Thymosin alpha1 based immunomodulatory therapy for sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Targeting sepsis through inflammation and oxidative metabolism

Infection is a public health problem and represents a spectrum of disease that can result in sepsis and septic shock. Sepsis is characterized by a dysregulated immune response to infection. Septic shock is the most severe form of sepsis which leads to distributive shock and high mortality rates. There have been significant advances in sepsis management mainly focusing on early identification and therapy. However, complicating matters is the lack of reliable diagnostic tools and the poor specificity and sensitivity of existing scoring tools i.e., systemic inflammatory response syndrome criteria, sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA), or quick SOFA. These limitations have underscored the modest progress in reducing sepsis-related mortality. This review will focus on novel therapeutics such as oxidative stress targets, cytokine modulation, endothelial cell modulation, etc., that are being conceptualized for the management of sepsis and septic shock.

Navigating the Modern Landscape of Sepsis: Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment

Sepsis poses a significant threat to human health due to its high morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. Traditional diagnostic methods for identifying sepsis or its causative organisms are time-consuming and contribute to a high mortality rate. Biomarkers have been developed to overcome these limitations and are currently used for sepsis diagnosis, prognosis prediction, and treatment response assessment. Over the past few decades, more than 250 biomarkers have been identified, a few of which have been used in clinical decision-making. Consistent with the limitations of diagnosing sepsis, there is currently no specific treatment for sepsis. Currently, the general treatment for sepsis is conservative and includes timely antibiotic use and hemodynamic support. When planning sepsis-specific treatment, it is important to select the most suitable patient, considering the heterogeneous nature of sepsis. This comprehensive review summarizes current and evolving biomarkers and therapeutic approaches for sepsis.

Phenotypic drug discovery: a case for thymosin alpha-1

Phenotypic drug discovery (PDD) involves screening compounds for their effects on cells, tissues, or whole organisms without necessarily understanding the underlying molecular targets. PDD differs from target-based strategies as it does not require knowledge of a specific drug target or its role in the disease. This approach can lead to the discovery of drugs with unexpected therapeutic effects or applications and allows for the identification of drugs based on their functional effects, rather than through a predefined target-based approach. Ultimately, disease definitions are mostly symptom-based rather than mechanism-based, and the therapeutics should be likewise. In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in PDD due to its potential to address the complexity of human diseases, including the holistic picture of multiple metabolites engaging with multiple targets constituting the central hub of the metabolic host-microbe interactions. Although PDD presents challenges such as hit validation and target deconvolution, significant achievements have been reached in the era of big data. This article explores the experiences of researchers testing the effect of a thymic peptide hormone, thymosin alpha-1, in preclinical and clinical settings and discuss how its therapeutic utility in the precision medicine era can be accommodated within the PDD framework.

Immunotherapy in the context of sepsis-induced immunological dysregulation

Sepsis is a clinical syndrome caused by uncontrollable immune dysregulation triggered by pathogen infection, characterized by high incidence, mortality rates, and disease burden. Current treatments primarily focus on symptomatic relief, lacking specific therapeutic interventions. The core mechanism of sepsis is believed to be an imbalance in the host's immune response, characterized by early excessive inflammation followed by late immune suppression, triggered by pathogen invasion. This suggests that we can develop immunotherapeutic treatment strategies by targeting and modulating the components and immunological functions of the host's innate and adaptive immune systems. Therefore, this paper reviews the mechanisms of immune dysregulation in sepsis and, based on this foundation, discusses the current state of immunotherapy applications in sepsis animal models and clinical trials.

Targeting the host response in sepsis: current approaches and future evidence

Sepsis, a dysregulated host response to infection characterized by organ failure, is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Disbalances of the immune response play an important role in its pathophysiology. Patients may develop simultaneously or concomitantly states of systemic or local hyperinflammation and immunosuppression. Although a variety of effective immunomodulatory treatments are generally available, attempts to inhibit or stimulate the immune system in sepsis have failed so far to improve patients' outcome. The underlying reason is likely multifaceted including failure to identify responders to a specific immune intervention and the complex pathophysiology of organ dysfunction that is not exclusively caused by immunopathology but also includes dysfunction of the coagulation system, parenchymal organs, and the endothelium. Increasing evidence suggests that stratification of the heterogeneous population of septic patients with consideration of their host response might led to treatments that are more effective. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of current studies aimed at optimizing the many facets of host response and to discuss future perspectives for precision medicine approaches in sepsis.

