Molecular events in the activation of B cells and macrophages by a non-microbial TLR4 agonist, G1-4A from Tinospora cordifolia

Network pharmacology and metabolomics analysis of Tinospora cordifolia reveals BACE1 and MAOB as potential therapeutic targets for neuroprotection in Alzheimer's disease

Tinospora cordifolia has been used for thousands of years to treat various health conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases. The study aimed to elucidate the mechanism of action and protein targets of T. cordifolia in the context of Alzheimer's disease through untargeted metabolomics and network pharmacology. LC-MS/MS analysis resulted in 1186 metabolites, including known bioactive compounds such as liquiritin, Plastoquinone 3, and Shoyuflavone A, to name a few. The network pharmacology analysis highlighted the metabolite-protein interaction with the enrichment of 591 human proteins, including neurotransmitter receptors and other regulatory proteins. Pathway analysis highlighted the enrichment of cAMP, mTOR, MAPK, and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways along with cholinergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic, glutamatergic synapse, and apoptosis. The docking results suggest that T. cordifolia metabolites could interact with key Alzheimer's disease targets BACE1 and MAO-B, suggesting its role in neuroprotection. These findings provide insights into the biochemical pathways underlying T. cordifolia's therapeutic effects and provides a foundation for future exploration of T. cordifolia in the context of translational research.

Indian herb Tinospora cordifolia and Tinospora species: Phytochemical and therapeutic application

Clinical investigations are increasingly focusing on natural materials with medical benefits because, in contrast to medicines, they have extremely few adverse effects. Tinospora species of the Menispermaceae family has many bioactive principles for plant nutraceuticals. A thorough assessment of the existing literature revealed that Indian Tinospora species are an important group of medicinal herbs used for a variety of pharmacological activities. While, Tinospora cordifolia is widely recognized as a significant herb in the Indian System of Medicines (ISM) due to its bioactive components and has been used in the treatment of diabetes, cancer, urinary problems, fever, jaundice, helminthiasis, leprosy, dysentery, skin diseases, and many more. Using the search phrases "phytochemistry," "traditional uses," and "pharmacological evaluation of Indian Tinospora species," appropriate articles were carefully extracted from the MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, and WOS databases. Around 180 articles, related to the India Tinospora species, were selected from a pool of 200 papers published between 1991 and 2023. T. cordifolia has received a lot of scientific attention because of its diverse therapeutic characteristics in treating various diseases. Our present study in this review encompasses 1.) Phytochemistry, traditional uses and pharmacological potential of T. cordifolia as well as other Indian Tinospora species. 2.) Safety and toxicity study and available marketed formulation of T. cordifolia for the treatment of various diseases. The chemical constitution and pharmacological characteristics of other Tinospora species must also be investigated, indicating a need for further scientific research.

Tinospora cordifolia ameliorates paclitaxel-induced neuropathic pain in albino rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tinospora cordifolia (T. cordifolia) (Willd.) Miers, a member of the Menispermaceae, family documented in the ancient textbooks of the Ayurveda System of Medicine, has been used in the management of sciatica pain and diabetic neuropathy.

AIM

The study has been designed to evaluate the antinociceptive potential of various extracts of T. cordifolia stem in Paclitaxel (PT)-generated neuropathic pain model in albino rats and explore its possible mechanism employing molecular docking studies.

METHODS

Stems of T. cordifolia were shade dried, grinded in fine powder, and extracted separately with different solvents viz. ethanol, water & hydro-alcoholic and characterized using LCMS/MS. The antinociceptive property of T. cordifolia stem (200 and 400 mg/kg) was examined in albino rats using a PT-induced neuropathic pain model. Further, the effect of these extracts was also observed using different behavioral assays viz. cold allodynia, mechanical hyperalgesia (pin-prick test), locomotor activity test, walking track test, and Sciatic Functional Index (SFI) in rats. Tissue lysate of the sciatic nerve was used to determine various biochemical markers such as GSH, SOD, TBARS, tissue protein, and nitrite. Further to explore the possible mechanism of action, the most abundant and therapeutically active compounds available in aqueous extract were analyzed for binding affinity towards soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) enzyme (PDB ID: 3wk4) employing molecular docking studies.

RESULTS

The results of the LCMS/MS study of different extracts of T. cordifolia indicated presence of alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids, sterols and sugars such as amritoside A, tinocordin, magnoflorine, N-methylcoclaurine, coridine, 20β-hydroxyecdysone and menaquinone-7 palmatin, cordifolioside A and tinosporine etc. Among all the three extracts, the hydroalcoholic extract (400 mg/kg) showed the highest response followed by aqueous and ethanolic extracts as evident in in vivo behavioral and biochemical evaluations. Furthermore, docking studies also exposed that these compounds viz. N-methylcoclaurine tinosporin, palmatine, tinocordin, 20β-hydroxyecdysone, and coridine exhibited well to excellent affinity towards target sEH protein.

CONCLUSION

T. cordifolia stem could alleviate neuropathic pain via soluble epoxide hydrolase inhibitory activity.

Tinospora cordifolia (Giloy): An insight on the multifarious pharmacological paradigms of a most promising medicinal ayurvedic herb

Medicinal herbs are being widely accepted as alternative remedies for preventing various diseases especially in India and other Asian countries. However, most plant-based herbal medicines are not yet being scientifically accepted worldwide. "Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook.F. & Thomson", one of the most promising plant species of Tinospora known as "Giloy" or Guduchi that is used in several traditional medicines in treating diseases e.g., metabolic and immune disorders, diabetes, heart diseases, cancer, and infectious diseases, has been widely investigated. Varieties of bioactive phytochemical constituents isolated from the stem, root and whole plant of T. cordifolia have been identified. In the last two decades, the diverse pharmacological activities of T. cordifolia have been continuously studied. Due to its therapeutic efficacy in immune modulation, it could be effective in viral and other diseases treatment as well. A medicinal plant could be well-suited not only for the treatment of target site but also for boosting the body's immune system. As an alternate source of medication, medicinal herbs are continuously showing better compatibility with the human body with minimal side effects than other therapies. Keeping this in mind, the present review highlights the pharmacological potential of T. cordifolia against various diseases.

Culinary spices and herbs in managing early and long-COVID-19 complications: A comprehensive review

Human race is preparing for the upsurge and aftermath of COVID-19 pandemic complicated by novel variants, new waves, variable mortality rate, and post-COVID complications. Despite use of repurposed drugs, symptomatic treatments and licensing of multiple vaccines, the daily number of cases and rate of transmission are significant. Culinary spices and herbs have been historically used in pandemic and non-pandemic times to reduce respiratory viral burden. Specific food items and culinary spices can boost the levels of protective immunity and also offer therapeutic benefits against impervious bugs via well-known as well as less-known but scientifically testable mechanisms. Here, we analyzed the phytochemicals profile of Ayurvedic herbs and inferred from the clinical trials/observational studies to provide a focused and succinct perspective on the relevance of "food-based" traditional decoction to moderate COVID-19 disease and long-COVID via modulation of immunity and reinstatement of homeostasis. We also underscore the druggable targets in pathogenesis of COVID-19 which are relevant to the ongoing clinical trials using spices and herbs. This information will provide a strong scientific rationale for standardization of the traditional herbs-based therapies and adopting the use of herbs, spices, and their formulations for reducing SARS-CoV-2 transmission, long-COVID symptoms, and COVID-19 disease progression.

