Molecular characterization of trypanosomatid infections in wild howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) in northeastern Argentina

Molecular detection of Trypanosoma minasense in captive black-faced black spider monkeys Ateles chamek (mammalia; primate)

The present study aimed to assess Trypanosoma spp. infection in 17 captive black-faced black spider monkeys (Ateles chamek), living at the Zoological Garden of Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil. Blood samples (3 mL) were collected by femoral puncture by certified veterinarians. A total of 5 μL of extracted blood DNA was submitted to Nested-PCR 18S rDNA. In overall, 4/17 (23.5%) spider monkeys were positive to Trypanosoma spp. by PCR. Sequencing results for 18S rDNA revealed Trypanosoma minasense infection. This is the first report of T. minasense in black-faced black spider monkey worldwide and the first assessment of Trypanosoma species in NHP of southern Brazil.

High infection prevalences by Trypanosoma minasense in non-human primates from the Southeast region of Brazil

Non-human primates (NHPs) are reported as exclusive hosts of Trypanosoma minasense, whose transmission cycle remains unknown. We investigated trypanosomatid infections in 194 NHPs of nine species from the Brazilian Southeast region. We evaluated the impact of landscape composition and forest fragmentation on T. minasense infection. In the Atlantic Forest areas, Sapajus nigritus presented a higher positivity for T. minasense on the blood slides (60.9%) compared to Callithrix spp. (24.6%) and Alouatta guariba clamitans (20.7%); molecular analysis revealed higher infection prevalences in S. nigritus (87.0%) and A. g. clamitans (78.8%) than Callithrix spp. (50.8%). Callithrix spp. from the Cerrado and bordering areas showed higher infection prevalences by T. minasense on the blood slides (51.8%) and molecular diagnosis (77.6%). Eight (7.8%) positive hemocultures were obtained, but in only one (from A. g. clamitans) parasites were isolated and characterized as Crithidia mellificae. Trypanosoma cruzi TcII and T. rangeli lineage A were identified in Leontopithecus rosalia and C. penicillata, respectively. The results indicate that Alouatta, Callithrix, and Sapajus genera are highly exposed to T. minasense in the study area and landscape analysis revealed that these infections were inversely correlated with the proportion of forest and directly correlated with the forest fragmentation.

Redefining infections with trypanosomatids in Neotropical primates: Case study of the white-footed tamarin (Oedipomidas leucopus)

Trypanosomes are blood parasites capable of infecting nearly any vertebrate. Many Neotropical primates frequently host trypanosomes and are considered potential reservoirs for Trypanosoma cruzi and other human-pathogenic trypanosomatids. However, diagnostic methods originally developed for detecting these trypanosomatids in humans and domestic species must be validated to reliably diagnose infections in non-human primates. Without such validation, taxonomic biases and incorrect assignments of wildlife reservoirs can occur. The white-footed tamarin (Oedipomidas leucopus), a primate endemic to northwestern Colombia, is classified by the World Health Organization as a reservoir of T. cruzi. However, this classification is based on studies with small sample sizes, ambiguous diagnostic methods, and questionable geographic records. In this study, the 18S ribosomal RNA gene was amplified via PCR and sequenced to estimate trypanosome infection rates and identify species in natural populations of O. leucopus across a wide geographic range, as well as in (ex situ) specimens. This molecular approach was also compared with traditional microscopy diagnosis using blood smears. The molecular diagnosis revealed that over 60% of the tested specimens were infected, whereas traditional microscopy resulted in 58% false negatives compared to the molecular method. A Bayesian phylogeny of the 18S gene identified T. minasense as the sole trypanosomatid species present in O. leucopus, with no detections of T. cruzi or other trypanosomatids of concern to human or domestic animal health. This study highlights the risk of overestimating the presence of human-infecting trypanosomes, such as T. cruzi, in tamarins and other vertebrates, and underscores the importance of validating diagnostic methods to accurately assess the zoonotic potential of wild species. Accurate identification of wildlife reservoirs is essential for understanding parasite life cycles and implementing effective management and conservation strategies for primates and other potential reservoirs.

