Clostridium difficile infection in general surgery patients; identification of high-risk populations

Incidence, risk factors, and outcome of Clostridioides difficile infection following urological surgeries

PURPOSE

To assess the incidence, risk factors, and clinical outcomes associated with (Clostridioides difficile infection) CDI following urological surgery, which is the leading cause of nosocomial diarrhea and a growing public health burden.

METHODS

We queried the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP) to identify patients undergoing urological surgery in 2015-2016. We evaluated the 30-day incidence and factors associated with postoperative CDI and 30-day hospital readmission and length of stay as secondary outcomes. Among the subset of patients undergoing radical cystectomy with urinary diversion (surgery with highest CDI incidence) we used multivariable logistic regression analysis to evaluate independent clinical and demographic factors associated with postoperative CDI.

RESULTS

We identified 98,463 patients during the study period. The overall 30-day incidence of CDI was 0.31%, but varied considerably across surgery type. The risk of CDI was greatest following radical cystectomy with urinary diversion (2.72%) compared to all other urologic procedures (0.19%) and was associated with increased risk of hospital readmission (p < 0.0001), re-operation (p < 0.0001), and longer mean length of stay (p < 0.0001) in this cohort. Among patients undergoing radical cystectomy with urinary diversion, multivariable logistic regression revealed that preoperative renal failure (OR: 5.30, 95% CI 1.13-24.9, p = 0.035) and blood loss requiring transfusion (OR: 1.67, 95% CI 1.15-2.44, p = 0.0075) were independently associated with CDI.

CONCLUSIONS

In a nationally representative cohort, the incidence of CDI was low but varied substantially across surgery types. CDI was most common following radical cystectomy and associated with potentially modifiable factors such as blood transfusion and significantly longer length of stay.

Immunosuppression and Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile Infection Risk in Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery Patients

BACKGROUND

Immunosuppressant use increases risk of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection. To date, no studies have analyzed the relationship between immunosuppressant use and C difficile infections after metabolic and bariatric surgery (MBS).

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of the 2015-2018 MBSAQIP data was conducted. The MBSAQIP data include information from 854 affiliated practices in the US and Canada. Initial sample size was 760,076 MBS patients. After excluding participants due to missing variables (n = 188,106) and the use of surgical procedures other than Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and sleeve gastroplasty (n = 129,712), final analyses were performed on 442,258 participants. Logistic regression models generated the odds of C difficile infection developing post MBS, according to immunosuppressant status (positive or negative).

RESULTS

Unadjusted logistic regression analysis showed that patients using immunosuppressants were 95% more likely to have postoperative C difficile infection (odds ratio 1.945; 95% CI, 1.230 to 3.075; p < 0.001) vs MBS patients not taking immunosuppressants. After adjusting for age, sex, ethnicity, preoperative BMI, diabetes status, and surgical procedure type, the association remained unaffected (adjusted odds ratio 1.956; 95% CI, 1.236 to 3.095; p < 0.01). Patients who completed the laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass procedure had more than double the odds of C difficile infection developing compared with those who completed the laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy procedure (odds ratio 2.183; 95% CI, 1.842 to 2.587; p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results using a population-based sample of MBS patients showed that those taking immunosuppressants have a significantly higher risk of developing Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection postoperatively. These findings suggest that patients using immunosuppressants should be closely monitored both pre and post procedure.

Clostridium difficile Infection in the Plastic Surgery Population: Lessons from the ACS NSQIP Database

Background:

Clostridium difficile–associated infections (CDI) have a significant impact on morbidity and mortality of hospitalized medical and surgical patients. There is a paucity of data regarding the incidence, impact, and modifiable risk factors in the plastic surgery population.

Methods:

The ACS NSQIP database was retrospectively queried for all cases performed by plastic surgeons during 2016. All plastic surgery cases, combined cases, demographics, and baseline clinical characteristics were extracted from the database. The study population was divided into 2 groups based on the development of CDI. Independent variables for development of CDI were identified.

