaicin or sensitivity to cheese pungency with cheese liking, whereas a number of other aspects, including sensory attributes and individual consumer characteristics, such as consumer provenance (P < 0.001), gender (P < 0.001) and food neophobia (P < 0.05), affected the liking for different pasta filata cheeses. Consumers who were younger (18-30 y.o.; P < 0.05), female (P < 0.001), unfamiliar with pungent foods (P < 0.0001) and consumers from Potenza (P = 0.001) more often declared to prefer sweet over pungent cheese, whereas in terms of real choice supertasters and neophobic subjects chose the sweet option more often (P = 0.01). In conclusion, sensitivity to capsaicin affected pungency perception in pasta filata cheese, whereas no clear relationship was observed between pungency perception and liking. The contribution of cheese and consumer characteristics on cheese liking and choice in addition to pungency, was confirmed by the differences in declared and real choice for sweet or pungent cheeses.

Understanding Food Preferences and Their Connection to Health Perception among Lean and Non-Lean Populations in a Rural State

Lipid metabolism and dietary choices directly affect the outcome of overall weight management in both lean and non-lean individuals. However, the perception of consuming spicy foods has diverse meaning among people. To understand this, it is essential to have thorough knowledge on how food preference is tied to health outcomes. The aim of this study is to enhance the understanding of how food preference affects the health outcome and perception in lean and non-lean populations. A mixed methods study was conducted via analysis of consumers’ food choices and compared the data based on age, gender, and body weight. The participants in audio recorded interviews were comprised of residents from a single town in a rural state. The study shows that most participants were aware of the implications that food choices had on their health status and it emphasizes the importance of understanding the differences between consumption of spicy and non-spicy foods. Spicy food consumption was associated with decreased overall portion size as well as increased satisfaction following the meal. Environmental factors, such as the influence of family and friends, impacted spicy food consumption according to most participants. The outcome of the study provides a comprehensive understanding of food preferences from a relatively large exploratory study. The observations made here show rudimentary associations between physical attributes and levels of food consumption. Future studies could further identify how certain attributes relate to food choices and levels of spicy food consumption in greater detail.

Using Cross-Cultural Consumer Liking Data to Explore Acceptability of PGI Bread-Waterford Blaa

Waterford Blaa is one of only four Irish food products granted protected geographical (PGI) status by the European Commission. This study aimed to determine whether cultural background/product familiarity, gender, and/or age impacted consumer liking of three Waterford Blaa products and explored product acceptability between product-familiar and product-unfamiliar consumer cohorts in Ireland and the UK, respectively. Familiarity with Blaa impacted consumer liking, particularly with respect to characteristic flour dusting, which is a unique property of Waterford Blaa. UK consumers felt that all Blaas had too much flour. Blaa A had the heaviest amount of flouring and was the least preferred for UK consumers, who liked it significantly less than Irish consumers (p < 0.05). Flavour was also important for UK consumers. Blaa C delivered a stronger oven baked odour/flavour compared to Blaa A and was the most preferred by UK consumers. Irish consumer liking was more influenced by the harder texture of Blaa B, which was their least preferred product. Age and gender did not impact liking for Blaas within Irish consumers, but gender differences were observed among UK consumers, males liking the appearance significantly more than females. This is the first paper comparing Waterford Blaa liking of naïve UK consumers with Irish consumers familiar with the product.

Gender Differences in Fat-Rich Meat Choice: Influence of Personality and Attitudes

The innate liking of fats may be due to one or more orosensory, post-ingestive, and metabolic signals; however, individuals differ in their preference for fat in meat. One of the variables that mainly impacts eating behaviors and thus should be carefully analyzed is sex/gender, and while sex (female/male, in a binary approximation) refers only to biological characteristics, gender (woman/man, in a binary approximation) refers to cultural attitudes and behavior. This study aimed at exploring the role of gender, age, taste responsiveness (measured as sensitivity to the bitterness of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP)), personality traits, attitudes, and liking of and familiarity with meat on the choice of fat-rich meat products in 1208 women and men aged 18–66. Both a between- and a within-gender approach were adopted. Results showed that gender had a major impact on liking of and familiarity with meat and choice for fat-rich meat compared to age. A lower liking meat in general was found in women, independently of fat content. Women also reported a lower familiarity than men with fatty meat and cold meat and a lower choice of fat-rich meat. Genders differed in the influence of personality and attitudes about fat-rich meat choice. In both genders, the choice of meat higher in fat was associated with liking cold and fatty meat and with age and negatively with liking low-fat meat. Women were in general more interested in health than men, and this may explain the main difference in the choice of fat-rich meat between genders. However, when we look at each gender separately, general health interest was significantly correlated with a lower choice of fat-rich meat only in men. In addition, in men food neophobia was negatively correlated with choice of fat-rich meat. In women, the emotional dimension was found to play an important role, with sensitivity to disgust that was negatively associated with fat-rich meat choice and emotional eating that was positively associated with it. Thanks to the large sample and the gender-sensitive approach adopted, this study showed that different factors affect choice of fat-rich meat by gender, in addition to liking of and familiarity with fat-rich and cold meat and age. This suggests that strategies personalized by gender to reinforce or activate barriers to this type of consumption may be more effective at reducing fat intake, promoting the consumption of meat lower in fat.