Unveiling Various Facades of Tinospora cordifolia Stem in Food: Medicinal and Nutraceutical Aspects

Natural products with curative properties are gaining immense popularity in scientific and food research, possessing no side effects in contrast to other drugs. Guduchi, or Tinospora cordifolia, belongs to the menispermaceae family of universal drugs used to treat various diseases in traditional Indian literature. It has received attention in recent decades because of its utilization in folklore medicine for treating several disorders. Lately, the findings of active phytoconstituents present in herbal plants and their pharmacological function in disease treatment and control have stimulated interest in plants around the world. Guduchi is ethnobotanically used for jaundice, diabetes, urinary problems, stomachaches, prolonged diarrhea, skin ailments, and dysentery. The treatment with Guduchi extracts was accredited to phytochemical constituents, which include glycosides, alkaloids, steroids, and diterpenoid lactones. This review places emphasis on providing in-depth information on the budding applications of herbal medicine in the advancement of functional foods and nutraceuticals to natural product researchers.

Tinospora cordifolia Miers enhances the immune response in mice immunized with JEV-vaccine: A network pharmacology and experimental approach

BACKGROUND

Tinospora cordifolia Miers. (TC) (Giloya/Guduchi) is a native Indian herb, reported for its wide array of medicinal activities including immunomodulatory activity. However, the exact pharmacological mechanism of TC as an immunomodulatory agent remains unclear. Central to this, to the best of our knowledge, no study has explored the immunoadjuvant potential of TC in response to the Japanese encephalitis (JE) vaccines.

PURPOSE

The study aims to explore the immunoadjuvant potential of TC ethanolic extract in response to the JE vaccine and illustrates its potential mechanism of immunomodulation using an integrated approach of network pharmacology and in-vivo experimental study.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Initially, the extract was prepared and the components of TC were identified through high-resolution liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (HR-LC/MS). The compounds were then screened for network pharmacology analysis. Next, the drug and disease targets were identified and the network was constructed using Cytoscape 3.7.2 to obtain different signalling pathways of TC in JEV. We then evaluated the immunoadjuvant potential of TC ethanolic extract in mice immunized with inactivated JE vaccine (SA-14-14-2 strain). BALB/c mice were supplemented with TC extract (30 and 100 mg/kg, i.g.), daily for 56 days, marked with immunization on 28th day of the study, by JE vaccine. Blood was collected for flow cytometry and haematological analysis (total and differential cell counts). The surface expression of immune-cell markers (CD3+, CD4+, CD19+, CD11c+, CD40+) were evaluated on day 0 (pre-immunization), day 14 and 28 post-immunization. Additionally, inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ+/IL-17A+) were evaluated post-14 and 28 days of immunization.

RESULTS

The HR-LC/MS analysis identified the presence of glycosides, terpenoids, steroids and alkaloids in the TC extract. Through network analysis, 09 components and 166 targets were obtained, including pathways that involve toll-like receptor signalling, pattern-recognition receptor signalling, cytokine receptor and cytokine mediated signalling, etc. The in-vivo results showed that preconditioning with TC ethanolic extract significantly elevated the haematological variables (leucocyte count) as well as the surface expression of CD markers (B and T cell subsets) on day 0 (pre-immunization), day 14 and 28 post-immunization. Furthermore, preconditioning of TC demonstrated a dose-dependant augmentation of immune cells (CD3+, CD4+, CD19+, CD11c+) and inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ+/IL-17A+) on day 14 and 28 post-immunization when compared to vaccine alone group.

CONCLUSION

Results showed that preconditioning with TC extract before immunization might play a potential role in enhancing the cell-mediated as well as humoral immunity. Altogether, the combinatorial approach of network pharmacology and in-vivo animal experimentation demonstrated the immunoadjuvant potential of TC in response to JEV vaccine.

OECD-407 Driven 28-day-repeated-dose non-clinical safety evaluation of Tinospora cordifolia (Giloy) stem aqueous extract in Sprague-Dawley rats under GLP compliance

Introduction: Tinospora cordifolia (Wild.) Hook.f. & Thomson (Giloy), has been widely used in the Ayurvedic system of medicine. However, some sporadic under-powered case studies have recently reported Tinospora cordifolia associated toxicity. Thus, following OECD 407 guidelines, a 28-day-repeated-dose-14-day-recovery toxicological evaluation of the aqueous extract of T. cordifolia stem (TCWE) was conducted under good laboratory practice (GLP), in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. Methods: 100, 300, and 1000 mg/kg/day of TCWE was given orally to designated treatment groups of either sex. Two separate 14-day recovery satellite groups received either vehicle control or 1000 mg/kg/day of TCWE. Results: In this study, TCWE was found safe up to a dose of 1000 mg/kg/day with no mortality or related toxicological manifestation in terms of clinical signs, ocular effects, hematology, urinalysis, clinical chemistry parameters, or macro- or microscopic changes in any organs. The satellite group did not show any adverse effect after 14-day recovery period. Thus, the No-Observed-Adverse-Effect-Level (NOAEL) of TCWE was determined to be 1000 mg/kg/day. Discussion: In conclusion, this study established the non-clinical safety of the aqueous extract of T. cordifolia stem, which confirms the age-old safe medicinal use of this herb, and also paves the path for future clinical research on formulations containing Tinospora cordifolia.

Arabinogalactan G1-4A isolated from Tinospora cordifolia induces PKC/mTOR mediated direct activation of natural killer cells and through dendritic cell cross-talk

BACKGROUND

Tinospora cordifolia polysaccharide G1-4A activates antigen-presenting cells, but its effect on natural killer (NK) cells is not known. The objective of this study is to assess the effect of G1-4A on NK cells; direct effects as well as through dendritic cell (DC) cross-talk.

METHODS

NK cell phenotype and function were assessed in spleen cells treated in vitro with G1-4A or isolated from mice administered with G1-4A. Following treatment with G1-4A in vitro or in cells isolated from G1-4A treated mice (in vivo), activated NK cell phenotype was characterized as CD3^-NKp46⁺CD69⁺ cells by flow cytometry; NK cell function was evaluated by IFN-γ secretion (ELISA) and cytotoxicity assay (calcein release by target cells in effector: target cells co-culture assay).

RESULTS

Both in vitro as well as in vivoG1-4A treatment increased phenotypic and functional activation of NK cells. So, we wanted to determine if this was through NK-DC crosstalk or direct activation of NK cells. There was increased NK cell activation following co-culture with bone marrow derived DC matured withG1-4A in vitro or splenic DC isolated from G1-4A administered mice indicating crosstalk. G1-4A also increased activation of NK cells in (a) CD11c depleted splenic cells that was contact dependent and (b) purified NKp46⁺ cells that was abrogated by PKC/mTOR inhibitors indicating direct effects on NK cells.

CONCLUSION

In summary, treatment with G1-4A results in phenotypic and functional activation of NK cells directly as well as through NK-DC cross talk and has the potential to be used as an immunotherapeutic agent.

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thomson polysaccharides: A review on extraction, characterization, and bioactivities

Human awareness of the need for health and wellness practices that enhance disease resilience has increased as a result of recent health risks. Plant-derived polysaccharides with biological activity are good candidates to fight diseases because of their low toxicity. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thomson polysaccharides extract from different plant parts have been reported to possess significant biological activity such as anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, immunomodulatory, anti-diabetic, radioprotective and hepatoprotective. Several extraction and purification techniques have been used to isolate and characterize T. cordifolia polysaccharides. Along with hot-water extraction (HWE), other novel techniques like microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), pulsed electric field (PEF), supercritical-fluid extraction (SFE), and enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE) are used to extract T cordifolia polysaccharides. SFE is a revolutionary technology that gives the best yield and purity of low-molecular-weight polysaccharides. According to the findings, polysaccharides extracted and purified from T. cordifolia have a significant impact on their structure and biological activity. As a result, the methods of extraction, structural characterization, and biological activity of T. cordifolia polysaccharides are covered in this review. Research on T. cordifolia polysaccharides and their potential applications will benefit greatly from the findings presented in this review.