Results:

During the study period, a total of 29,256 patients underwent a procedure by plastic surgery, with the most commonly performed procedures involving the breast (58%) and trunk (14%). Only 44 patients developed post-operative CDI (0.1%). Factors independently associated with development of CDI were wound classification at the end of the surgery, COPD, procedures involving the trunk, and surgery for reconstruction of pressure ulcers. Outpatient surgery was associated with decreased odds of developing CDI [AOR (95% CI):0.2 (0.1, 0.4), adj P < 0.001]. Staying overnight did not increase the odds of developing CDI; however, staying for >1 day in the hospital was associated with an increased risk of CDI development [AOR (95% CI): 1.03 (1.01, 1.13), adj P = 0.001]. Combined cases, ASA, body mass index, diabetes, and active smoking were not associated with CDI.

Conclusions:

CDI are rare in the plastic surgery population and are most associated with trunk/decubitus ulcer reconstructions, inpatient hospital stay, and contaminated wounds. The patients that usually fit in these categories have acutely or chronically infected wounds, which are often treated with systemic antibiotics. For patient with decubitus ulcers and other trunk reconstruction, the guidelines for pre and post-operative systemic antibiotic usage is not well defined. For patients who have had trunk reconstruction, development of evidence-based antibiotic stewardship guidelines may help these patients by limiting antibiotic usage and thereby reducing the incidence of CDI.

Clostridioides difficile-associated diarrhea in surgical service patients in Mexico

INTRODUCTION

Clostridioides difficile is the first cause of healthcare-associated diarrhea in developed countries. In recent years the incidence of C. difficile infection (CDI) has increased worldwide. There is not much information on the topic in Mexico, and little is known about the risk factors for the infection in patients that are hospitalized in surgical services.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A case-control study was conducted that compared the epidemiologic findings and risk factors between surgical patients with PCR-confirmed CDI, surgical patients with diarrhea and a negative PCR test, and surgical patients with no diarrhea. The statistical analysis was carried out using the SPSS version 22.0 program.

RESULTS

The majority of the surgical patients with CDI belonged to the areas of neurosurgery, cardiac surgery, orthopedics, and general surgery. A total of 53% of the CDI cases were associated with the hypervirulent CD NAP1/027 strain. The presence of mucus in stools (OR: 1.5, P=.001), fever (OR: 1.4, P=.011), leukocytes in stools (OR: 3.2, P<.001), hospitalization within the past 12weeks (OR: 2.0, P<.001), antibiotic use (OR: 1.3, P=.023), and ceftriaxone use (OR: 1.4, P=.01) were independent risk factors for the development of CDI.

CONCLUSIONS

C. difficile-induced diarrhea in the surgical services is frequent at the Hospital Civil de Guadalajara "Fray Antonio Alcalde".

Economic impact of potentially inappropriate prescribing and related adverse events in older people: a cost-utility analysis using Markov models

OBJECTIVES

To determine the economic impact of three drugs commonly involved in potentially inappropriate prescribing (PIP) in adults aged ≥65 years, including their adverse effects (AEs): long-term use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), benzodiazepines and proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) at maximal dose; to assess cost-effectiveness of potential interventions to reduce PIP of each drug.

DESIGN

Cost-utility analysis. We developed Markov models incorporating the AEs of each PIP, populated with published estimates of probabilities, health system costs (in 2014 euro) and utilities.

PARTICIPANTS

A hypothetical cohort of 65 year olds analysed over 35 1-year cycles with discounting at 5% per year.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Incremental cost, quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios with 95% credible intervals (CIs, generated in probabilistic sensitivity analysis) between each PIP and an appropriate alternative strategy. Models were then used to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of potential interventions to reduce PIP for each of the three drug classes.