A pilot trial of Thymalfasin (Ta1) to prevent covid-19 infection and morbidities in renal dialysis patients: Preliminary report

PURPOSE

Patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) on hemodialysis (HD) are considered particularly susceptible to infection with SARS-CoV2 on the basis of the immunodeficiency associated with advanced age, comorbidity burden, medication use, and need for frequent visits to dialysis clinics. In prior studies, thymalfasin (thymosin alpha 1, Ta1) has been shown to enhance antibody response to influenza vaccine and reduce influenza infection in geriatric populations, including hemodialysis patients, when used as an adjunct to influenza vaccine. Early in the COVID-19 pandemic we speculated that administration of Ta1 to HD patients would result in reduced rate and severity of COVID-19 infection. We also hypothesized that HD patients treated with Ta1 who did become infected with COVID-19 would have a milder course of infection in terms of hospitalization rates, requirement for and length of ICU stays, requirement for mechanical ventilation, and survival. Further, we proposed that patients who avoided COVID-19 infection during the study would have decreased non-COVID-19 infections and hospitalizations compared to controls.

PROCEDURES

The study launched in January 2021 and, as of July 1, 2022, 254 ESRD/ HD patients from five dialysis centers in Kansas City, MO have been screened. Of these, 194 patients have been randomized 1:1 to either Group A (1.6 mg Ta1 given subcutaneously twice weekly for 8 weeks), or Group B (control group not receiving Ta1). After the 8-week treatment period, subjects were followed for an additional 4 months and monitored for safety and efficacy. A data safely monitoring board reviewed all reported adverse effects and commented on study progress.

RESULTS

To date, only 3 deaths have occurred in subjects treated with Ta1 (Group A), compared to 7 in the control (Group B). There have been 12 COVID-19 related serious adverse effects (SAEs; 5 in Group A, and 7 in Group B). The majority of patients have received a COVID-19 vaccine (91 patients in group A, and 76 patients in Group B) at various times throughout the study. Nearing completion of the study, blood samples have been collected and antibody responses to COVID-19 will be analyzed along with safety and efficacy endpoints when all subjects have completed the study.

Safety and efficacy of Thymosin α1 in the treatment of hepatitis B virus-related acute-on-chronic liver failure: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Mortality from hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is high. Severe infection is the most important complication that affects the outcomes of ACLF patients. Thymosin α1 (Tα1) can improve immune imbalance and this study aimed to investigate the safety and efficacy of Tα1 treatment for HBV-related ACLF.

METHODS

From 2017 to 2019, 120 patients with HBV-related ACLF were enrolled in this open-label, randomized, and controlled clinical trial (ClinicalTrial ID: NCT03082885). The control group (N = 58) was treated with standard medical therapy (SMT) only. The experimental group (N = 56) was subcutaneously injected with 1.6 mg of Tα1 once a day for the first week and then twice a week from week 2 to week 12.

RESULTS

The 90-day cumulated liver transplantation free survival rate of the Tα1 group was 75.0% (95% confidence interval 63.2-86.8%) versus 53.4% (95% confidence interval 39.7-67.1%) for the SMT group (p = 0.030). No significant difference was found in the survival using competitive risk analysis. The incidences of new infection and hepatic encephalopathy in the Tα1 group were much lower than those in the SMT group (32.1% vs 58.6%, p = 0.005; 8.9% vs 24.1%, p = 0.029, respectively). Mortality from severe infection in the SMT group was higher than in the Tα1 group (24.1% vs 8.9%, p = 0.029).

CONCLUSION

Tα1 is safe for patients with HBV-related ACLF and significantly improves the 90-day liver transplantation-free survival rate. There may be a subgroup which may benefit from Tα1 therapy by the mechanism of preventing infection.

Thymosin‐ɑ1 for people with chronic hepatitis B

This is a protocol for a Cochrane Review (intervention). The objectives are as follows:

To assess the benefits and harms of thymosin‐α1 in people with chronic hepatitis B, regardless of their age, sex, and ethnicity

Therapeutic Approaches in Modulating the Inflammatory and Immunological Response in Patients With Sepsis, Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, and Pancreatitis: An Expert Opinion Review

Immunomodulation has long been an adjunct approach in treating critically ill patients with sepsis, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and acute pancreatitis (AP). Hyperactive immune response with immunopathogenesis leads to organ dysfunction and alters the clinical outcomes in critically ill. Though the immune response in the critically ill might have been overlooked, it has gathered greater attention during this novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Modulating hyperactive immune response, the cytokine storm, especially with steroids, has shown to improve the outcomes in COVID-19 patients. In this review, we find that immune response pathogenesis in critically ill patients with sepsis, ARDS, and AP is nearly similar. The use of immunomodulators such as steroids, broad-spectrum serine protease inhibitors such as ulinastatin, thymosin alpha, intravenous immunoglobulins, and therapies such as CytoSorb and therapeutic plasma exchange may help in improving the clinical outcomes in these conditions. As the experience of the majority of physicians in using such therapeutics may be limited, we provide our expert comments regarding immunomodulation to optimize outcomes in patients with sepsis/septic shock, ARDS, and AP.