Deciphering the mechanism of Tinospora cordifolia extract on Th17 cells through in-depth transcriptomic profiling and in silico analysis

Naive CD4⁺ T cells differentiate into effector (Th1, Th2, Th17) cells and immunosuppressive (Treg) cells upon antigenic stimulation in the presence of a specific cytokine milieu. The T cell in vitro culture system provides a very efficient model to study compounds' therapeutic activity and mechanism of action. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thomson (Family. Menispermaceae) is one of the widely used drugs in Ayurveda (ancient Indian system of medicine) for various ailments such as inflammatory conditions, autoimmune disorders, and cancer as well as for promoting general health. In vitro and in vivo studies on immune cells comprising dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells suggest its immune-modulating abilities. However, to date, the effect of T. cordifolia on individual purified and polarized T cell subsets has not been studied. Studying drug effects on T cell subsets is needed to understand their immunomodulatory mechanism and to develop treatments for diseases linked with T cell abnormalities. In this study, we examined the immunomodulatory activity of T. cordifolia on primary CD4⁺ T cells, i.e., Th1, Th17, and iTreg cells. An aqueous extract of T. cordifolia was non-cytotoxic at concentrations below 1500 µg/ml and moderately inhibited the proliferation of naive CD4⁺ T cells stimulated with anti-CD3ε and anti-CD28 for 96 h. T. cordifolia treatment of naive CD4⁺ T cells differentiated under Th17-polarizing conditions exhibited reduced frequency of IL-17 producing cells with inhibition of differentiation and proliferation. For the first time, in-depth genome-wide expression profiling of T. cordifolia treated naive CD4⁺ T cells, polarized to Th17 cells, suggests the broad-spectrum activity of T. cordifolia. It shows inhibition of the cytokine-receptor signaling pathway, majorly via the JAK-STAT signaling pathway, subsequently causing inhibition of Th17 cell differentiation, proliferation, and effector function. Additionally, the molecular docking studies of the 69 metabolites of T. cordifolia further substantiate the inhibitory activity of T. cordifolia via the cytokine-receptor signaling pathway. Furthermore, in vitro polarized Th1 and iTreg cells treated with T. cordifolia extract also showed reduced IFN-γ production and FoxP3 expression, respectively. This study provides insight into the plausible mechanism/s of anti-inflammatory activity of T. cordifolia involving T cells, mainly effective in Th17-associated autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.

A novel role of Tinospora cordifolia in amelioration of cancer-induced systemic deterioration by taming neutrophil infiltration and hyperactivation

BACKGROUND

Cancer has emerged as a systemic disease which targets various organs thus challenging the overall physiology of the host. Recently, we have shown that hyperactive neutrophils infiltrate various organs of tumor bearing host and contribute to gradual systemic deterioration. Therefore, taming neutrophils via potent immunomodulators could be an appropriate therapeutic approach in regulating systemic damage. Tinospora cordifolia (TC), an Ayurvedic panacea, is known for its immense medicinal values in traditional literature and recent reports have also documented its immunomodulatory potential. However, whether TC can regulate neutrophils to exert its therapeutic effectiveness has not been deciphered so far.

METHODS

For the in vivo study, we utilized murine model of Dalton's Lymphoma (DL). T. cordifolia extract (TCE) treatment was scheduled at early, mid and advanced stages of tumor growth at a dose of 400 mg/kg b.w for 30 consecutive days. Effect of TCE on neutrophil infiltration was examined by immunostaining. Neutrophil elastase (NE) level in serum, ascitic fluid and various tissues was monitored by ELISA. Further, qPCR was performed to assess transcripts levels of NE, myeloperoxidase (MPO), metalloproteinases (MMP-8, MMP-9) and cathepsin G (CSTG) in various tissues. ROS level in tissue was assessed by DHE staining and organ function was assessed by histology post TCE treatment.

RESULTS

Our findings showed that TC treatment significantly reduced neutrophil count in peripheral blood and their infiltration in vital organs of tumor-bearing host. Further, it ameliorated neutrophil hyperactivation by down regulating the expression of its key cargoes including NE, MPO, MMP-8, MMP-9 and CSTG at early and mid stage of tumor growth. In addition, TC treatment prevented histopathological alterations and restored the normal serum enzyme levels at different stages of tumor growth. Importantly, TC treatment also showed significant reduction in tumor burden which was accompanied by a remarkable increase in survival of the tumor-bearing mice.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that T. cordifolia could limit systemic damage via regulating neutrophil infiltration and hyperactivation which can further lead to cancer control at both prophylactic and therapeutic level.

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers: Protection mechanisms and strategies against oxidative stress-related diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers (Menispermaceae) is a Mediterranean herb, used in Ayurvedic, Siddha, Unani, and folk medicines. The herb is also used in conventional medicine to treat oxidative stress-related diseases and conditions, including inflammation, pain, diarrhea, asthma, respiratory infections, cancer, diabetes, and gastrointestinal disorders.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The taxonomy, botanical classification, geographical distribution, and ethnobotanical uses of T. cordifolia, as well as the phytochemical compounds found in the herb, the toxicology of and pharmacological and clinical studies on the effects of T. cordifolia are all covered in this study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To gather information on T. cordifolia, we used a variety of scientific databases, including Scopus, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Science Direct. The information discussed focuses on biologically active compounds found in T. cordifolia, and common applications and pharmacological activity of the herb, as well as toxicological and clinical studies on its properties.

RESULTS

The findings of this study reveal a connection between the use of T. cordifolia in conventional medicine and its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, anticancer, immunomodulatory, and other biological effects. The entire plant, stem, leaves, root, and extracts of T. cordifolia have been shown to have a variety of biological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, antiparasitic, antidiabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic, hepatoprotective, and cardioprotective impact. Toxicological testing demonstrated that this plant may have medicinal applications. T. cordifolia contains a variety of biologically active compounds from various chemical classes, including alkaloids, terpenoids, sitosterols, flavonoids, and phenolic acids. Based on the reports researched for this review, we believe that chemicals in T. cordifolia may activate Nrf2, which leads to the overexpression of antioxidant enzymes such as CAT, GPx, GST, and GR, and thereby induces the adaptive response to oxidative stress. T. cordifolia is also able to reduce NF-κB signalling by inhibiting PI3K/Akt, activating AMPK and sirtuins, and downregulating PI3K/Akt.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that the pharmacological properties displayed by T. cordifolia back up its conventional uses. Antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antidiabetic, nephroprotective, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, and cardioprotective activities were all demonstrated in T. cordifolia stem extracts. To validate pharmacodynamic targets, further research is needed to evaluate the molecular mechanisms of the known compounds against gastrointestinal diseases, inflammatory processes, and microbial infections, as immunostimulants, and in chemotherapy. The T. cordifolia safety profile was confirmed in a toxicological analysis, which prompted pharmacokinetic assessment testing to confirm its bioavailability.