RESULTS

All three PIP drugs and their AEs are associated with greater cost and fewer QALYs compared with alternatives. The largest reduction in QALYs and incremental cost was for benzodiazepines compared with no sedative medication (€3470, 95% CI €2434 to €5001; -0.07 QALYs, 95% CI -0.089 to -0.047), followed by NSAIDs relative to paracetamol (€806, 95% CI €415 and €1346; -0.07 QALYs, 95% CI -0.131 to -0.026), and maximal dose PPIs compared with maintenance dose PPIs (€989, 95% CI -€69 and €2127; -0.01 QALYs, 95% CI -0.029 to 0.003). For interventions to reduce PIP, at a willingness-to-pay of €45 000 per QALY, targeting NSAIDs would be cost-effective up to the highest intervention cost per person of €1971. For benzodiazepine and PPI interventions, the equivalent cost was €1480 and €831, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term benzodiazepine and NSAID prescribing are associated with significantly increased costs and reduced QALYs. Targeting inappropriate NSAID prescribing appears to be the most cost-effective PIP intervention.

2019 update of the WSES guidelines for management of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection in surgical patients

In the last three decades, Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) has increased in incidence and severity in many countries worldwide. The increase in CDI incidence has been particularly apparent among surgical patients. Therefore, prevention of CDI and optimization of management in the surgical patient are paramount. An international multidisciplinary panel of experts from the World Society of Emergency Surgery (WSES) updated its guidelines for management of CDI in surgical patients according to the most recent available literature. The update includes recent changes introduced in the management of this infection.

Early Emergency General Surgery Is Associated with a Higher Incidence of Clostridium difficile Infection

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is an important surgical complication. Emergency general surgery (EGS) is a developing area of the acute care surgical practice. Few studies evaluating the incidence and risk factors of CDI in this patient population are available.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A prospectively maintained Acute and Critical Care Surgery registry spanning from 2008 to 2015 was queried for cases of operative EGS with clinical suspicion of CDI post-operatively. Diagnosis of CDI was made using toxin A/B assay in stools. Demographics, co-morbidities, surgical procedures, length of stay (LOS), intensive care unit LOS, antibiotic use, and death were obtained. The patients positive and negative for CDI were compared using chi-squared and Student's t-test. Multi-variable logistic regression was used to determine risk factors for CDI.

RESULTS

A total of 550 patients were identified. The total incidence of CDI was 12.7%. There was no significant difference in demographics between CDI positive and negative patients. Average time to CDI diagnosis was 10.1 ± 8.5 days post-operatively. Patients who received three or more antibiotic classes were at higher risk of CDI developing post-operatively (83% vs. 75%, p = 0.04). The CDI positive patients underwent an EGS significantly earlier than CDI negative patients (0.9 ± 2.3 vs. 3.2 ± 9.2 days, p < 0.001). The most common procedures were partial colectomies (21.4%); small bowel resections/repairs (12.9%); gastric repair for perforated peptic ulcer (10%); skin and soft tissue procedure (7.1%), and laparotomies (5.7%). There was no difference in outcomes between the groups. On linear regression, an EGS performed later after admission was an independent risk factor for lower CDI (OR 0.87; CI 95% [0.79-0.96], p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Patients undergoing an early EGS have a high incidence of CDI. The number of antibiotic classes administered post-operatively affects CDI status. Bowel resections appear to be at increased risk for CDI. Clinicians should have a high index of suspicion and low threshold for testing C. difficile in high-risk EGS patients.

Incidence and in-hospital outcomes of Clostridium difficile infection among type 2 diabetes patients in Spain

AIM

To examine incidence and in-hospital outcomes of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) among patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM); compare clinical variables among T2DM patients with matched non-T2DM patients hospitalised with CDI and identify factors associated with in-hospital mortality (IHM) among T2DM patients.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective study using the Spanish National Hospital Discharge Database, 2001-2015. We included patients that had CDI as primary or secondary diagnosis in their discharge report. For each T2DM patient, we selected a gender, age, readmission status and year-matched non-diabetic patient.