Entomological inferences highlight the risk of Leishmania transmission in the urban area of Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil

Entomological investigations were conducted for the first time in urban forest remnants of Porto Velho, state of Rondônia, Brazil, to explore the transmission dynamics of Leishmania. Sand fly collections were carried out at ten sites, encompassing both canopy and ground strata, from October to December 2021. A total of 1,671 sand flies were collected, representing 42 species within 12 genera. Nyssomyia Antunesi (n = 384) and Psychodopygus davisi (n = 111) were the most abundant species. Molecular analyses targeting the V7V8 region (18S gene) unveiled the presence of sequences 100% identical to Leishmania infantum in females of Bichromomyia flaviscutellata (1), Nyssomyia Antunesi complex (6), Nyssomyia umbratilis (1), Nyssomyia sp. (1), Psychodopygus ayrozai (1), Ps. davisi (3), Psychodopygus paraensis (1), and Sciopemyia sordellii (1). Sequences 100% similar to Trypanosoma minasense were found in two samples of the Nyssomyia Antunesi complex, and two samples of Sc. sordellii presented 100% identity to a Trypanosoma sp. strain, previously identified in this same sand fly in Rondônia. Sequencing of Cytb fragment suggested Homo sapiens, Dasypus novemcinctus and Tamandua tetradactyla as the blood source for distinct sand flies. The identification of sequences similar to L. infantum in sand flies collected in urban forest fragments is noteworthy, correlating with the recent local and regional occurrence of autochthonous cases of human visceral leishmaniasis. However, further studies are imperative to ascertain the presence of hosts/reservoirs and evaluate the risk of L. infantum transmission to humans.

First Molecular Identification of Trypanosomes and Absence of Babesia sp. DNA in Faeces of Non-Human Primates in the Ecuadorian Amazon

Trypanosomes are a group of pathogens distributed in the continents of Africa, America, Asia and Europe, and they affect all vertebrates including the neotropical primate group. Information about the trypanosome's diversity, phylogeny, ecology and pathology in non-human primates (NHPs) from the neotropical region is scarce. The objective of the study was to identify Trypanosoma and Babesia molecularly in NHPs under the phylogenetic species concept. We extracted DNA from a total of 76 faecal samples collected between 2019 and 2021, from a total of 11 non-human primate species of which 46 are from captive NHPs and 30 are free-living NHPs in the Western Amazon region of Ecuador. We did not detect DNA of Babesia sp. by polymerase chain reaction test in any of the faecal samples. However, the nested-PCR-based method revealed Trypanosoma parasites by ITS gene amplification in two faecal samples; one for the species Leontocebus lagonotus (from the captive population) and a second one for Cebus albifrons (from the free-ranging population). Maximum parsimony and likelihood methods with the Kimura2+G+I model inferred the evolutionary history of the two records, which showed an evolutionary relationship with the genus Trypanosoma. Two sequences are monophyletic with Trypanosoma. However, the number of sequences available in GenBank for their species identification is limited. The two samples present different molecular identifications and evolutionary origins in the tree topology. We are most likely referring to two different species, and two different localities of infection. We suggest that health management protocols should be implemented to prevent the transmission of blood-borne pathogens such as Trypanosoma sp. among captive populations. In addition, these protocols also protect the personnel of wildlife rehabilitation centers working in close proximity to NHPs and vice versa.

Integrated approaches to howler monkey (Alouatta spp.) medicine in professional care and conservation

Howler monkeys (Alouatta spp.) are threatened by anthropogenic pressures such as habitat fragmentation and deforestation, while conservation efforts are challenging to coordinate as natural geographic distribution ranges are the largest of any New World primate. On a One Health front, howler monkeys represent a great model to investigate the infectious disease dynamics between wild primates and humans as several infectious diseases affecting howlers have a demonstrated zoonotic potential. Howler monkey populations in professional care offer a window to investigate susceptibility to diseases in this species such as yellow fever (YF) and malaria, plus a myriad of endoparasite phyla, as well as vector-borne diseases such as Chagas disease and leishmaniasis. More studies are urgently needed to provide species-specific, medically relevant information as well as clinical descriptions of animals considered medically healthy. Moreover, howler monkeys are a challenging species to breed and maintain in professional care; additionally, reproductive parameters have been published only for a handful of species in this genus. On a One Health approach communication and collaborative health surveillance involving wildlife and zoo experts will ease the identification of factors that contribute to disease emergence facilitating the integration of human, animal, and environmental health. The One Welfare concept is based on the inextricable connection among animal welfare, human welfare, and environmental conservation. Integrating One Health and One Welfare into actions both in-situ and ex-situ will promote the sustainability of the forests and restoration of the ecosystems that those species inhabit, transitioning to a comprehensive One Conservation approach.