Unraveling the Neuroprotective Effect of Tinospora cordifolia in a Parkinsonian Mouse Model through the Proteomics Approach

Stress-induced dopaminergic (DAergic) neuronal death in the midbrain region is the primary cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). Following the discovery of l-dopa, multiple drugs have been developed to improve the lifestyle of PD patients; however, none have been suitable for clinical use due to their multiple side effects. Tinospora cordifolia has been used in traditional medicines to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Previously, we reported the neuroprotective role of Tc via inhibition of NF-κB-associated proinflammatory cytokines against MPTP-intoxicated Parkinsonian mice. In the present study, we investigated the neuroprotective molecular mechanism of Tc in a rotenone (ROT)-intoxicated mouse model, using a proteomics approach. Mice were pretreated with Tc extract by oral administration, followed by ROT intoxication. Behavioral tests were performed to check motor functions of mice. Protein was isolated, and label-free quantification (LFQ) was carried out to identify differentially expressed protein (DEP) in control vs PD and PD vs treatment groups. Results were validated by qRT-PCR with the expression of target genes correlating with the proteomics data. In this study, we report 800 DEPs in control vs PD and 133 in PD vs treatment groups. In silico tools demonstrate significant enrichment of biochemical and molecular pathways with DEPs, which are known to be important for PD progression including mitochondrial gene expression, PD pathways, TGF-β signaling, and Alzheimer's disease. This study provides novel insights into the PD progression as well as new therapeutic targets. More importantly, it demonstrates that Tc can exert therapeutic effects by regulating multiple pathways, resulting in neuroprotection.

Targeting COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) main protease through active phytocompounds of ayurvedic medicinal plants - Emblica officinalis (Amla), Phyllanthus niruri Linn. (Bhumi Amla) and Tinospora cordifolia (Giloy) - A molecular docking and simulation study

Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19), a viral disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) was declared a global pandemic by WHO in 2020. In this scenario, SARS-CoV-2 main protease (COVID-19 M^pro), an enzyme mainly involved in viral replication and transcription is identified as a crucial target for drug discovery. Traditionally used medicinal plants contain a large amount of bioactives and pave a new path to develop drugs and medications for COVID-19. The present study was aimed to examine the potential of Emblica officinalis (amla), Phyllanthus niruri Linn. (bhumi amla) and Tinospora cordifolia (giloy) bioactive compounds to inhibit the enzymatic activity of COVID-19 M^pro. In total, 96 bioactive compounds were selected and docked with COVID-19 M^pro and further validated by molecular dynamics study. From the docking and molecular dynamics study, it was revealed that the bioactives namely amritoside, apigenin-6-C-glucosyl7-O-glucoside, pectolinarin and astragalin showed better binding affinities with COVID-19 M^pro. Drug-likeness, ADEMT and bioactivity score prediction of best drug candidates were evaluated by DruLiTo, pkCSM and Molinspiration servers, respectively. Overall, the in silico results confirmed that the validated bioactives could be exploited as promising COVID-19 M^pro inhibitors.

A review on antiviral and immunomodulatory polysaccharides from Indian medicinal plants, which may be beneficial to COVID-19 infected patients

The emergence of the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2 has pushed forward the world to experience the first pandemic of this century. Any specific drug against this RNA virus is yet to be discovered and presently, the COVID-19 infected patients are being treated symptomatically. During the last few decades, a number of polysaccharides with potential biological activities have been invented from Indian medicinal plants. Many polysaccharides, such as sulfated xylomannan, xylan, pectins, fucoidans, glucans, glucoarabinan, and arabinoxylan from Indian medicinal plants, have been shown to exhibit antiviral and immunomodulating activities. Plant polysaccharides exhibit antiviral activities through interference with the viral life cycle and inhibition of attachment of virus to host cell. Intake of certain immune stimulating plant polysaccharides may also protect from the virus to a certain extent. In process of continuous search for most potent drug, Indian plant polysaccharides may emerge as significant biomaterial to combat COVID-19. This review explores a number of polysaccharides from Indian medicinal plants which showed antiviral and immunomodulating activities. It is aimed to provide an overview about the composition, molecular mass, branching configuration and related bioactivities of polysaccharides which is crucial for their classification as possible drug to induce immune response in viral diseases.

Potent anti-mycobacterial and immunomodulatory activity of some bioactive molecules of Indian ethnomedicinal plants that have the potential to enter in TB management

Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the deadliest infectious diseases of human civilization. Approximately one-third of global population is latently infected with the TB pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb). The discovery of anti-TB antibiotics leads to decline in death rate of TB. However, the evolution of antibiotic-resistant M.tb-strain and the resurgence of different immune-compromised diseases re-escalated the death rate of TB. WHO has already cautioned about the chances of pandemic situation in TB endemic countries until the discovery of new anti-tubercular drugs, that is, the need of the hour. Analysing the pathogenesis of TB, it was found that M.tb evades the host by altering the balance of immune response and affects either by killing the cells or by creating inflammation. In the pre-antibiotic era, traditional medicines were only therapeutic measures for different infectious diseases including tuberculosis. The ancient literatures of India or ample Indian traditional knowledge and ethnomedicinal practices are evidence for the treatment of TB using different indigenous plants. However, in the light of modern scientific approach, anti-TB effects of those plants and their bioactive molecules were not established thoroughly. In this review, focus has been given on five bioactive molecules of different traditionally used Indian ethnomedicinal plants for treatment of TB or TB-like symptom. These compounds are also validated with proper identification and their mode of action with modern scientific approaches. The effectiveness of these molecules for sensitive or drug-resistant TB pathogen in clinical or preclinical studies was also evaluated. Thus, our specific aim is to highlight such scientifically validated bioactive compounds having anti-mycobacterial and immunomodulatory activity for future use as medicine or adjunct-therapeutic molecule for TB management.

Tinospora Cordifolia: A review of its immunomodulatory properties

Emergent health threats have heightened human awareness of the need for health and wellness measures that promote resilience to disease. In addition to proper nutrition and exercise, health-conscious consumers are seeking natural-based modalities, e.g. botanical preparations, that positively impact the immune system. In Ayurvedic ethnomedicine, Tinospora cordifolia (T. cordifolia), a deciduous climbing shrub indigenous to India, has been used to historically to combat acute and chronic inflammation as well as to promote a balanced immune response. As a dietary supplement, T. cordifolia has been administered most often as a decoction either alone or in compositions containing other medicinal plant extracts of the Terminalia and Phyllanthus species. Extensive phytochemical characterization of aqueous and alcoholic extracts of different Tinospora species has identified over two hundred different phytochemicals from non-overlapping chemical classes with the most abundant being diterpenoids containing the clerodane-type skeleton. Numerous pharmacology studies have demonstrated that T. cordifolia modulates key signaling pathways related to cell proliferation, inflammation, and immunomodulation. However, rigorous dereplication studies to identify active constituents in various T. cordifolia extracts and their fractions are lacking. In this review, we will summarize the current information regarding T. cordifolia's ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, and safety in order to highlight its potential as an immunomodulatory dietary supplement.

<i>Tinospora cordifolia</i> (Giloy): Phytochemistry, Ethnopharmacology, Clinical Application and Conservation Strategies

Tinospora cordifolia (Giloy) is a medicinal plant used in folk and Ayurvedic medicines throughout India since ancient times. All the parts of the plant are immensely useful due to the presence of different compounds of pharmaceutical importance belonging to various groups as alkaloids, diterpenoid lactones, glycosides, steroids, sesquiterpenoid, and phenolics. These compounds possess pharmacological properties, which make it anti-diabetic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, hepato-protective, and immuno-modulatory. However, due to the increasing population, there is an inadequate supply of drugs. Therefore, this review focuses on phytochemistry, ethnopharmacology, clinical application and its conservation strategies so that the plant can be conserved for future generations and utilized as alternative medicine as well as to design various pharmacologically important drugs.