RESULTS

We identified 44 695 patients with CDI (21.19% with T2DM). We matched 3040 and 5987 couples with a primary and secondary diagnosis of CDI, respectively. Incidence of CDI was higher in T2DM patients (IRR per hospital admission 1.12; 95% CI 1.09-1.14, IRR per population 1.26; 95% CI 1.22-1.29). IHM decreased over time in T2DM and non-T2DM patients (from 15.36% and 13.35%, in 2001-2003 to 10.36% and 11.73% in 2013-2015), despite a concomitant increase in CDI diagnoses overtime. Among those with CDI as secondary diagnosis IHM was higher in nondiabetic 16.17% than in T2DM patients 13.19% (P < 0.001). In T2DM patients higher mortality rates were associated with older age, comorbidities, severe CDI, and readmission. Primary diagnosis of CDI was associated with lower IHM (OR 0.71; 95% CI 0.60-0.84) than secondary diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Incidence of CDI was higher in T2DM patients. IHM decreased over time, regardless of the existence or not of T2DM. IHM was significantly lower in T2DM patients with CDI as primary diagnosis than non diabetic patients.

Risk factors for health care-associated infection in hospitalized adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Health care-associated infections (HAIs) are a public health problem that increase health care costs. This article aimed to systematically review the literature and meta-analyze studies investigating risk factors (RFs) independently associated with HAIs in hospitalized adults.

METHODS

Electronic databases (MEDLINE, Embase, and LILACS) were searched to identify studies from 2009-2016. Pooled risk ratios (RRs) or odds ratios (ORs) or mean differences (MDs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated and compared across the groups. This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement.

RESULTS

Of 867 studies, 65 met the criteria for review, and the data of 18 were summarized in the meta-analysis. The major RFs independently associated with HAIs were diabetes mellitus (RR, 1.76; 95% CI, 1.27-2.44), immunosuppression (RR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.04-1.47), body temperature (MD, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.41-0.83), surgery time in minutes (MD, 34.53; 95% CI, 22.17-46.89), reoperation (RR, 7.94; 95% CI, 5.49-11.48), cephalosporin exposure (RR, 1.77; 95% CI, 1.30-2.42), days of exposure to central venous catheter (MD, 5.20; 95% CI, 4.91-5.48), intensive care unit (ICU) admission (RR, 3.76; 95% CI, 1.79-7.92), ICU stay in days (MD, 21.30; 95% CI, 19.81-22.79), and mechanical ventilation (OR, 12.95; 95% CI, 6.28-26.73).

CONCLUSIONS

Identifying RFs that contribute to develop HAIs may support the implementation of strategies for their prevention, therefore maximizing patient safety.

Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection in surgical patients hospitalized in a tertiary hospital in Belgrade, Serbia: a case-control study

BACKGROUND

The objective of this study was to investigate independent risk factors (RFs) connected with healthcare-associated (HA) Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in surgical patients, its frequency per surgical wards and in-hospital-mortality at a single hospital.

METHODS

Risk factors for the infection were prospectively assessed among surgical patients with laboratory confirmed HA CDI and compared with a control group without HA CDI.

RESULTS

The overall incidence rate of HA CDI was 2.6 per 10000 patient-days. Significant independent RFs for HA CDI were the use of carbapenems (P = 0.007, OR: 10.62, 95% CI: 1.93-58.4), the admission to intensive care unit (P = 0.004, OR:3.00, 95% CI:1.41-6.40), and the administration of 3rd generation cephalosporins (P = 0.014, OR:2.27, 95% CI:1.18-4.39). Patients with HA CDI had significantly higher in-hospital mortality compared to controls (P: 0.007; OR: 8.95; 95% CI: 1.84-43.43).

CONCLUSIONS

CDI is an important HA infection in population of surgical patients and this study emphasizes the importance of the wise use of antibiotics, and other infection control strategies in order to prevent HA CDI, and to decrease the incidence and in-hospital mortality rate.

Evaluation of fixed and variable hospital costs due to Clostridium difficile infection: institutional incentives and directions for future research

BACKGROUND

Economic analysis of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) should consider the incentives facing institutional decision-makers. To avoid overstating the financial benefits of infection prevention, fixed and variable costs should be distinguished.