Zoonotic Blood-Borne Pathogens in Non-Human Primates in the Neotropical Region: A Systematic Review

Background: Understanding which non-human primates (NHPs) act as a wild reservoir for blood-borne pathogens will allow us to better understand the ecology of diseases and the role of NHPs in the emergence of human diseases in Ecuador, a small country in South America that lacks information on most of these pathogens. Methods and principal findings: A systematic review was carried out using PRISMA guidelines from 1927 until 2019 about blood-borne pathogens present in NHPs of the Neotropical region (i.e., South America and Middle America). Results: A total of 127 publications were found in several databases. We found in 25 genera (132 species) of NHPs a total of 56 blood-borne pathogens in 197 records where Protozoa has the highest number of records in neotropical NHPs (n = 128) compared to bacteria (n = 12) and viruses (n = 57). Plasmodium brasilianum and Trypanosoma cruzi are the most recorded protozoa in NHP. The neotropical primate genus with the highest number of blood-borne pathogens recorded is Alouatta sp. (n = 32). The use of non-invasive samples for neotropical NHPs remains poor in a group where several species are endangered or threatened. A combination of serological and molecular techniques is common when detecting blood-borne pathogens. Socioecological and ecological risk factors facilitate the transmission of these parasites. Finally, a large number of countries remain unsurveyed, such as Ecuador, which can be of public health importance. Conclusions and significance: NHPs are potential reservoirs of a large number of blood-borne pathogens. In Ecuador, research activities should be focused on bacteria and viruses, where there is a gap of information for neotropical NHPs, in order to implement surveillance programs with regular and effective monitoring protocols adapted to NHPs.

Serological evidence of equine infectious anaemia, West Nile fever, surra and equine piroplasmosis in a herd of horses in northern Argentina

Northern Argentina hosts equine populations living under preserved natural areas and extensive breeding conditions, with limited access to veterinary care. Horses can be in contact with i) wildlife considered to be a potential reservoir of horse pathogens (e.g. capybara, coatis and pampas deer) and/or ii) potential disease vectors such as ticks, horse flies, Culicidae and vampire bats. In this context, the aim of this study was to assess the exposure of horses from a herd in northern Argentina to different vector-borne pathogens. Serum samples were collected from 20 horses on a farm in Chaco province. Most of these horses were in good health, but a few showed clinical signs such as fever, neurological signs or emaciation. Potential vectors (ticks, horse flies and Culicidae) were present and a fresh bite of a vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) was observed on one horse. This serological survey revealed that 100% (20/20) were positive for equine infectious anaemia (EIA), 100% (18/18) for West Nile fever (WNF), 53% (10/19) for surra and 45% (9/20) for equine piroplasmosis (Babesia equi). Among these horses, four were found seropositive for all four infections. On the other hand, all the tested horses were seronegative for equine viral arteritis (EVA), Eastern equine encephalomyelitis (EEE), Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE), Western equine encephalomyelitis (WEE) and glanders. The data from this survey conducted on a small number of animals illustrate the need for an effective application of surveillance programmes and control measures for equine diseases in northern Argentina and constitute, to our knowledge, the first report of horses simultaneously seropositive for EIA, WNF, surra and equine piroplasmosis.

Molecular identification of Leishmania in free-ranging black and gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) in northeastern Argentina