Using Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia) as an eco-friendly feed supplement in human and poultry nutrition

Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia) is a well-recognized and widely distributed traditional plant that is used successfully in Indian Ayurveda medicine. T. cordifolia has shown many promising biological activities, such as antioxidative, antimicrobial, antihyperglycemic, anti-inflammatory, osteoprotective, hepatoprotective, antidiarrheal, and antistress effects. Guduchi is a rich source of protein and micronutrients, such as iron, zinc, copper, calcium, phosphorus, and manganese. It also contains many secondary plant metabolites, such as terpenes, alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, and glycosides. Based on previous studies in poultry, the supplementation levels of Guduchi range from 1 to 5 g/kg of diet (different sources, such as powder, extracts, roots, and leaves, have been used). It was suggested that this variation in supplementation levels depends on different factors, including the extraction method, the supplementation proposed, the method of supplementation (either in feed or drinking water), and the species and physiological status of the birds. Generally, dietary supplementation of poultry broilers with T. cordifolia yielded positive impacts on growth performance, body gains (increased by 4.8%), dressing percentage (increased by 7.1%), meat quality traits, and the shelf life of the meat. In addition, T. cordifolia exerted a palliative effect on the general health status of the birds through reducing live enzymes and plasma uric acids and enhancing the immune response, as indicated by the leukocyte count, hemagglutinin titer, interleukin activity, and mortality levels. Further investigations concluded that T. cordifolia showed strong antimicrobial effects against Escherichia coli and Salmonella enteritidis, with subsequent reductions in mortality. Moreover, T. cordifolia showed an ability to improve humoral and cell-mediated immunity against Newcastle disease, infectious anemia, gout, and aflatoxicosis. The current review discusses many beneficial properties of T. cordifolia, although the lack of pharmacological trials limits the use of this extract in poultry. Further research should be performed regarding the composition of the active compound, the possible mechanisms of action, and the effective doses to fully understand the activities and benefits of T. cordifolia as a growth performance improvement supplement.

Immunomodulatory Potential of Tinospora cordifolia and CpG ODN (TLR21 Agonist) against the Very Virulent, Infectious Bursal Disease Virus in SPF Chicks

Infectious bursal disease (IBD), caused by infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), is characterized by severe immunosuppression in young chicks of 3 to 6 week age group. Although vaccines are available to prevent IBD, outbreaks of disease are still noticed in the field among vaccinated flocks. Further, the birds surviving IBD become susceptible to secondary infections caused by various viral and bacterial agents. This study assessed the immunoprophylactic potential of Cytosine-guanosinedeoxynucleotide (CpG) oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) and Tinospora cordifolia stem aqueous extract in the specific pathogen free (SPF) chicks, experimentally infected with very virulent IBDV (vvIBDV). Both of these agents (CpG ODN and herbal extract) showed significant increase in the IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-1 levels in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) (p < 0.05) of chickens in the treatment groups following IBD infection.Further we found significant reduction in mortality rate in vvIBDV infected chicks treated with either, or in combination, compared with the birds of control group. Additionally, the adjuvant or immune enhancing potential of these two immunomodulatory agents with the commercially available IBDV vaccine was determined in chicks. The augmentation of vaccine response in terms of an enhanced antibody titer after vaccination, along with either or a combination of the two agents was noticed. The findings provide a way forward to counter the menace of IBDV in the poultry sector through use of these herbal or synthetic immunomodulatory supplements.

Efficacy of dietary supplementation of Tinospora cordifolia stem in prevention of sub-acute lactic acidosis in goats

Present study was undertaken to investigate the effect of dietary supplementation of T. cordifolia for reducing the risk of lactic acidosis in goats. Jamnapari goats (10) were divided into two groups. Goats of treatment group were fed T. cordifolia stem powder @ 2% in concentrate feed for 14 days. Control animals were fed equal amount of concentrate without T. cordifolia powder. After 14 days, goats were fed overnight soaked wheat grain @ 50 g/kg body weight to induce lactic acidosis. Samples of rumen fluid at 0 and 12 h, and blood were collected on 0, 12 and 36 h of feeding of grain. Lactic acid concentration, total protozoa count and pH of rumen fluid were used as markers to assess the ameliorative potential of T. cordifolia stem. Mean lactic acid concentration, protozoa count and ammonia nitrogen of rumen fluid of T. cordifolia supplemented goats were 3.47±0.33 mg/dL, 1820.70±121.36 × 103/mL, and 2.71±0.09 mg/dL respectively on 12 h of induction of lactic acidosis. The concentrations of these parameters in control goats were 5.01±0.22 mg/dL, 1168.96±75.36 × 103/mL and 1.77±0.40 mg/dL respectively. These findings provided evidence that supplementation of T. cordifolia stem can prevent lactic acidosis in goats.

Polysaccharide rich extract (PRE) from Tinospora cordifolia inhibits the intracellular survival of drug resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in macrophages by nitric oxide induction

Plethora of clinical and scientific information obtained in recent past has strengthened the idea that targeting critical constituents of host immune system may have beneficial outcomes for the treatment of tuberculosis. Macrophages being the primary host for Mycobacterium tuberculosis, offer an attractive target for modulation. Owing to their negligible toxicity, plant derived polysaccharides with the ability to activate macrophages; are suitable candidates for immunomodulation. In the present study, effects of polysaccharide rich extract (PRE) isolated from Tinospora cordifolia, on the survival of intracellular MTB strains and activation of macrophages were investigated. PRE treatment up regulated the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-12, and IFN-γ in RAW 264.7 cell line. Up regulation in the expression of NOS2 was observed along with concomitant enhanced nitric oxide production post PRE treatment. Surface expression of MHC-II and CD-86 was up regulated after PRE treatment. Above results suggested the classical activation of macrophages by PRE treatment. Furthermore, PRE treatment led to the activation of all the three classes of MAPK i.e p38, ERK and JNK MAPKs. Further, PRE up regulated the expression of cytokines, NOS-2, MHC-II and CD-86 in MTB infected macrophages. PRE treatment inhibited the intracellular survival of drug resistant MTB in macrophages which was partially attributed to PRE mediated NO induction. Thus our data demonstrate classical activation of macrophages by PRE treatment and killing of intracellular MTB by NO induction.

Humoral immune and adjuvant responses of mucosally-administered Tinospora cordifolia immunomodulatory protein in BALB/c mice

Background

In traditional medicine, guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia) is considered as an adaptogen with immunomodulatory prowess. A 25 kDa protein from guduchi stem has been characterized as an immunomodulatory protein (ImP).

Objectives

The aim of this study was to evaluate the intrinsic immunogenicity of guduchi ImP and adjuvant activity using ovalbumin (OVA) as antigen in BALB/c mice.

Materials and Methods

Mice were given guduchi ImP (30 and 60 μg) by intranasal administration to respective groups (n = 6) on days 1, 14 and thereafter weekly till day 42. Immunogenic response was monitored by serum IgG/IgA levels (days 14, 35 and 50). The adjuvant activity was measured by serum anti-OVA IgG/IgA responses to administration of 30 μg OVA with guduchi ImP. The effect of guduchi ImP on the spleen status was examined by splenic weight (day 50).