AIM

To quantify CDI fixed and variable costs in a tertiary referral hospital during August 2015.

METHODS

A micro-costing analysis estimated CDI costs per patient, including the additional costs of a CDI outbreak. Resource use was quantified after review of patient charts, pharmacy data, administrative resource input, and records of salary and cleaning/decontamination expenditure.

FINDINGS

The incremental cost of CDI was €75,680 (mean: €5,820 per patient) with key cost drivers being cleaning, pharmaceuticals, and length of stay (LOS). Additional LOS ranged from 1.75 to 22.55 days. For seven patients involved in a CDI outbreak, excluding the value of the 58 lost bed-days (€34,585); costs were 30% higher (€7,589 per patient). Therefore, total spending on CDI was €88,062 (mean: €6,773 across all patients). Potential savings from variable costs were €1,026 (17%) or €1,768 (26%) if outbreak costs were included. Investment in an antimicrobial pharmacist would require 47 CDI cases to be prevented annually. Prevention of 5%, 10% and 20% CDI would reduce attributable costs by €4,403, €8,806 and €17,612. Increasing the incremental LOS attributable to CDI to seven days per patient would have increased costs to €7,478 or €8,431 (if outbreak costs were included).

CONCLUSION

As much CDI costs are fixed, potential savings from infection prevention are limited. Future analysis must consider more effectively this distinction and its impact on institutional decision-making.

Hospitalized Patients with Heart Failure and Common Bacterial Infections: A Nationwide Analysis of Concomitant Clostridium Difficile Infection Rates and In-Hospital Mortality

BACKGROUND

Patients with heart failure (HF) are frequently hospitalized with common bacterial infections. It is unknown whether they experience concomitant Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) more frequently than patients without HF, and whether CDI affects their mortality.

METHODS

We used 2012 National Inpatient Sample data to determine the rate of CDI and associated in-hospital mortality for hospitalized patients with comorbid HF and urinary tract infection (UTI), pneumonia (PNA), or sepsis. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed. Weighted data are presented.

RESULTS

There were an estimated 5,851,582 patient hospitalizations with discharge diagnosis of UTI, PNA, or sepsis in 2012 in the United States. Of these, 23.4% had discharge diagnosis of HF. Patients with HF were on average older and had more comorbidities. CDI rates were higher in hospitalizations with discharge diagnosis of HF compared with those without HF (odds ratio 1.13, 95% confidence interval 1.10-1.16) after controlling for patient demographics and comorbidities and hospital characteristics. Among HF hospitalizations with UTI, PNA, or sepsis, those with concomitant CDI had a higher in-hospital mortality than those without concomitant CDI (odds ratio 1.81, 95% confidence interval 1.71-1.92) after controlling for the covariates outlined previously.

CONCLUSIONS

HF is associated with higher CDI rates among hospitalized patients with other common bacterial infections, even when adjusting for other known risk factors for CDI. Among these patients with comorbid HF, CDI is associated with markedly higher in-hospital mortality. These findings may suggest an opportunity to improve outcomes for hospitalized patients with HF and common bacterial infections, possibly through improved Clostridium difficile screening and prophylaxis protocols.

Clostridium difficile infection in patients hospitalized with type 2 diabetes mellitus and its impact on morbidity, mortality, and the costs of inpatient care

AIMS

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is often complicated by infections leading to hospitalization, increased morbidity, and mortality. Not much is known about the impact of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) on health outcomes in hospitalized patients with T2DM. We estimated the prevalence and temporal trends of CDI; evaluated the associations between CDI and in-hospital mortality, length of stay (LOS), and the costs of inpatient care; and compared the impact of CDI with that of other infections commonly seen in patients with T2DM.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional analysis using data from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample among patients ⩾18years with T2DM and generalized linear regression was used to analyze associations and jointpoint regression for trends.