Thymosin alpha 1: A comprehensive review of the literature

Thymosin alpha 1 is a peptide naturally occurring in the thymus that has long been recognized for modifying, enhancing, and restoring immune function. Thymosin alpha 1 has been utilized in the treatment of immunocompromised states and malignancies, as an enhancer of vaccine response, and as a means of curbing morbidity and mortality in sepsis and numerous infections. Studies have postulated that thymosin alpha 1 could help improve the outcome in severely ill corona virus disease 2019 patients by repairing damage caused by overactivation of lymphocytic immunity and how thymosin alpha 1 could prevent the excessive activation of T cells. In this review, we discuss key literature on the background knowledge and current clinical uses of thymosin alpha 1. Considering the known biochemical properties including antibacterial and antiviral properties, time-honored applications, and the new promising findings regarding the use of thymosin, we believe that thymosin alpha 1 deserves further investigation into its antiviral properties and possible repurposing as a treatment against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2.

A narrative literature review on traditional medicine options for treatment of corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19)

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) as a life-threatening disease is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that is accounted as global public health concern. Treatment of COVID-19 is primarily supportive and the role of antiviral agents is yet to be established. However, there are no specific anti-COVID-19 drugs and vaccine until now. This review focuses on traditional medicine such as medicinal plant extracts as promising approaches against COVID-19. Chinese, Indian and Iranian traditional medicine, suggests some herbs for prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of the diseases including COVID-19. Although, inhibition of viral replication is considered as general mechanism of herbal extracts, however some studies demonstrated that traditional herbal extracts can interact with key viral proteins which are associated with virus virulence. Chinese, Indian and Iranian traditional medicine, suggests some herbs for prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of the diseases including COVID-19. However the beneficial effects of these traditional medicines and their clinical trials remained to be known. Herein, we reviewed the latest updates on traditional medicines proposed for treatment of COVID-19.

The severe COVID-19: A sepsis induced by viral infection? And its immunomodulatory therapy

COVID-19 is known for its magical infectivity, fast transmission and high death toll based on the large number of infected people. From the perspective of the clinical manifestation, autopsy examination and pathophysiology, the essence of COVID-19 should be viewed as a sepsis induced by viral infection, and has the essential characteristics as sepsis induced by other pathogens. Therefore, in addition to etiological and supportive treatment, immunomodulatory therapy is also appropriate to severe COVID-19. Although there is still a lack of consensus on immunotherapy for sepsis so far, relatively rich experiences have been accumulated in the past decades, which will help us in the treatment of severe COVID-19. This article will elaborate immunotherapy of sepsis, though it may not be consistent.

Improvement in cognitive dysfunction following blast induced traumatic brain injury by thymosin α1 in rats: Involvement of inhibition of tau phosphorylation at the Thr205 epitope

Cognitive impairment is a significant sequela of traumatic brain injury (TBI) especially blast induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI), which is characterized by rapid impairments of learning and memory ability. Although several neuroprotective agents have been postulated as promising drugs for bTBI in animal studies, very few ideal therapeutic options exist to improve cognitive impairment following bTBI. Thymosin α1(Tα1), a 28-amino-acid protein that possesses immunomodulatory functions, has exhibited beneficial effects in the treatment of infectious diseases, immunodeficiency diseases and cancers. However, it remains unclear whether Tα1 has a therapeutic role in bTBI. Thus, we hypothesized that Tα1 administration could reverse the outcomes of bTBI. The blast induced TBI (bTBI) rat model was established with the compressed gas driven blast injury model system. A consecutive Tα1 therapy (in 1 ml saline, twice a day) at a dose of 200 µg/kg or normal saline (NS) (1 ml, twice a day) for 3 days or 2 weeks was performed. Utilizing our newly designed bTBI model, we investigated the beneficial effects of Tα1 therapy on rats exposed to bTBI including: cognitive functions, general histology, regulatory T (Treg) cells, edema, inflammation reactions and the expression and phosphorylation level of tau via Morris Water Maze test (MWM test), HE staining, flow cytometry, brain water content (BWC) calculation, IL-6 assay and Western blotting, respectively. Tα1 treatment seemed to reduce the 24-hour mortality, albeit with no statistical significance. Moreover, Tα1 treatment markedly improved cognitive dysfunction by decreasing the escape latency in the acquisition phase, and increasing the crossing numbers in the probe phase of MWM test. More interestingly, Tα1 significantly inhibited tau phosphorylation at the Thr205 epitope, but not at the Ser404 and Ser262 epitopes. Tα1 increased the percentage of Treg cells and inhibited plasma IL-6 production on 3d post bTBI. Moreover, Tα1 suppressed brain edema as demonstrated by decrease of BWC. However, there was a lack of obvious change in histopathology in the brain upon Tα1 treatment. This is the first study showing that Tα1 improves neurological deficits after bTBI in rats, which is potentially related to the inhibition of tau phosphorylation at the Thr205 epitope, increased Treg cells and decreased inflammatory reactions and brain edema.