Results

Guduchi ImP administration displayed a significant increase in anti-guduchi ImP IgG (5–7 fold) and anti-guduchi ImP IgA (3–4 fold) on day 50 vs. control. Guduchi ImP showed a significant increase in anti-OVA IgG (6–7 fold) and anti-OVA IgA (4–5 fold) on day 50 vs. control. The splenic index of guduchi ImP group increased significantly in both the immune and adjuvant response groups; however, the splenic index in the adjuvant response group was markedly higher.

Conclusion

The results indicate that guduchi ImP is a strong immunogen by itself and enhances the immunogenicity of mucosally-administered antigen in BALB/c mice. Based on the results of this animal study, it appears that guduchi ImP shows a potential for future studies in humans.

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Evaluated the immune responses of guduchi immunomodulatory protein (ImP) in BALB/c mice.

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Guduchi ImP (30/60 μg) given intranasally on days 1, 14; thereafter, weekly till day 42.

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Increase in anti-guduchi ImP IgG (5–7 fold) and anti-guduchi ImP IgA (3–4 fold) on day 50.

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Increase in ovalbumin-specific IgG (6–7 fold) and IgA (4–5 fold) on day 50 vs. control.

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Splenic index of guduchi ImP group increased in the immune/adjuvant response groups.

Chemistry and Pharmacology of Tinospora cordifolia

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae) is an Ayurvedic medicinal plant distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent and China. The whole plant is used in folk and the Ayurvedic system of medicine alone and in combination with other plants. Due to its commercial importance, T. cordifolia has been of intense research interest for the last four decades with the isolation of diverse compounds such as alkaloids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, phenolics, steroids, aliphatic compounds and polysaccharides, along with the discovery of a wide spectrum of pharmacological properties like immunomodulation, anticancer, hepatoprotective and hypoglycemic. Although pharmacological activities of extracts and compounds of T. cordifolia have been studied both in vitro and in vivo, only few mechanisms of action have been explored and need further elaboration. In the present review, the pharmacological activities of compounds and different extracts of T. cordifolia are highlighted, along with those of the marketed products, showing the relevance of phytochemicals and the standardization of the marketed products for medicinal use. This compilation of the extensive literature of T. cordifolia here will be a referral point for clinical study and the development of standardized phytomedicines in healthcare.

Genus Tinospora: Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacology

The genus Tinospora includes 34 species, in which several herbs were used as traditional medicines by indigenous groups throughout the tropical and subtropical parts of Asia, Africa, and Australia. The extensive literature survey revealed Tinospora species to be a group of important medicinal plants used for the ethnomedical treatment of colds, headaches, pharyngitis, fever, diarrhea, oral ulcer, diabetes, digestive disorder, and rheumatoid arthritis. Indian ethnopharmacological data points to the therapeutic potential of the T. cordifolia for the treatment of diabetic conditions. While Tinospora species are confusing in individual ingredients and their mechanisms of action, the ethnopharmacological history of those plants indicated that they exhibit antidiabetic, antioxidation, antitumor, anti-inflammation, antimicrobial, antiosteoporosis, and immunostimulation activities. While the clinical applications in modern medicine are lacking convincing evidence and support, this review is aimed at summarizing the current knowledge of the traditional uses, phytochemistry, biological activities, and toxicities of the genus Tinospora to reveal its therapeutic potentials and gaps, offering opportunities for future researches.

G1-4A, a Polysaccharide from Tinospora cordifolia Inhibits the Survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by Modulating Host Immune Responses in TLR4 Dependent Manner

Rapid emergence of drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) is a major health concern and demands the development of novel adjunct immunotherapeutic agents capable of modulating the host immune responses in order to control the pathogen. In the present study, we sought to investigate the immunomodulatory effects of G1-4A, a polysaccharide derived from the Indian medicinal plant Tinospora cordifolia, in in-vitro and aerosol mouse models of MTB infection. G1-4A treatment of MTB infected RAW264.7 macrophages significantly induced the surface expression of MHC-II and CD-86 molecules, secretion of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-β, IL-6, IL-12, IFN-γ) and nitric oxide leading to reduced intracellular survival of both drug sensitive (H37Rv) as well as multi drug resistant strains (Beijing and LAM) of MTB, which was partially attributed to G1-4A induced NO production in TLR4-MyD88 dependent manner. Similarly, bacillary burden was significantly reduced in the lungs of MTB infected BALB/c mice treated with G1-4A, with simultaneous up-regulation of the expression of TNF-α, INF-γ and NOS2 in the mouse lung along with increased levels of Th1 cytokines like IFN-γ, IL-12 and decreased levels of Th2 cytokine like IL-4 in the serum. Furthermore, combination of G1-4A with Isoniazid (INH) exhibited better protection against MTB compared to that due to INH or G1-4A alone, suggesting its potential as adjunct therapy. Our results demonstrate that modulation of host immune responses by G1-4A might improve the therapeutic efficacy of existing anti-tubercular drugs and provide an attractive strategy for the development of alternative therapies to control tuberculosis.

Toll-like receptor 4-related immunostimulatory polysaccharides: Primary structure, activity relationships, and possible interaction models

Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 is an important polysaccharide receptor; however, the relationships between the structures and biological activities of TLR4 and polysaccharides remain unknown. Many recent findings have revealed the primary structure of TLR4/MD-2-related polysaccharides, and several three-dimensional structure models of polysaccharide-binding proteins have been reported; and these models provide insights into the mechanisms through which polysaccharides interact with TLR4. In this review, we first discuss the origins of polysaccharides related to TLR4, including polysaccharides from higher plants, fungi, bacteria, algae, and animals. We then briefly describe the glucosidic bond types of TLR4-related heteroglycans and homoglycans and describe the typical molecular weights of TLR4-related polysaccharides. The primary structures and activity relationships of polysaccharides with TLR4/MD-2 are also discussed. Finally, based on the existing interaction models of LPS with TLR4/MD-2 and linear polysaccharides with proteins, we provide insights into the possible interaction models of polysaccharide ligands with TLR4/MD-2. To our knowledge, this review is the first to summarize the primary structures and activity relationships of TLR4-related polysaccharides and the possible mechanisms of interaction for TLR4 and TLR4-related polysaccharides.

Involvement of the cytoplasmic cysteine-238 of CD40 in its up-regulation of CD23 expression and its enhancement of TLR4-triggered responses

CD40, a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, plays a key role in both adaptive and innate immunity. Engagement of CD40 with its natural trimeric ligand or with cross-linked antibodies results in disulfide-linked CD40 (dl-CD40) homodimer formation, a process mediated by the cysteine-238 residues of the cytoplasmic tail of CD40. The present study was designed to elucidate the biological relevance of cysteine-238-mediated dl-CD40 homodimers to the expression of CD23 on B cells and to investigate its possible involvement in the innate response. Our results indicate that cysteine-238-mediated dl-CD40 homodimerization is required for CD40-induced activation of PI3-kinase/Akt signaling and the subsequent CD23 expression, as inhibition of dl-CD40 homodimer formation through a point mutation-approach specifically impairs these responses. Interestingly, cysteine-238-mediated dl-CD40 homodimers are also shown to play a crucial role in Toll-like receptor 4-induced CD23 expression, further validating the importance of this system in bridging innate and adaptive immune responses. This process also necessitates the activation of the PI3-kinase/Akt cascade. Thus, our results highlight new roles for CD40 and cysteine-238-mediated CD40 homodimers in cell biology and identify a potential new target for therapeutic strategies against CD40-associated chronic inflammatory diseases.