RESULTS

The prevalence of CDI was 6.8 per 1000 hospital discharges. Patients with T2DM and CDI had increased odds of in-hospital mortality (OR, 3.63; 95% CI 3.16, 4.17). The adjusted mean LOS was higher in patients with CDI than without CDI (11.9 vs. 4.7days). That translated to average hospital costs of $23,000 and $9100 for patients with and without CDI, respectively. The adjusted risk of mortality in patients who had CDI alone (OR 3.75; 95% CI 3.18, 4.41) was similar to patients who had CDI in addition to other common infections (OR 3.25; 95% CI 2.58, 4.10).

CONCLUSION

CDI is independently associated with poorer health outcomes in patients with T2DM. We recommend close surveillance for CDI in hospitalized patients and further studies to determine the cost effectiveness of screening for CDI among patients with T2DM.

WSES guidelines for management of Clostridium difficile infection in surgical patients

In the last two decades there have been dramatic changes in the epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI), with increases in incidence and severity of disease in many countries worldwide. The incidence of CDI has also increased in surgical patients. Optimization of management of C difficile, has therefore become increasingly urgent. An international multidisciplinary panel of experts prepared evidenced-based World Society of Emergency Surgery (WSES) guidelines for management of CDI in surgical patients.

Clostridium difficile Infections after Blunt Trauma: A Different Patient Population?

BACKGROUND

The epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-associated infection (CDI) has changed, and it is evident that susceptibility is related not only to exposures and bacterial potency, but host factors as well. Several small studies have suggested that CDI after trauma is associated with a different patient phenotype. The purpose of this study was to examine and describe the epidemiologic factors associated with C. difficile in blunt trauma patients without traumatic brain injury using the Trauma-Related Database as a part of the "Inflammation and Host Response to Injury" (Glue Grant) and the University of Florida Integrated Data Repository.

METHODS

Previously recorded baseline characteristics, clinical data, and outcomes were compared between groups (67 C. difficile and 384 uncomplicated, 813 intermediate, and 761 complicated non-C. difficile patients) as defined by the Glue Grant on admission and at days seven and 14.

RESULTS

The majority of CDI patients experienced complicated or intermediate clinical courses. The mean ages of all cohorts were less than 65 y and CDI patients were significantly older than uncomplicated patients without CDI. The CDI patients had increased days in the hospital and on the ventilator, as well as significantly higher new injury severity scores (NISS), and a greater percentage of patients with NISS >34 points compared with non-CDI patients. They also had greater Marshall and Denver multiple organ dysfunction scores than non-CDI uncomplicated patients, and greater creatinine, alkaline phosphatase, neutrophil count, lactic acid, and PiO2:FiO2 compared with all non-CDI cohorts on admission. In addition, the CDI patients had higher glucose concentrations and base deficit from uncomplicated patients and greater leukocytosis than complicated patients on admission. Several of these changes persisted to days seven and 14.

CONCLUSION

Analysis of severe blunt trauma patients with C. difficile, as compared with non-CDI patients, reveals evidence of increased inflammation, immunosuppression, worse acute kidney injury, higher NISS, greater days in the hospital and on the ventilator, higher organ injury scores, and prolonged clinical courses. This supports reports of an increased prevalence of CDI in a younger population not believed previously to be at risk. This unique population may have specific genomic or inflammation-related risk factors that may play more important roles in disease susceptibility. Prospective analysis may allow early identification of at-risk patients, creation of novel therapeutics, and improved understanding of how and why C. difficile colonization transforms into infection after severe blunt trauma.

Clostridium difficile infection in diabetes

Diabetes-related hospitalization and hospital utilization is a serious challenge to the health care system, a situation which may be further aggravated by nosocomial Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) infection (CDI). Studies have demonstrated that diabetes increases the risk of recurrent CDI with OR (95% CI) 2.99 (1.88, 4.76). C. difficile is a gram-positive, spore-forming anaerobic bacterium which is widely distributed in the environment. Up to 7% of healthy adults and up to 45% of infants may have asymptomatic intestinal carriage of C. difficile. A large number of strains of C. difficile have been identified. A number of PCR or sequence-based molecular typing methods are available for typing C. difficile isolates. C. difficile virulence evolved independently in the highly epidemic lineages, associated with the expression of toxin genes and other virulence factors. This article briefly reviews recent progresses in the bateriology of C. difficile and highlights the limited knowledge of potential mechanisms for the increased risk of CDI in diabetes which warrants further research.