Parasitological surveys of non-human primates provides an important opportunity to better understand the epidemiology, transmission dynamics and emergence risk of anthropozoonoses such as leishmaniasis, which affect human populations in several regions accross South America. Our study area, in northeastern Argentina, can be considered a southern marginal region for the presence of leishmaniases and includes the habitat of black and gold howler monkeys, Alouatta caraya. To evaluate if A. caraya serve as potential hosts in the Leishmania cycle, we used molecular methods to examine infection by Leishmania spp. in 109 howler monkeys of different ages captured between July and August 2010. External ear tissue samples were subjected to PCR amplification for the Leishmania ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS-1) and a RFLP assay with the Hae III restriction enzyme, and finally confirmed by sequencing. Nine howler monkeys (8.3%) were infected with Le. braziliensis (2.8%), Le. amazonensis (2.8%) and/or Le. infantum (3.7%). The results also suggest a case of co-infection between Le. braziliensis and Le. amazonensis. Further, we report the first observation of Le. amazonensis in the northeastern region of Argentina. The detection of Leishmania spp. in free-ranging howler monkeys gives rise to questions about the actual prevalence of the parasite in the wild, as well as if the number of infected wild monkeys detected may present a risk of leishmaniasis emergence in surronding human populations. Anyway, the presence of Leishmania spp. in A. caraya suggests the possible importance of these monkeys in the sylvatic and periurban transmission.

Trypanosomatid Infections among Vertebrates of Chile: A Systematic Review

We present a review on the natural infection by trypanosomatids of nonhuman vertebrates in Chile, aiming to synthesize and update the knowledge on the diversity of trypanosomatids infecting native and alien vertebrate species. To this end, we conducted a systematic review of literature records published from 1900 to April 2020 on four databases, focusing on the 21 genera of trypanosomatids and Chile. The methods and findings of our review have been based on the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (prisma) checklist. We found 29,756 records but only 71 presented relevant information for this review. Overall, there are only two reported trypanosomatid genera infecting vertebrate species in Chile, the genera Trypanosoma and Leishmania. The former is mostly represented by Trypanosoma cruzi (90% of the total records) and to a much lesser extent by Trypanosoma avium, Trypanosoma humboldti, Trypanosoma lewisi, and a couple of unidentified trypanosomatids. A total of 25 mammals have been reported as being infected by T. cruzi, including 14 native and 11 alien species from Orders Artiodactyla, Carnivora, Chiroptera, Didelphimorphia, Lagomorpha, Perissodactyla, and Rodentia. Extensive screening studies using new analytical tools are necessary to grasp the whole potential diversity of trypanosomatid species infecting vertebrates in Chile.

A lineage-specific rapid diagnostic test (Chagas Sero K-SeT) identifies Brazilian Trypanosoma cruzi II/V/VI reservoir hosts among diverse mammalian orders

Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan agent of Chagas disease in the Americas, is comprised of six genetic lineages (TcI-TcVI) and a possible seventh (TcBat, related to TcI). Identification of T. cruzi lineages infecting reservoir mammalian species is fundamental to resolving transmission cycles. However, this is hindered by the limited sensitivity and technical complexity of parasite isolation and genotyping. An alternative approach is serology using T. cruzi lineage-specific epitopes, such as those of the trypomastigote small surface antigen (TSSA). For surveillance of T. cruzi lineage infections in mammal species from diverse Brazilian regions, we apply a novel rapid diagnostic test (RDT, Chagas Sero K-SeT), which incorporates the TSSA peptide epitope specific to TcII/V/VI (TSSApep-II/V/VI) and Protein G detection of antibodies. Chagas Sero K-SeT RDT results with sera from experimentally infected mice, from tamarin primates (Leontopithecus spp.) and from canines (Canis familiaris) were concordant with corresponding TSSApep-II/V/VI ELISAs. The Chagas Sero K-Set detected TcII/V/VI infections in Leontopithecus spp. from the Atlantic forest (n = 46), in C. familiaris (n = 16) and Thrichomys laurentius (n = 2) from Caatinga biome and Chiroptera (n = 1) from Acre, Amazonia. The Chagas Sero K-SeT RDT is directly applicable to TcII/V/VI-specific serological surveillance of T. cruzi infection in several different mammalian Orders. It can replace ELISAs and provides efficient, point-of-sampling, low-cost detection of TcII/V/VI infections, with at least equivalent sensitivity, although some mammals may be difficult to trap, and, not unexpectedly, Chagas Sero K-SeT could not recognise feline IgG. Knowledge of sylvatic hosts of T. cruzi can be expanded, new reservoir species discovered, and the ecology of transmission cycles clarified, particularly with adaptation to further mammalian Orders.