Improvement of Sepsis Prognosis by Ulinastatin: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Background: Ulinastatin has been prescribed to treat sepsis. However, there is doubt regarding the extent of any improvement in outcomes to guide future decision making. Objectives: To evaluate the effects of ulinastatin on mortality and related outcomes in sepsis patients. Methods: Thirteen randomized controlled trials and two prospective studies published before September 1, 2018, that included 1358 patients with sepsis, severe sepsis, or septic shock were evaluated. The electronic databases searched in this study were PubMed, Medline, Embase, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) for Chinese Technical Periodicals. Results: Ulinastatin significantly decreased the all-cause mortality {odds ratio (OR) = 0.48, 95% confidence interval (CI) [0.35-0.66], p < 0.00001, I² = 13%}, Acute Physiology, Age, Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) score {mean difference (MD) = -2.40, 95% CI [-4.37, -0.44], p = 0.02, I² = 66%}, and reduced the incidence of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) (OR = 0.3, 95% CI [0.18, 0.49], p < 0.00001, I² = 0%). Ulinastatin also decreased the serum levels of IL-6 (MD = -88.5, 95% CI [-123.97, -53.04], p < 0.00001), TNF-α (MD = -56.22, 95% CI [-72.11, -40.33], p < 0.00001), and increased the serum levels of IL-10 (MD = 37.73, 95% CI [16.92, 58.54], p = 0.0004). Ulinastatin administration did not lead to any difference in the occurrence of adverse events. Conclusions: Ulinastatin improved all-cause mortality and other related outcomes in patients with sepsis or septic shock. The results of this meta-analysis suggest that ulinastatin may be an effective treatment for sepsis and septic shock.

The effect of thymosin α1 for prevention of infection in patients with severe acute pancreatitis

INTRODUCTION

Severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) is an acute inflammatory disease with prolonged clinical course, which is complicated by the presence of persistent organ failure and severe infection. Infection mainly occurs in the late phase of SAP and it is found to be the main cause of death. Therefore, developing strategies for the prevention of SAP-related infection has been a crucial approach to improve patients' outcomes. Due to remarkable immune-cells-regulating properties, thymosin α1 has been recognized as a promising immune therapy, especially in several infectious diseases. Recently, thymosin α1 has been given high expectations to exert clinical benefits in the prevention of SAP-related infection.

AREAS COVERED

The review of currently available strategies for SAP-related infection prevention and the use of thymosin α1 in SAP patients.

EXPERT OPINION

The current available strategies achieve limited success for preventing SAP-related infection. A possible explanation is that the trigger of infection, immunosuppression has not been concurrently resolved. The application of thymosin α1 in a clinical study showed a prophylactic effect against SAP-related infection. However, the use of thymosin α1 in SAP patients is still at an early stage of clinical investigation and requires high-quality and large sample size evidences.

Deciphering cellular biological processes to clinical application: a new perspective for Tα1 treatment targeting multiple diseases

BACKGROUND

Thymosin alpha 1 (Tα1) is a well-recognized immune response modulator in a wide range of disorders, particularly infections and cancer. The bioinformatic analysis of public databases allows drug repositioning, predicting a new potential area of clinical intervention. We aimed to decipher the cellular network induced by Tα1 treatment to confirm present use and identify new potential clinical applications.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

We used the transcriptional profile of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells treated in vitro with Tα1 to perform the enrichment network analysis by the Metascape online tools and the disease enrichment analysis by the DAVID online tool.

RESULTS

Networked cellular responses reflected Tα1 regulated biological processes including immune and metabolic responses, response to compounds and oxidative stress, ion homeostasis, peroxisome biogenesis and drug metabolic process. Beyond cancer and infections, the analysis evidenced the association with disorders such as kidney chronic failure, diabetes, cardiovascular, chronic respiratory, neuropsychiatric, neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to the known ability to promote immune response pathways, the network enrichment analysis demonstrated that Tα1 regulates cellular metabolic processes and oxidative stress response. Notable, the analysis highlighted the association with several diseases, suggesting new translational implication of Tα1 treatment in pathological conditions unexpected until now.