Clostridium difficile infection after cardiac surgery: prevalence, morbidity, mortality, and resource utilization

OBJECTIVE

Despite increasing efforts to prevent infection, the prevalence of hospital-associated Clostridium difficile infections (CDI) is increasing. Heightened awareness prompted this study of the prevalence and morbidity associated with CDI after cardiac surgery.

METHODS

A total of 22,952 patients underwent cardiac surgery at Cleveland Clinic from January 2005 to January 2011. CDI was diagnosed by enzyme immunoassay for toxins and, more recently, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing. Hospital outcomes and long-term survival were compared with those of the remaining population in propensity-matched groups.

RESULTS

One hundred forty-five patients (0.63%) tested positive for CDI at a median of 9 days postoperatively, 135 by enzyme immunoassay and 11 by PCR. Its prevalence more than doubled over the study period. Seventy-seven patients (48%) were transfers from outside hospitals. Seventy-three patients (50%) were exposed preoperatively to antibiotics and 79 (56%) to proton-pump inhibitors. Patients with CDI had more baseline comorbidities, more reoperations, and received more blood products than patients who did not have CDI. Presenting symptoms included diarrhea (107; 75%), distended abdomen (48; 34%), and abdominal pain (27; 19%). All were treated with metronidazole or vancomycin. Sixteen patients (11%) died in hospital, including 5 of 10 who developed toxic colitis; 3 of 4 undergoing total colectomy survived. Among matched patients, those with CDI had more septicemia (P < .0001), renal failure (P = .0002), reoperations (P < .0001), prolonged postoperative ventilation (P < .0001), longer hospital stay (P < .0001), and lower 3-year survival, 52% versus 64% (P = .03), than patients who did not have CDI.

CONCLUSIONS

Although rare, the prevalence of CDI is increasing, contributing importantly to morbidity and mortality after cardiac surgery. If toxic colitis develops, mortality is high, but colectomy may be lifesaving.

Increased hospital length of stay attributable to Clostridium difficile infection in patients with four co-morbidities: an analysis of hospital episode statistics in four European countries

Hospital-onset Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) places a significant burden on health care systems throughout Europe, estimated at around €3 billion per annum. This burden is shared between national payers and hospitals that support additional bed days for patients diagnosed with CDI while in hospital or patients re-admitted from a previous hospitalisation. This study was performed to quantify additional hospital stay attributable to CDI in four countries, England, Germany, Spain, and The Netherlands, by analysing nationwide hospital-episode data. We focused upon patients at increased risk of CDI: with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart failure, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease, and aged 50 years or over. Multivariate regression and propensity score matching models were developed to investigate the impact of CDI on additional length of hospital stay, controlling for confounding factors such as underlying disease severity. Patients in England had the longest additional hospital stay attributable to CDI at 16.09 days, followed by Germany at 15.47 days, Spain at 13.56 days, and The Netherlands at 12.58 days, derived using regression analysis. Propensity score matching indicated a higher attributable length of stay of 32.42 days in England, 15.31 days in Spain, and 18.64 days in The Netherlands. Outputs from this study consistently demonstrate that in European countries, for patients whose hospitalisation is complicated by CDI, the infection causes a statistically significant increase in hospital length of stay. This has implications for optimising resource allocation and budget setting at both the national and hospital level to ensure that levels of CDI-complicated hospitalisations are minimised.

