Rumination prospectively predicts executive functioning impairments in adolescents

Attitudes, Emotions, and Emotion Regulation as Underlying and In-The-Moment Predictors of Men's Intentions to Perpetrate Sexual Assault: An Application of the I3 Model

Sexual assault is a significant problem among young men, and several underlying and in-the-moment factors are associated with this behavior. However, research has not examined how underlying factors may influence men's in-the-moment use of emotion regulation (ER) strategies, emotional experience during sexual situations, or intentions to perpetrate sexual assault. 187 young, single men from the United States who had sex with a woman in the past year completed questionnaires, projected themselves into hypothetical sexual scenarios, and indicated how they would behave when their partner withdrew consent during these scenarios. Participants were grouped into profiles of ER strategy use, which was used as part of a model predicting sexual assault perpetration. Specifically, men with greater hostility toward women were especially likely to use a "low acting with awareness, low resignation" profile, which was associated with greater anger, impulsivity, and intentions to perpetrate. This could be attributed to the increased cognitive load, increased rumination on their partner's refusal, or increased drive to obtain sex associated with this profile. Future research should replicate these results in a more diverse sample, and examine the efficacy of interventions redirecting participants away from a "low acting with awareness, low resignation" profile on sexual assault prevention.

Psychological mechanisms of English academic stress and academic burnout: the mediating role of rumination and moderating effect of neuroticism

Introduction

Academic stress is a significant and prevalent phenomenon among college students. According to the Demands-Resources Model, when individuals are unable to cope with stress that exceeds their capacity, burnout may occur. Although English courses hold a significant position in university education, there has been limited research on the mechanisms linking English academic stress to English academic burnout.

Methods

This study recruited 1,130 undergraduate students taking English courses. Participants completed online questionnaires assessing English academic stress, rumination, English academic burnout, and neuroticism traits. A moderated mediation model was constructed to examine the relationship among these variables.

Results

The results indicate that (1) Rumination serves as a mediator in the relationship between English academic stress and burnout; (2) neuroticism significantly moderates the pathway between English academic stress and rumination. Specifically, students with high neuroticism tendencies are more prone to developing rumination when faced with high levels of English academic stress.

Conclusion

These findings offer valuable insights into the psychological mechanisms underlying the association between English learning stress and academic burnout. They emphasize the importance of addressing rumination as a mediator and considering individuals' levels of neuroticism in interventions aimed at preventing and alleviating academic burnout among university students.

Rumination-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Reduces Rumination and Targeted Cross-network Connectivity in Youth With a History of Depression: Replication in a Preregistered Randomized Clinical Trial

Background

Rumination-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (RF-CBT) is designed to reduce depressive rumination or the habitual tendency to dwell on experiences in a repetitive, negative, passive, and global manner. RF-CBT uses functional analysis, experiential exercises, and repeated practice to identify and change the ruminative habit. This preregistered randomized clinical trial (NCT03859297, R61) is a preregistered replication of initial work. We hypothesized a concurrent reduction of both self-reported rumination and cross-network connectivity between the left posterior cingulate cortex and right inferior frontal and inferior temporal gyri.

Methods

Seventy-six youths with a history of depression and elevated rumination were randomized to 10 to 14 sessions of RF-CBT (n = 39; 34 completers) or treatment as usual (n = 37; 28 completers). Intent-to-treat analyses assessed pre-post change in rumination response scale and in functional connectivity assessed using two 5 minute, 12 second runs of resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging.

Results

We replicated previous findings: a significant reduction in rumination response scale and a reduction in left posterior cingulate cortex to right inferior frontal gyrus/inferior temporal gyrus connectivity in participants who received RF-CBT compared with those who received treatment as usual. Reductions were large (z change = 0.84; 0.73, respectively [ps < .05]).

Conclusions

This adolescent clinical trial further demonstrates that depressive rumination is a brain-based mechanism that is modifiable via RF-CBT. Here, we replicated that RF-CBT reduces cross-network connectivity, a possible mechanism by which rumination becomes less frequent, intense, and automatic. This National Institute of Mental Health-funded fast-fail study continues to the R33 phase during which treatment-specific effects of RF-CBT will be compared with relaxation therapy.

Reducing the stickiness of negative memory retrieval through positive memory training in adolescents

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Individuals at risk for depression exhibit a decreased ability to disengage from negative memory retrieval during times of mental distress, partly because they have difficulty retrieving positive memories to repair sad mood. In this study, we tested whether this persistent tendency for negative memory retrieval could be reduced in adolescents through repeated practice to retrieve positive autobiographical memories, namely Positive Memory Specificity Training (PMST). Further, we examined the impact of this intervention on secondary outcomes, including depressive symptoms, emotion regulation strategies, and fear of positive emotions.

METHODS

Adolescents (n = 68) between 16 and 18 years old were randomly allocated to either PMST or bogus control training. Persistent negative memory retrieval was assessed following the training using a behavioral decision-making task (Emotional Reversal Learning Task). Additionally, participants completed self-report measurements (e.g., depressive symptoms) before and two weeks after the training.

RESULTS

We found preliminary supportive evidence for a significant training effect such that adolescents following PMST showed less persistence in negative memory retrieval compared to those in the control group. Only for anhedonia a significant training effect was found, indicating a possible adverse effect of the intervention.

LIMITATIONS

The primary outcome was assessed only at post-intervention to prevent a potential learning effect due to repeated measurements. We cannot exclude the possibility that baseline individual differences contaminated our results. To examine possible adverse effects of PMST, larger sample are needed.

CONCLUSIONS

PMST may help to reduce persistent negative memory retrieval in adolescents. Recommendations for future studies are addressed.