Immunomodulatory and enhanced antitumor activity of a modified thymosin α1 in melanoma and lung cancer

Tumor-targeted therapy is an attractive strategy for cancer treatment. Peptide hormone thymosin α1 (Tα1) has been used against several diseases, including cancer, but its activity is pleiotropic. Herein, we designed a fusion protein Tα1-iRGD by introducing the tumor homing peptide iRGD to Tα1. Results show that Tα1-iRGD can promote T-cell activation and CD86 expression, thereby exerting better effect and stronger inhibitory against melanoma and lung cancer, respectively, than Tα1 in vivo. These effects are indicated by the reduced densities of tumor vessels and Tα1-iRGD accumulation in tumors. Moreover, compared with Tα1, Tα1-iRGD can attach more B16F10 and H460 cells and exhibits significantly better immunomodulatory activity in immunosuppression models induced by hydrocortisone. Circular dichroism spectroscopy and structural analysis results revealed that Tα1 and Tα1-iRGD both adopted a helical confirmation in the presence of trifluoroethanol, indicating the structural basis of their functions. These findings highlight the vital function of Tα1-iRGD in tumor-targeted therapy and suggest that Tα1-iRGD is a better antitumor drug than Tα1.

Thymosin α1 treatment reduces hepatic inflammation and inhibits hepatocyte apoptosis in rats with acute liver failure

The present study aimed to evaluate whether thymosin α1 (Tα1) increases survival rates through the improvement of immunofunction and inhibition of hepatocyte apoptosis in rats with acute liver failure (ALF). A total of 25 rats were randomly divided into the control group (CG), the model group (MG) and the treatment group (TG). The CG received an intraperitoneal injection of saline (2 ml). The ALF rat model was established by the intraperitoneal injection of D-galactosamine (700 mg/kg) and lipopolysaccharide (10 µg/kg). The TG received an intraperitoneal injection of Tα1 (0.03 mg/kg) 1 h prior to and 30 min after modeling. The survival rates of the rats were recorded. An additional 63 rats were randomly divided into a CG (n=3), MG (n=30) and TG (n=30). Three rats were sacrificed at 3, 6, 9 and 12 h after establishment of the rat model to detect plasma alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), total bilirubin (TBIL), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin-10 (IL-10). Liver samples were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and TUNEL, and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis were performed to detect B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) and Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) in liver tissue. The results indicated that the survival rate of the TG was significantly higher compared with that of the MG at 24 h (P<0.05). Plasma ALT, AST and TBIL in the MG and TG increased over time (3–12 h), with ALT, AST and TBIL observed to be significantly lower in the TG compared with the MG at each time-point (P<0.05). Hepatocellular necrosis, hemorrhage and inflammatory cell infiltration of ALF were aggravated over time (3–12 h) in the MG and TG. Notably, in the Tα1-treated rats, the hepatocytes appeared healthier with fewer apoptotic cells compared with those from the MG at the same time-points. Hepatocyte apoptotic index increased in the TG and MG, but was significantly lower in the TG compared with the MG at each time-point (P<0.05) in TUNEL assays. Plasma TNF-α and IL-10 in the MG and TG increased over time (3–12 h), with TNF-α observed to be significantly lower in the TG compared with the MG at each time-point (P<0.05), however, IL-10 was observed to be significantly higher in the TG compared with the MG at each time-point (P<0.05). Bax mRNA expression was significantly lower in the TG compared with the MG at each time-point (P<0.05), whereas Bcl-2 was significantly higher (P<0.05). In conclusion, Tα1 improved survival rates in an ALF rat model by downregulating TNF-α and upregulating IL-10, leading to the attenuation of hepatic inflammation and hepatocyte apoptosis.

Sepsis: A Review of Advances in Management

Infections represent a common health problem in people of all ages. Usually, the response given to them is appropriate and so little treatment is needed. Sometimes, however, the response to the infection is inadequate and may lead to organ dysfunction; this is the condition known as sepsis. Sepsis can be caused by bacteria, fungi or viruses and at present there is no specific treatment; its management basically focuses on containing the infection through source control and antibiotics plus organ function support. This article reviews key elements of sepsis management, focusing on diagnosis, biomarkers and therapy. The main recent advance in therapy is the strategy of personalized medicine, based on a precise approach using biomarkers to identify specific individuals who are likely to benefit from more personalized attention.

Effect of ulinastatin combined with thymosin alpha1 on sepsis: A systematic review and meta-analysis of Chinese and Indian patients

PURPOSE

To assess the effects of urinary trypsin inhibitor (UTI) ulinastatin combined with thymosin alpha1 (Tα1) on sepsis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The meta-analysis included 8 randomized controlled trials (N=1112 patients) on UTI-based therapy for sepsis published before July 10, 2016. Two investigators independently extracted data and assessed the quality of each study. The short-term mortality rate, duration of mechanical ventilator and vasopressor use, length of intensive care unit stay, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II score, and differences in inflammatory cytokines (interleukin [IL]-6, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor α) were assessed using statistical software.