Development and evaluation of a duplex TaqMan qPCR assay for detection and quantification of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in domestic and sylvatic reservoir hosts

Background

A question of epidemiological relevance in Chagas disease studies is to understand Trypanosoma cruzi transmission cycles and trace the origins of (re)emerging cases in areas under vector or disease surveillance. Conventional parasitological methods lack sensitivity whereas molecular approaches can fill in this gap, provided that an adequate sample can be collected and processed and a nucleic acid amplification method can be developed and standardized. We developed a duplex qPCR assay for accurate detection and quantification of T. cruzi satellite DNA (satDNA) sequence in samples from domestic and sylvatic mammalian reservoirs. The method incorporates amplification of the gene encoding for the interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP), highly conserved among mammalian species, as endogenous internal amplification control (eIAC), allowing distinction of false negative PCR findings due to inadequate sample conditions, DNA degradation and/or PCR interfering substances.

Results

The novel TaqMan probe and corresponding primers employed in this study improved the analytical sensitivity of the assay to 0.01 par.eq/ml, greater than that attained by previous assays for Tc I and Tc IV strains. The assay was tested in 152 specimens, 35 from 15 different wild reservoir species and 117 from 7 domestic reservoir species, captured in endemic regions of Argentina, Colombia and Mexico and thus potentially infected with different parasite discrete typing units. The eIACs amplified in all samples from domestic reservoirs from Argentina and Mexico, such as Canis familiaris, Felis catus, Sus scrofa, Ovis aries, Equus caballus, Bos taurus and Capra hircus with quantification cycles (Cq’s) between 23 and 25. Additionally, the eIACs amplified from samples obtained from wild mammals, such as small rodents Akodon toba, Galea leucoblephara, Rattus rattus, the opossums Didelphis virginiana, D. marsupialis and Marmosa murina, the bats Tadarida brasiliensis, Promops nasutus and Desmodus rotundus, as well as in Conepatus chinga, Lagostomus maximus, Leopardus geoffroyi, Lepus europaeus, Mazama gouazoubira and Lycalopex gymnocercus, rendering Cq’s between 24 and 33.

Conclusions

This duplex qPCR assay provides an accurate laboratory tool for screening and quantification of T. cruzi infection in a vast repertoire of domestic and wild mammalian reservoir species, contributing to improve molecular epidemiology studies of T. cruzi transmission cycles.

Uncovering Trypanosoma spp. diversity of wild mammals by the use of DNA from blood clots

Trypanosoma spp. infection in wild mammals is detected mainly through parasitological tests that usually display low sensitivity. We propose the use of DNA extracted directly from blood clots (BC), which are neglected sources of DNA for diagnosis and identification of Trypanosoma spp. This approach followed by nested PCR targeting the 18S SSU rDNA demonstrated to be sensitive and suitable to evaluate the diversity of trypanosomes infecting sylvatic mammals, including subpatent and mixed infections. Infection was detected in 95/120 (79.2%) samples from bats, carnivores and marsupials that included negative serological and hemoculture testing mammals. Thirteen Trypanosoma spp. or Molecular Operational Taxonomic Units (MOTUs) were identified, including two new MOTUs. The high diversity of trypanosomes species and MOTUs infecting bats and marsupials showed that these hosts can be considered as bio-accumulators of Trypanosoma spp., with specimens of Didelphis spp. displaying the highest trypanosome diversity. The use of blood clots allowed direct access to non-culturable parasites, mixed infections, besides bypassing the selective pressure on the parasites inherent to cultivation procedures. Trypanosoma cruzi was the species found infecting the highest number of individuals, followed by T. lainsoni. Positive PCR for T. cruzi was observed in 16 seronegative individuals and 30 individuals with negative hemocultures. Also, T. lainsoni, previously found only in rodents, showed to be capable of infecting bats and marsupials. This finding makes it clear that some species of Trypanosoma are more generalist than previously thought. Molecular diagnosis using nested PCR from DNA extracted from BC allowed the increase of the knowledge about host-spectrum and distribution of Trypanosoma spp. and allowed the identification of new MOTUs.