Aqueous ethanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia as a potential candidate for differentiation based therapy of glioblastomas

Glioblastomas are the most aggressive primary brain tumors and their heterogeneity and complexity often renders them non responsive to various conventional treatments. Search for herbal products having potential anti-cancer activity is an active area of research in the Indian traditional system of medicine i.e., Ayurveda. Tinospora cordifolia, also named as ‘heavenly elixir’ is used in various ayurvedic decoctions as panacea to treat several body ailments. The current study investigated the anti-brain cancer potential of 50% ethanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia (TCE) using C6 glioma cells. TCE significantly reduced cell proliferation in dose-dependent manner and induced differentiation in C6 glioma cells, resulting in astrocyte-like morphology as indicated by phase contrast images, GFAP expression and process outgrowth data of TCE treated cells which exhibited higher number and longer processes than untreated cells. Reduced proliferation of cells was accompanied by enhanced expression of senescence marker, mortalin and its translocation from perinuclear to pancytoplasmic spaces. Further, TCE showed anti-migratory and anti-invasive potential as depicted by wound scratch assay and reduced expression of plasticity markers NCAM and PSA-NCAM along with MMP-2 and 9. On analysis of the cell cycle and apoptotic markers, TCE treatment was seen to arrest the C6 cells in G0/G1 and G2/M phase, suppressing expression of G1/S phase specific protein cyclin D1 and anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-xL, thus supporting its anti-proliferative and apoptosis inducing potential. Present study provides the first evidence for the presence of anti-proliferative, differentiation-inducing and anti-migratory/anti-metastatic potential of TCE in glioma cells and possible signaling pathways involved in its mode of action. Our primary data suggests that TCE and its active components may prove to be promising phytotherapeutic interventions in gliobalstoma multiformae. 

Immunomodulatory activity of polysaccharides isolated from Clerodendrum splendens: beneficial effects in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

BACKGROUND

Extracts of leaves from Clerodendrum have been used for centuries to treat a variety of medicinal problems in tropical Africa. However, little is known about the high-molecular weight active components conferring therapeutic properties to these extracts.

METHODS

Polysaccharides from the leaves of Clerodendrum splendens were extracted and fractionated by ion exchange and size-exclusion chromatography. Molecular weight determination, sugar analysis, degree of methyl esterification, and other chemical characterization of the fractions were performed. Immunomodulatory activity of the fractions was evaluated by determining their ability to induce monocyte/macrophage nitric oxide (NO), cytokine production, and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) was induced in C57BL/6 mice, and severity of EAE was monitored in mice treated with intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of the most active polysaccharide fraction. Lymph nodes (LN) and spleen were harvested, and levels of cytokines in supernatants from LN cells and splenocytes challenged with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide were determined.

RESULTS

Fractions containing type II arabinogalactan had potent immunomodulatory activity. Specifically, the high-molecular weight sub-fraction CSP-AU1 (average of 38.5 kDa) induced NO and cytokine [interleukin (IL)-1α, -1β, -6, -10, tumor necrosis factor (TNF; designated previously as TNF-α), and granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF)] production by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and monocyte/macrophages. CSP-AU1-induced secretion of TNF was prevented by Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) antagonist LPS-RS, indicating a role for TLR4 signaling. Treatment with CSP-AU1 also induced phosphorylation of a number of MAPKs in human PBMC and activated AP-1/NF-κB. In vivo treatment of mice with CSP-AU1 and CSP-NU1 resulted in increased serum IL-6, IL-10, TNF, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α/CCL3, and MIP-1β/CCL4. CSP-AU1 treatment of mice with EAE (50 mg/kg, i.p., daily, 13 days) resulted in significantly reduced disease severity in this experimental model of multiple sclerosis. Levels of IL-13, TNF, interferon (IFN)-γ, IL-17, and GM-CSF were also significantly decreased, whereas transforming growth factor (TGF)-β was increased in LN cells from CSP-AU1-treated EAE mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Polysaccharide CSP-AU1 is a potent natural innate immunomodulator with a broad spectrum of agonist activity in vitro and immunosupressive properties after chronic administration in vivo.

Tinospora cordifolia: One plant, many roles

Natural products with medicinal value are gradually gaining importance in clinical research due to their well-known property of no side effects as compared to drugs. Tinospora cordifolia commonly named as "Guduchi" is known for its immense application in the treatment of various diseases in the traditional ayurvedic literature. Recently the discovery of active components from the plant and their biological function in disease control has led to active interest in the plant across the globe. Our present study in this review encompasses (i) the genetic diversity of the plant and (ii) active components isolated from the plant and their biological role in disease targeting. The future scope of the review remains in exploiting the biochemical and signaling pathways affected by the compounds isolated from Tinospora so as to enable new and effective formulation in disease eradication.

Immunomodulatory and hemagglutinating activities of acidic polysaccharides isolated from Combretum racemosum

Extracts of leaves of different species of the genus Combretum have been used historically to treat a variety of medicinal problems. However, little is known about the active components conferring therapeutic properties to these extracts. In the present studies, we evaluated biochemical properties and immunomodulatory activity of polysaccharides isolated from the leaves of Combretum racemosum. Water-soluble polysaccharides from leaves of C. racemosum were extracted and fractionated by DEAE-cellulose and Diaion HP-20 to obtain a Diaion-bound fraction, designated Combretum polysaccharide-acidic bound or CP-AB, which was eluted with methanol, and an unbound fraction, designated as CP-AU. Molecular weight determination, sugar analysis, and other physical and chemical characterization of the fractions were performed. Fraction CP-AU (mol. weight 5.0 kDa) contained type II arabinogalactan and had potent immunomodulatory activity, inducing the production of interleukin (IL)-1β, -6, -10, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and MonoMac-6 monocytic cells. Likewise, intraperitoneal administration of CP-AU increased in vivo serum levels of IL-6 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) in mice. CP-AU-induced secretion of TNF-α in PBMC was prevented by Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) antagonist LPS-RS. Treatment with CP-AU induced phosphorylation of Akt2, Akt3, GSK-3β, HSP27, mTOR, and all p38 MAPK isoforms (α, β, δ, and γ), as well as stimulation of AP-1/NF-κB transcriptional activity. In addition, CP-AU effectively agglutinated erythrocytes from several species, including human, mouse, and rabbit. In contrast, fraction CP-AB was inactive in all biological tests, including cytokine production and hemagglutination. These data suggest that at least part of the beneficial therapeutic effects reported for the water extracts of leaves from C. racemosum are due to modulation of leukocyte functions.

Immunostimulatory properties of the major protein from the stem of the Ayurvedic medicinal herb, guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia), a widely used plant in folk and Ayurvedic systems of medicine is well known for its immunomodulatory activity; however, the presence of an immunomodulatory protein (ImP) in guduchi has not been investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Guduchi ImP was purified from dry stem powder extract by anion-exchange chromatography on Q-Sepharose. Characterization of guduchi ImP was performed by SDS-PAGE, periodic acid-Schiff staining, HPLC, and immunochemical analyses. Immunostimulatory activity was assessed by lymphocyte proliferation and macrophage activation assays. Fresh guduchi stem/leaf, guduchi satwa and guduchi capsules were also analyzed for the presence of guduchi ImP.