RESULTS

Treatment of UTI combined with Tα1 (UTI+Tα1) decreased the short-term mortality rate in septic patients by 36%, 35%, and 31% for 28, 60, 90 days, respectively. UTI+Tα1 decreased the duration of mechanical ventilation, APACHE II score, and levels of IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor α. Treatment of UTI+Tα1 did not reduce the duration of vasopressor use and length of intensive care unit stay, or increase IL-10 levels. Because of the high heterogeneity of the included trials, the results should be carefully assessed.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment of UTI+Tα1 can suppress the production of proinflammatory cytokines, decrease the APACHE II score, shorten the duration of mechanical ventilation, and improve the 28-day survival rate.

Sepsis and Immunosenescence in the Elderly Patient: A Review

Sepsis is a prevalent, serious medical condition with substantial mortality and a significant consumption of health-care resources. Its incidence has increased around 9% annually in general population over the last years and specially in aged patients group. Several risk factors such as comorbidities, preadmission status, malnutrition, frailty, and an impared function in the immune system called immunosenescence are involved in the higher predisposition to sepsis in the elderly patients. Immunosenescence status consists in a functional impairment in both cell-mediated immunity and humoral immune responses and increases not only the risk for develop sepsis but also lead to more severe presentation of infection and may be is also related with a higher mortality. There is a also a concern about to admit patients in the intensive care units taking into account that the outcome of elderly patients is poorer compared to younger people. Nevertheless, the management of septic elderly patients does not differ substantially from younger people. In addition, the quality of life in septic elderly survivors is also lower than in younger people. But age, as alone factor, should not be used to determine treatment options because the poorer outcomes is thought to be due to the increased comorbidities and frailty in this group of patients.

Effect of ulinastatin combined with thymosin alpha1 on sepsis: A systematic review and meta-analysis of Chinese and Indian patients

PURPOSE

To assess the effects of urinary trypsin inhibitor (UTI) ulinastatin combined with thymosin alpha1 (Tα1) on sepsis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The meta-analysis included 8 randomized controlled trials (N=1112 patients) on UTI-based therapy for sepsis published before July 10, 2016. Two investigators independently extracted data and assessed the quality of each study. The short-term mortality rate, duration of mechanical ventilator and vasopressor use, length of intensive care unit stay, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II score, and differences in inflammatory cytokines (interleukin [IL]-6, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor α) were assessed using statistical software.

RESULTS

Treatment of UTI combined with Tα1 (UTI+Tα1) decreased the short-term mortality rate in septic patients by 36%, 35%, and 31% for 28, 60, 90 days, respectively. UTI+Tα1 decreased the duration of mechanical ventilation and vasopressor use, APACHE II score, and levels of IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor α. Treatment of UTI+Tα1 did not reduce the duration of vasopressor use and length of intensive care unit stay, or increase IL-10 levels. Because of the high heterogeneity of the included trials, the results should be carefully assessed.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment of UTI+Tα1 can suppress the production of proinflammatory cytokines, decrease the APACHE II score, shorten the duration of mechanical ventilation and vasopressor use, and improve the 28-day survival rate.

The efficacy of thymosin α1 as immunomodulatory treatment for sepsis: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Thymosin α1 (Tα1) as immunomodulatory treatment is supposed to be beneficial for the sepsis patients by regulating T cell subsets and inflammatory mediators. However, limited by the small sample size and the poor study design, the persuasive power of the single clinical studies is weak. This meta-analysis aimed to investigate the impact of Tα1 on the sepsis patients.

METHODS

We searched for the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, EMBASE, CBM, VIP, CNKI, WANFANG, Igaku Chuo Zasshi (ICHUSHI) and Korean literature databases reporting the effects of Tα1 on outcomes in sepsis patients.

RESULTS

Among 444 related articles, 19 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) met our inclusion criteria. Mortality events were reported in 10 RCTs included 530 patients, and the meta-analysis showed significant decrease in Tα1 group compared with control group (RR 0.59, 95 % CI 0.45 to 0.77, p = 0.0001). The subgroup analysis showed no difference between the two dosages (RR 0.59, 95 % CI 0.43 to 0.81; RR 0.59, 95 % CI 0.35 to 0.98, respectively). In 9 RCTs, with a total of 489 patients, Tα1 administered once per day decrease APACHE II score significantly (SMD -0.80, 95 % CI -1.14 to -0.47, p < 0.0001) while Tα1 twice per day showed no effect (SMD 0.30, 95 % CI-0.10 to 0.70, p = 0.14). However, the length of ICU stay, the incidence of multiple organ failure (MOF) and duration of mechanical ventilation were not significantly affected by Tα1 treatment (SMD -0.52, 95 % CI -1.06 to 0.11, p = 0.06; SMD -0.49, 95 % CI -1.09 to 0.11, p = 0.11; SMD -0.37, 95 % CI -0.90 to 0.17, p = 0.17, respectively). As to the immunological indicators, the level of HLA-DR were increased by Tα1 (SMD 1.23, 95 % CI 0.28 to 2.18, p = 0.01) according to the pooled analysis of 8 studies involving 721 patients. Lymphocyte subsets CD3, CD4 and cytokines IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-α were also beneficially affected by Tα1 treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Tα1 may be beneficial to sepsis patients in reducing mortality and modulating inflammation reactions. However, the quality of evidence supporting the effectiveness is low considering the small sample sizes and inadequate adherence to standardized reporting guidelines for RCTs among the included studies.