High Trypanosoma spp. diversity is maintained by bats and triatomines in Espírito Santo state, Brazil

The aim of this study was to reevaluate the ecology of an area in the Atlantic Forest, southeast Brazil, where Chagas disease (CD) has been found to occur. In a previous study, immediately after the occurrence of a CD case, we did not observe any sylvatic small mammals or dogs with Trypanosoma cruzi cruzi infections, but Triatoma vitticeps presented high T. c. cruzi infection rates. In this study, we investigated bats together with non-volant mammals, dogs, and triatomines to explore other possible T. c. cruzi reservoirs/hosts in the area. Seventy-three non-volant mammals and 186 bats were captured at three sites within the Guarapari municipality, Espírito Santo state. Rio da Prata and Amarelos sites exhibited greater richness in terms of non-volant mammals and bats species, respectively. The marsupial Metachirus nudicaudatus, the rodent Trinomys paratus, and the bats Artibeus lituratus and Carollia perspicillata were the most frequently captured species. As determined by positive hemocultures, only two non-volant mammals were found to be infected by Trypanosoma species: Monodelphis americana, which was infected by T. cascavelli, T. dionisii and Trypanosoma sp., and Callithrix geoffroyi, which was infected by T. minasense. Bats presented T. c. cruzi TcI and TcIII/V, T. c. marinkellei, T. dionisii, T. rangeli B and D, and Trypanosoma sp. infections. Seven dogs were infected with T. cruzi based only on serological exams. The triatomines T. vitticeps and Panstrongylus geniculatus were found to be infected by trypanosomes via microscopy. According to molecular characterization, T. vitticeps specimens were infected with T. c. cruzi TcI, TcII, TcIII/V, and TcIV, T. c. marinkellei and T. dionisii. We observed high trypanosome diversity in a small and fragmented region of the Atlantic Forest. This diversity was primarily maintained by bats and T. vitticeps. Our findings show that the host specificity of the Trypanosoma genus should be thoroughly reviewed. In addition, our data show that CD cases can occur without an enzootic cycle near residential areas.

Helminth parasites of howler and spider monkeys in Mexico: Insights into molecular diagnostic methods and their importance for zoonotic diseases and host conservation

The majority of the parasite assessments of New World primates have been conducted through the identification of the eggs found in faeces, though many species of parasites have very similar eggs, leaving uncertainty in the diagnosis. Here, we present the results of a parasite survey of the three species of primates distributed in Mexico, combining non-invasive sampling with molecular techniques via DNA extraction of the eggs found in the faeces. Mitochondrial and ribosomal DNA were employed for species identification and Bayesian phylogenetic analysis. Nine parasite taxa were found in the three primate species: the nematodes Trypanoxyuris minutus, T. multilabiatus, T. pigrae, T. atelis, T. atelophora, Strongyloides sp., unidentified Ancylostomatid, unidentified Ascarid, and the trematode Controrchis biliophilus. We were able to extract and amplify DNA from the eggs of the five species of Trypanoxyuris reported for Mexican primates, two morphologically different trematode eggs, and Strongyloides sp. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed that the two types of trematode eggs belong to Controrchis biliophilus, a member of the family Dicrocoeliidae. For Strongyloides sp., phylogenetic analysis and genetic divergence showed an association between our samples and S. fuelleborni; however, no species could be established due to the lack of more DNA sequences from Strongyloides sp. occurring in Neotropical primates. The use of molecular and phylogenetic methods could help to overcome the limitations imposed by traditional non-invasive sampling because eggs are primarily obtained from the faeces; however, its utility relies on the extant genetic library and the contributions that expand such library. The information presented here could serve as a basis for future research on primate parasitology, allowing a more accurate parasite diagnosis and a more precise evaluation of their zoonotic potential.

First report of Sapajus cay naturally infected by Trypanosoma cruzi in San Pedro Department, Paraguay

To verify the occurrence of natural Trypanosoma cruzi infection in non-human primates from a rural endemic area of the east region of Paraguay, xenodiagnosis was performed in 35 animals belonging to two species. For genotyping and T. cruzi discrete typing unit (DTU) assignment, a combination of four markers was used, including amplification products of the small (18S) and large (24Sα) subunits of ribosomal ribonucleic acid gene, the intergenic region of mini-exon gene and the heat shock protein 60 Eco-RV polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (HSP60/EcoRV-PCR-RFLP). One specimen of Sapajus cay was found positive and infected by the DTU TcII. This result constitutes the first record of natural T. cruzi infection in a sylvatic monkey in Paraguay, harbouring a DTU associated with severe Chagas disease in humans.