Impact of capsaicin on aroma release: in vitro and in vivo analysis

Capsaicin is the main bioactive compound in chili pepper that leads to the perception of "spiciness". However, the effect of capsaicin on aroma release in the nose remains unexplained. This is the first study designed to measure capsaicin's impact on aroma release during consumption. In vitro studies, using static headspace analysis by atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-mass spectrometry (APCI-MS), showed no impact of capsaicin (5 ppm) on the gas-liquid partitioning equilibria of a range of aroma compounds. However, a significant reduction in aroma release was observed in vivo, during oral melting of a model ice cube system (p < 0.05) included 5 ppm capsaicin. The total release of aroma into the nasal cavity was decreased, such that only 49% of 3-methylbutanal, 60% of 1-octen-3-ol and 83% of linalool was released. This is the first evidence of capsaicin's reduction effect on aroma release during consumption. It was also found that 5 ppm capsaicin increased saliva secretion by 75%, which may have led to the dilution of aroma compounds in the mouth and directly impacted the aroma release into the nasal cavity. The most hydrophilic compound (3-methylbutanal) was affected by capsaicin to a greater extent than the hydrophobic compound (linalool), the solvent effect of the additional saliva may explain this.

Individual differences in the perception of orthonasal irritation induced by food

Oral responsiveness to the burning/spicy sensation affects food behaviors and diet; therefore, it is reasonable to hypothesize that the variation in nasal responsiveness to irritant foods may play a role in modulating food behaviors. This study explored the variation among individuals in orthonasal irritation induced by smelling food ingredients containing irritant compounds: mustard oil (2.0, 10.0, and 100.0% v/v mustard oil in corn oil; irritant compound: allyl isothiocyanate); vinegar (3.5, 42.3, and 98.6% v/v vinegar in water; irritant compound: acetic acid); and wasabi (0.1, 0.2, and 0.4% w/w wasabi powder in water; irritant compound: allyl isothiocyanate). Sixty-eight subjects (40% males; 19-87 years) smelled the nine samples and rated their perceived intensity of odor, irritation and liking. Wide individual variation in the perception of irritation and odor intensity was found, especially at the highest concentrations. Young individuals were the most sensitive to all stimuli. No significant differences were found between males and females. Fifty-seven percent of subjects were "HYPO" and 43 percent "HYPER" responsive to irritation, respectively. Perceived irritation was positively correlated with odor intensity and tended to be negatively correlated with liking, especially in familiar stimuli. The results suggest that the variation in nasal responsiveness to irritant foods may contribute to influencing food acceptance and therefore, to modulating food behaviors.

Putting out the fire - Efficacy of common beverages in reducing oral burn from capsaicin

Capsaicin is classically considered an irritant, due to the warming and burning sensations it elicits. Widespread consumption of chilis suggests many individuals enjoy this burn, but these sensations can be overwhelming if the burn is too intense. While substantial folklore exists on the ability of specific beverages to mitigate capsaicin burn, quantitative data to support these claims are generally lacking. Here, we systematically tested various beverages for their ability to reduce oral burn following consumption of capsaicin in tomato juice. Participants (n = 72, 42 women, 30 men) rated the burn of 30 mL of spicy tomato juice on a general Labeled Magnitude Scale (gLMS) immediately after swallowing, and again every 10 s for 2 min. On 7 of 8 trials, a test beverage (40 mL) was consumed after tomato juice was swallowed, including: skim milk, whole milk, seltzer water, Cherry Kool-Aid, non-alcoholic beer, cola, and water. Participants also answered questions regarding intake frequency and liking of spicy food. Initial burn of tomato juice alone was rated below "strong" but above "moderate" on a gLMS and continued to decay over the 2 min to a mean just above "weak". All beverages significantly reduced the burn of the tomato juice. To quantify efficacy over time, area under the curve (AUC) values were calculated, and the largest reductions in burn were observed for whole milk, skim milk, and Kool-Aid. More work is needed to determine the mechanism(s) by which these beverages reduce burn (i.e., partitioning due to fat, binding by protein, or sucrose analgesia). Present data suggest milk is the best choice to mitigate burn, regardless of fat context, suggesting the presence of protein may be more relevant than lipid content.