Thymosin From Bombyx mori Is Down-Regulated in Expression by BmNPV Exhibiting Antiviral Activity

Thymosins have been highly conserved during evolution. These hormones exist in many animal species and play an essential role in many biological events. However, little is known regarding the physiological function of silkworm Bombyx mori thymosin (BmTHY). In this study, we investigated the expression pattern of BmTHY in a Bombyx mori larval ovarian cell line (BmN) challenged with Bombyx mori nuclear polyhydrosis virus (BmNPV) and the antiviral effect of recombinant BmTHY (rBmTHY) for Bombyx mori against BmNPV. Western-blot assay and qRT-PCR analysis revealed that the level of BmTHY protein expression and transcription decreased over time when BmN cells were infected by BmNPV. Treatment with endotoxin-free rBmTHY led to a significant reduction in viral titer in the supernatant of BmN cells challenged with BmNPV. The results from antiviral tests performed in vitro and in vivo showed that endotoxin-free rBmTHY improved the survival rate of Bombyx mori infected with BmNPV. These findings suggest that BmTHY exerts immunomodulatory effects on Bombyx mori, rendering them resistant to viral infection.

Ulinastatin and/or thymosin α1 for severe sepsis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Ulinastatin (UTI) and thymosin α1 (Tα1) have been investigated for their immunoregulatory properties in patients with severe sepsis. However, it is unclear whether immunomodulatory therapy using UTI combined with Tα1 (UCT), UTI alone (UA), or Tα1 alone (TA) improves the disease outcome. The objective of this study was to analyze the effectiveness of UCT, UA, and TA for the treatment of severe sepsis.

METHODS

PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases were investigated from inception to September 2015. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) examining the treatment of patients with severe sepsis by UCT, UA, and TA were defined as eligible. Data were analyzed using Review Manager 5.3, and the RCTs were evaluated by the Cochrane Handbook 5.1.0. The quality of the evidence was evaluated according to the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations (GRADE).

RESULTS

Ten articles and 12 studies were included in this systematic review and meta-analysis. The primary outcome measures indicated that UCT was associated with significantly lower 28-day mortality (risk ratio [RR], 0.67; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.57-0.80; p < 0.00001; n = 915; GRADE rating, moderate) and 90-day mortality (RR, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.61-0.93; p = 0.009; n = 547; GRADE rating, moderate); UA was associated with no significant difference in the 28-day mortality (RR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.30-1.20; p = 0.15; n = 182; GRADE rating, low), and there was no report on 90-day mortality; TA was associated with significantly lower 28-day mortality (RR, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.55-0.93; p = 0.01; n = 494; GRADE rating, low), but there was no significant difference in the 90-day mortality (RR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.54-1.31; p = 0.45; n = 91; GRADE rating, very low). In the secondary outcome measures, there was obvious heterogeneity in the length of the intensive care unit stay and that of the mechanical ventilation, length of the antibiotics and vasopressor use, and 28-day Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) scores.

CONCLUSION

Treatment of severe sepsis with UCT reduced both the 28-day and the 90-day mortality, whereas treatment with TA reduced only the 28-day mortality. The effects of UCT, UA, and TA on intensive care unit stay, mechanical ventilation, antibiotics and vasopressor use, and 28-day APACHE II scores of septic patients are still unclear. Additional high-quality RCTs are needed to define clearly the guidelines for the treatment of severe sepsis.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Systematic review, level IV.

Defining immunological dysfunction in sepsis: A requisite tool for precision medicine

OBJECTIVES

Immunological dysregulation is now recognised as a major pathogenic event in sepsis. Stimulation of immune response and immuno-modulation are emerging approaches for the treatment of this disease. Defining the underlying immunological alterations in sepsis is important for the design of future therapies with immuno-modulatory drugs.

METHODS

Clinical studies evaluating the immunological response in adult patients with Sepsis and published in PubMed were reviewed to identify features of immunological dysfunction. For this study we used key words related with innate and adaptive immunity.