RESULTS

Guduchi ImP was purified to homogeneity from dry stem powder extract (~150 mg protein per 100 g guduchi stem powder) as a single chain acidic protein (25 kDa) without glycans; it was noticeably absent in guduchi leaf. Guduchi satwa and guduchi capsule preparations also lacked this protein. Guduchi ImP showed ~3-fold mitogenic activity compared to untreated murine splenocytes in the 1-10 μg/mL concentration range; 5-7-fold increase in mitogenic activity was seen in the case of murine thymocytes vs. control. The purified protein also induced nitric oxide production from macrophages present in isolated murine peritoneal exudates cells. Guduchi ImP displays enhanced phagocytosis of yeast cells by macrophages. Guduchi ImP does not possess hemagglutination activity (towards rabbit and human erythrocytes of all blood groups) indicating that the immunomodulatory protein is not a lectin.

CONCLUSIONS

The confirmation of an immunomodulatory protein in guduchi stem showing lymphoproliferative and macrophage-activating properties reinforces the rationale of the use of guduchi preparations in several Ayurvedic medicines for immunomodulation. To our knowledge, this is the first report of an immunomodulatory protein isolated from guduchi.

Branched α-(1,4) glucans from Lentinula edodes (L10) in combination with radiation enhance cytotoxic effect on human lung adenocarcinoma through the Toll-like receptor 4 mediated induction of THP-1 differentiation/activation

This work investigated the role of structure in the binding of polysaccharides from 10 regionally different strains of Lentinula edodes to Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) on monocytes (THP-1) and the potential effect of this interaction on tumor cell viability. Principal component analysis and multiple linear regression identified arabinose, glucose 1 → 4 linkage, and molecular weights about 2700 and 534 kDa as the significant determinant factors associated with TLR-4 binding activity. The branched α-(1,4)-glucan (L10) had the strongest ability to bind to TLR-4 and induce THP-1 cell differentiation. L10 induction of the THP-1 cell differentiation, superoxide production, and cytokine production followed the TLR-4/MyD88/IKK/NFκB pathway. Coculture of irradiated human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells with L10-activated THP-1 cells resulted in significantly decreased percentage of viable A549 cells from 66 to 37% (p = 0.018), increased levels of superoxide, interleukin-8, and RANTES, and decreased levels of angiogenin and vascular endothelial growth factor. The results indicate that L10-activated monocytes have the potential to boost the antitumor immune response and antitumor activity of radiotherapy.

Beyond reverse pharmacology: Mechanism-based screening of Ayurvedic drugs

This paper reviews the pharmacology of Indian medicinal plants, starting with the historical background of European work on the subject beginning as early as the 17th century, and tracing its history through the work of Sen and Bose in the 1930‘s, and Vakhil’s historic 1949 paper on Sarpaghanda. The often crucial role of patient feedback in early discoveries is highlighted, as is the time lag between proof of pharmacological action and identification of the active principle, and subsequent elucidation of mechanism of action. In the case of Indian plants in the 20th century this process sometimes took almost 50 years. Reserpine and its mechanisms are given in detail, and its current relevance to public health discussed. The foundation of present day methods of pharmacology is briefly presented so the complexity of methods used to identify properties of Ayurveda derived drugs like forskolin and baicalein, and their bioavailability, may be better appreciated. Ayurveda derived anti-oxidants and their levels of action, immuno-modulators, particularly with respect to the NF-kB pathway and its implications for cancer control, are all considered. The example of curcumin derived from turmeric is explained in more detail, because of its role in cancer prevention. Finally, the paper emphasizes the importance of Ayurveda’s concepts of rasayana as a form of dietary chemo-prevention; the significance of ahar, diet, in Ayurveda’s aspiration to prevent disease and restore health thus becomes clear. Understood in this light, Ayurveda may transcend pharmacology as a treatment paradigm.

Plumbagin inhibits proliferative and inflammatory responses of T cells independent of ROS generation but by modulating intracellular thiols

Plumbagin inhibited activation, proliferation, cytokine production, and graft-versus-host disease in lymphocytes and inhibited growth of tumor cells by suppressing nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB). Plumbagin was also shown to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in tumor cells via an unknown mechanism. Present report describes a novel role of cellular redox in modulation of immune responses in normal lymphocytes by plumbagin. Plumbagin depleted glutathione (GSH) levels that led to increase in ROS generation. The decrease in GSH levels was due to direct reaction of plumbagin with GSH as evinced by mass spectrometric and HPLC analysis. Further, addition of plumbagin to cells resulted in decrease in free thiol groups on proteins and increase in glutathionylation of proteins. The suppression of mitogen-induced T-cell proliferation and cytokine (IL-2/IL-4/IL-6/IFN-gamma) production by plumbagin was abrogated by thiol antioxidants but not by non-thiol antioxidants confirming that thiols but not ROS play an important role in biological activity of plumbagin. Plumbagin also abrogated mitogen-induced phosphorylation of ERK, IKK, and degradation of IkappaB-alpha. However, it did not affect phosphorylation of P38, JNK, and AKT. Our results for the first time show that antiproliferative effects of plumbagin are mediated by modulation of cellular redox. These results provide a rationale for application of thiol-depleting agents as anti-inflammatory drugs.

Poly(anhydride) nanoparticles act as active Th1 adjuvants through Toll-like receptor exploitation

The mechanisms that underlie the potent Th1-adjuvant capacity of poly(methyl vinyl ether-co-maleic anhydride) nanoparticles (NPs) were investigated. Traditionally, polymer NPs have been considered delivery systems that promote a closer interaction between antigen and antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Our results revealed that poly(anhydride) NPs also act as agonists of various Toll-like receptors (TLRs) (TLR2, -4, and -5), triggering a Th1-profile cytokine release (gamma interferon [IFN-gamma], 478 pg/ml versus 39.6 pg/ml from negative control; interleukin-12 [IL-12], 40 pg/ml versus 7.2 pg/ml from negative control) and, after incubation with dendritic cells, inducing a 2.5- to 3.5-fold increase of CD54 and CD86 costimulatory molecule expression. Furthermore, in vivo studies suggest that NPs actively elicit a CD8(+) T-cell response. Immunization with empty NPs resulted in a significant delay in the mean survival date (from day 7 until day 23 postchallenge) and a protection level of 30% after challenge against a lethal dose of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis. Taken together, our results provide a better understanding of how NPs act as active Th1 adjuvants in immunoprophylaxis and immunotherapy through TLR exploitation.

Spatial distribution, kinetics, signaling and cytokine production during homeostasis driven proliferation of CD4+ T cells

During recovery from lymphopenia, the naïve T-cells undergo homeostasis driven proliferation (HDP) and acquire a memory phenotype. The HDP of T-cells requires signals derived from T-cell-receptor, p56lck kinase, IL-7R and IL-15R. However, the role of other signaling molecules during HDP of CD4+ T-cells remains speculative. The differentiation of naïve T-cells into Th1/Th2/Th17 or Treg populations during HDP is not well understood. Present report describes the spatial and signaling characteristics of HDP of CD4+ T-cells and their cytokine profiles. The HDP of CD4+ T-cells was found to occur only in specific areas (T-cell zones) of secondary lymphoid organs of lymphopenic mice. The inhibitors of MEK and PKC and their combination with inhibitors of PI3kinase and mTOR suppressed mitogen induced T-cell proliferation without affecting their HDP. The CD4+ T-cells taken from reconstituted lymphopenic mice showed activation of proteins involved in NF-kappaB pathway, significantly higher production of pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6, and lower production of IL-4 as compared to T-cells from normal mice. Plumbagin, a known NF-kappaB blocker inhibited survival as well as HDP of CD4+ T-cells and IL-6 production in activated T-cells. Our results demonstrate the essential role of NF-kappaB during HDP of T-cells.