Influences of Psychological Traits and PROP Taster Status on Familiarity with and Choice of Phenol-Rich Foods and Beverages

Plant phenolics are powerful antioxidants and free radical scavengers that can contribute to the healthy functional properties of plant-based food and beverages. Thus, dietary behaviours rich in plant-based food and beverages are encouraged. However, it is well-known that the bitter taste and other low-appealing sensory properties that characterize vegetables and some other plant-based foods act as an innate barrier for their acceptance. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of psychological traits and PROP status (the responsiveness to bitter taste of 6-n- propylthiouracil) on the choice of and familiarity with phenol-rich vegetables and beverages varying in recalled level of bitterness and astringency. Study 1 aimed at assessing the variations of the sensory properties of vegetable and coffee/tea items with two check-all-that-apply (CATA) questionnaires (n = 201 and n = 188 individuals, respectively). Study 2 aimed at investigating how sensitivity to punishment, to reward, and to disgust, food neophobia, private body consciousness, alexithymia, and PROP responsiveness affect choice and familiarity with phenol-rich foods (n = 1200 individuals). A Choice Index was calculated for vegetables (CV) and coffee/tea (CC) as a mean of the choices of the more bitter/astringent option of the pairs and four Familiarity Indices were computed for vegetables (FV) and coffee/tea (FC), higher (+) or lower (-) in bitterness and astringency. Subjects higher in food neophobia, sensitivity to punishment or sensitivity to disgust reported significantly lower choice indices than individuals lower in these traits, meaning that they systematically opted for the least bitter/astringent option within the pairs. Familiarity with vegetables was lower in individuals high in sensitivity to punishment, in food neophobia and in alexithymia, irrespective of their sensory properties. The Familiarity Index with coffee/tea characterized by higher bitterness and astringency was lower in individuals high in food neophobia, sensitivity to disgust, and alexithymia. No significant effect of PROP was found on any indices. The proposed approach based on product grouping according to differences in bitterness and astringency allowed the investigation of the role of individual differences in chemosensory perception and of psychological traits as modulators of phenol-rich foods preference and consumption.

Oral sensations and secretions

Sensations experienced in the mouth influence food choices, both immediately and in the long term. Such sensations are themselves influenced by experience with flavors, the chemical environment of the mouth, genetics of receptors for flavors, and individual behavior in the chewing of food. Gustation, the sense of taste, yields information about nutrients, influences palatability, and feeds into the human body's preparation to receive those nutrients. Olfaction, the sense of smell, contributes enormously to defining and identifying food flavors (and is experienced even after placing food inside the mouth). Another vital component of food flavor is texture, which contributes to palatability, especially if a food's texture violates a person's expectations. Next, chemesthesis is the sense of chemically induced irritancy and temperature, for example spiciness and stinging. All of these sensations are potentially modified by saliva, the chemical and physical media of the mouth. As a person experiences the culmination of these oral sensations, modified through an individual's own unique saliva, the flavors in turn influence both what and how a person eats.

Perceptual and Affective Responses to Sampled Capsaicin Differ by Reported Intake

The present study was conducted to a) generate suprathresold dose-response functions for multiple qualities evoked by capsaicin across a wide range of concentrations, and b) revisit how intensity ratings and liking may differ as a function of self reported intake. Individuals rated eight samples of capsaicin for perceived burn and bitterness, as well as disliking/liking. Measures of reported preference for chili peppers, chili intake frequency, prior experience and personality measures were also assessed. Here, we confirm prior findings showing that burn in the laboratory differs with reported chili intake, with infrequent consumers reporting more burn. We extend these findings by exploring how capsaicin perception varies by reported liking, and measures of variety seeking. We also address the question of whether differences in burn ratings may potentially be an artifact of differential scale usage across groups due to prior experience, and not chronic desensitization, as is typically assumed. By using generalized scaling methods and recalled sensations, we conclude the differences observed here and elsewhere are not likely due to differences in how participants use rating scales.

The potential relationship between spicy taste and risk seeking

We conducted three studies to examine the relationship between spicy tastes and risk seeking. In Study 1, results from a personality judgment task indicated that people were more inclined to attribute a higher level of risk seeking to individuals who enjoy spicy foods. The second study examined whether people who like spicy foods are actually more risk seeking. In fact, people who reported a preference for spicy tastes scored higher on risk taking, as assessed via the Domain-Specific Risk-Taking Scale (Chinese version). Finally, Study 3 employed an experimental design to manipulate risk-seeking tendencies by having participants experience spicy food tastes in the lab. Momentarily savoring spicy foods increased participants’ risk taking in the Iowa Gambling Task. The present findings suggest that preferences for spicy tastes could relate to risk-seeking tendencies and subsequent risk-seeking behaviors.