RESULTS

Ten major features of immunological dysfunction (FID) were identified involving quantitative and qualitative alterations of [antigen presentation](FID1), [T and B lymphocytes] (FID2), [natural killer cells] (FID3), [relative increase in T regulatory cells] (FID4), [increased expression of PD-1 and PD-ligand1](FID5), [low levels of immunoglobulins](FID6), [low circulating counts of neutrophils and/or increased immature forms in non survivors](FID7), [hyper-cytokinemia] (FID8), [complement consumption] (FID9), [defective bacterial killing by neutrophil extracellular traps](FID10).

CONCLUSIONS

This review article identified ten major features associated with immunosuppression and immunological dysregulation in sepsis. Assessment of these features could help in utilizing precision medicine for the treatment of sepsis with immuno-modulatory drugs.

Adjunctive treatment in septic shock: What's next?

Sepsis is a leading cause of death and long-term sequels worldwide. For more than a decade, the scientific community is providing physicians, patients and policy makers with regularly updated guidelines. There is some evidence that implementation of the Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines is associated with improved patients outcomes. Though there were major advances in the understanding of sepsis, the management of sepsis mainly relies on anti-infective treatments and restoration of cardiovascular and respiratory function according to quantitative protocolized care. Except some hormonal interventions such as insulin to maintain blood glucose levels of less than 180mg/dL and low doses of corticosteroids and vasopressin in highly selected patients, there is no adjunct therapy for the routine management of sepsis. Recent years have shown some interest in revolutionary concepts such as selective beta-1 receptor antagonists or interventions to boost the immune system. These provocative approaches yielded promising results in various experimental models of sepsis and in preliminary data in humans. The current narrative review summarized some of the numerous adjunct therapies that are currently being investigated in sepsis.

Elevated miR-155 expression induces immunosuppression via CD39(+) regulatory T-cells in sepsis patient

BACKGROUND

An altered microRNA profile exists in many infectious diseases, including sepsis. CD39(+) regulatory T-cells (Tregs) have a remarkable immunosuppressive effect and play an important role in the regulation of immune balance in sepsis. However, the correlation between microRNA changes and the ratio of CD39(+) Tregs in sepsis patients has not yet been reported. The altered microRNA expression profile in sepsis patients was analyzed in this study. Moreover, the correlation between microRNAs and disease severity and prognosis was investigated. Furthermore, the correlation between microRNAs and the percentage of peripheral blood CD39(+) Tregs was investigated and further verified in an animal model.

METHODS

Sixty sepsis patients and 30 healthy controls were included. The difference in microRNA expression was investigated by microRNA microarray and was further confirmed by real-time quantitative PCR. The correlations between microRNA changes and the Sepsis-related Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score, severity of sepsis, and survival were analyzed. The percentage CD39(+) Tregs in the peripheral blood of sepsis patients was measured by flow cytometry. The correlation between microRNAs and the percentage CD39(+) Tregs was analyzed and further confirmed in a mouse sepsis model.

RESULTS

Compared to healthy controls, sepsis patients exhibited a significantly elevated microRNA-155 (miR-155) level (p < 0.05), which was positively related to a higher SOFA score (r = 0.641, p < 0.05) and a greater severity of sepsis. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of miR-155 used for the prediction of 28-day survival was 0.763, with a cut-off point of 2.47. Patients with a miR-155 level >2.47 had a lower 28-day survival (p < 0.05). The miR-155 level of patients was proportional to the percentage of CD39(+) Tregs (r = 0.637, p < 0.05). After transfection with miR-155 inhibitor, the ratio of CD39(+) Tregs in mice with sepsis was significantly reduced (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

A higher level of miR-155 indicated a more severe condition and poorer prognosis in sepsis patients. The possible underlying mechanism could be that miR-155 induces an increased percentage of CD39(+) Tregs and thus immunosuppression.

Historical review of thymosin α 1 in infectious diseases

INTRODUCTION

Thymosin α 1 (Tα1) is a peptidic biological response modifier, which plays a significant role in activating and regulating various cells of the immune system. For the above-mentioned activities it is expected to exert a clinical benefit in the treatment of diseases where the immune system is altered.

AREAS COVERED

Several clinical trials have been carried out with Tα1 for treatment or prevention of many different infectious diseases such as hepatitis B and C, sepsis and Aspergillosis in bone marrow-transplanted patients. Data available on the use of Tα1 in infectious disease as well as a vaccine enhancer will be reviewed to possibly generate new working hypothesis.

EXPERT OPINION

Tα1 has been widely used in thousands of patients. Nevertheless, there are some issues that have not yet been properly addressed (i.e., dose, schedule, combination treatments, end-points to be evaluated in clinical trials). In the most recent clinical trials Tα1 has been used at higher doses than those commonly used in the past showing a direct proportionality between the dose and the effect. The safety profile of Tα1 is excellent and it is virtually devoid of toxicity.