Predictors of first recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection: implications for initial management

Symptomatic recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) occurs in approximately 20% of patients and is challenging to treat. Identifying those at high risk could allow targeted initial management and improve outcomes. Adult toxin enzyme immunoassay–positive CDI cases in a population of approximately 600 000 persons from September 2006 through December 2010 were combined with epidemiological/clinical data. The cumulative incidence of recurrence ≥14 days after the diagnosis and/or onset of first-ever CDI was estimated, treating death without recurrence as a competing risk, and predictors were identified from cause-specific proportional hazards regression models. A total of 1678 adults alive 14 days after their first CDI were included; median age was 77 years, and 1191 (78%) were inpatients. Of these, 363 (22%) experienced a recurrence ≥14 days after their first CDI, and 594 (35%) died without recurrence through March 2011. Recurrence risk was independently and significantly higher among patients admitted as emergencies, with previous gastrointestinal ward admission(s), last discharged 4–12 weeks before first diagnosis, and with CDI diagnosed at admission. Recurrence risk also increased with increasing age, previous total hours admitted, and C-reactive protein level at first CDI (all P < .05). The 4-month recurrence risk increased by approximately 5% (absolute) for every 1-point increase in a risk score based on these factors. Risk factors, including increasing age, initial disease severity, and hospital exposure, predict CDI recurrence and identify patients likely to benefit from enhanced initial CDI treatment.

Knowledge of Clostridium difficile infection among UK health-care workers: development of a knowledge assessment tool

Doctors’ knowledge provides the basis to support good practice in infection prevention and control. However, there exists a paucity of validated knowledge assessment tools that can be reliably employed to identify poor knowledge levels of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) within populations of doctors, preventing the effective identification of knowledge deficiencies and focused targeting of educational interventions. Here, we describe a development process to validate a novel CDI knowledge assessment tool for doctors. Two previously published CDI knowledge questionnaires were amalgamated to produce a combined questionnaire. Content was further evaluated by a panel of CDI experts, producing the ‘Lothian’ questionnaire. These questionnaires were tested in control populations comprising either infection control nurse (ICN) specialists or non-clinically trained individuals, and a cohort of medical staff. We compared the efficacy of the ‘Lothian’ questionnaire against that of previous questionnaire reports. We found that all of the questionnaires studied significantly discriminated between non-clinical and clinical populations (ICNs and medical staff) ( P < 0.001) and had similar levels of sensitivity and specificity in discrimination between these targeted populations. This study describes the development of a robust CDI knowledge assessment tool that can be used to evaluate knowledge levels among doctors, compare populations and assist the targeting of educational interventions and plot trends following such interventions.

Clinical and economic burden of Clostridium difficile infection in Europe: a systematic review of healthcare-facility-acquired infection

PubMed, EMBASE and conference abstracts were reviewed systematically to determine the clinical and economic burden associated with Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) acquired and treated in European healthcare facilities. Inclusion criteria were: published in the English language between 2000 and 2010, and study population of at least 20 patients with documented CDI acquired/treated in European healthcare facilities. Data collection was completed by three unblinded reviewers using the Cochrane Handbook and PRISMA statement. The primary outcomes were mortality, recurrence, length of hospital stay (LOS) and cost related to CDI. In total, 1138 primary articles and conference abstracts were identified, and this was narrowed to 39 and 30 studies, respectively. Data were available from 14 countries, with 47% of studies from UK institutions. CDI mortality at 30 days ranged from 2% (France) to 42% (UK). Mortality rates more than doubled from 1999 to 2004, and continued to rise until 2007 when reductions were noted in the UK. Recurrent CDI varied from 1% (France) to 36% (Ireland); however, recurrence definitions varied between studies. Median LOS ranged from eight days (Belgium) to 27 days (UK). The incremental cost of CDI was £4577 in Ireland and £8843 in Germany, after standardization to 2010 prices. Country-specific estimates, weighted by sample size, ranged from 2.8% to 29.8% for 30-day mortality and from 16 to 37 days for LOS. CDI burden in Europe was most commonly described using 30-day mortality, recurrence, LOS and cost data. The continued spread of CDI and resultant healthcare burden underscores the need for judicious use of antibiotics.