Profiles of Emotion Regulation Strategies and Intentions to Perpetrate Sexual Assault

Objective

Sexual assault perpetration remains prevalent among young men, and emotion regulation (ER) is a prominent contributor to sexual assault perpetration among young men experiencing anger or sexual arousal. However, little is known about the specific ER strategies which men use when perpetrating. Thus, the present study used latent profile analysis to group men into profiles based on their in-the-moment use of several ER strategies during two, hypothetical sexual situations: one which induced anger and another which induced sexual arousal.

Method

In total, 187 single, young, heterosexually active men from the United States provided responses to an online study, in which they projected themselves into two hypothetical sexual scenarios and answered questions regarding their use of ER strategies and intentions to perpetrate sexual assault after their hypothetical partner indicated she did not consent.

Results

Participants were grouped into four profiles based on their use of different ER strategies. Men in the "high acting with awareness, low resignation" profile reported lower perpetration intentions than men in the "low acting with awareness" or "moderate all strategies" profiles following both scenarios.

Conclusions

Men in the "high acting with awareness, low resignation" profile may have reported lower perpetration intentions because of the reduced cognitive load associated with acting with awareness relative to other ER strategies, and the increased self-efficacy to avoid sexual aggression associated with low resignation. Thus, future research should replicate the results with this profile in other contexts to determine its feasibility and effectiveness for reducing sexual assault in future interventions.

Is rumination associated with psychological distress after a cancer diagnosis? A systematic review

Objective: The aim of this work was to review evidence on the association between psychological rumination and distress in those diagnosed with cancer. Methods: Six databases were searched for studies exploring rumination alongside overall assessments of psychological distress, depression, anxiety, or stress. Results: Sixteen studies were identified. Rumination was associated with distress cross-sectionally and longitudinally. However, once baseline depression was controlled for, the association was no longer seen. The emotional valence of ruminative thoughts and the style in which they were processed, rather than their topic, was associated with distress. Brooding and intrusive rumination were associated with increased distress, deliberate rumination had no association, and reflection/instrumentality had mixed findings. Conclusions: This review highlights that it is not necessarily the topic of content, but the style and valence of rumination that is important when considering its association with distress. The style of rumination should be the target of clinical intervention, including brooding and intrusion.

Longitudinal relations between impaired executive function and symptoms of psychiatric disorders in childhood

BACKGROUND

Malfunctioning of executive functions correlates with psychopathology in children. However, the directionality, the extent to which the relation varies for various disorders, and whether prospective relations afford causal interpretations are not known.

METHODS

A community sample of Norwegian children (n = 874) was studied biennially from the age of 6 to 14 years. Executive functions were assessed using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function Teacher-report and symptoms of psychopathology were assessed using the Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (age 6; parents) and Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (ages 8-14; children and parents). Prospective reciprocal relations were examined using a random intercept cross-lagged panel model that adjusts for all unobserved time-invariant confounders.

RESULTS

Even when time-invariant confounders were accounted for, reduced executive functions predicted increased symptoms of depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and conduct disorder (CD) 2 years later, even when previous changes in these symptoms were adjusted for. The level of prediction (B = .83, 95% CI [.37, 1.3]) was not different for different disorders or ages. Conversely, reduced executive functions were predicted by increased symptoms of all disorders (B = .01, 95% CI [.01, .02]).

CONCLUSIONS

Reduced executive functioning may be involved in the etiology of depression, anxiety, ADHD, and ODD/CD to an equal extent. Moreover, increased depression, anxiety, ADHD, and ODD/CD may negatively impact executive functioning.

Exploring the longitudinal relationship between anger rumination and peer victimization when controlling for sadness rumination

Anger rumination is an unconstructive cognitive-emotion regulation strategy that bears negative adjustment outcomes in youth. Anger rumination is mostly examined as an outcome of prior peer victimization. Unidirectional links between maladaptive anger regulation and later peer difficulties have also been reported. Surprisingly, whether anger rumination and peer victimization are mutually related and reinforcing is poorly explored. The present study tested reciprocal associations between anger rumination and peer victimization in 367 5th graders (Mage = 10.53, SE = 0.16; 54.2% girls). To increase precision of findings sadness rumination was treated as a confounder. Self-reported data were obtained at two times, spaced 1 year. Cross-lagged analyses showed that peer victimization predicted increases in anger rumination but not vice versa, after controlling for sadness rumination. Victimized boys were found to be more at risk for endorsing anger rumination over time as compared to victimized girls. Directions for future research and implications for practice are discussed.

Current Evidence and Theories in Understanding the Relationship between Cognition and Depression in Childhood and Adolescence: A Narrative Review

The present narrative review has covered the current evidence regarding the role of cognitive impairments during the early phase of major depressive disorder (MDD), attempting to describe the cognitive features in childhood, adolescence and in at-risk individuals. These issues were analyzed considering the trait, scar and state hypotheses of MDD by examining the cold and hot dimensions, the latter explained in relation to the current psychological theoretical models of MDD. This search was performed on several electronic databases up to August 2022. Although the present review is the first to have analyzed both cold and hot cognitive impairments considering the trait, scar and state hypotheses, we found that current evidence did not allow to exclusively confirm the validity of one specific hypothesis since several equivocal and discordant results have been proposed in childhood and adolescence samples. Further studies are needed to better characterize possible cognitive dysfunctions assessing more systematically the impairments of cold, hot and social cognition domains and their possible interaction in a developmental perspective. An increased knowledge on these topics will improve the definition of clinical endophenotypes of enhanced risk to progression to MDD and, to hypothesize preventive and therapeutic strategies to reduce negative influences on psychosocial functioning and well-being.

Neuroplasticity, the Prefrontal Cortex, and Psychopathology-Related Deviations in Cognitive Control

A basic survival need is the ability to respond to, and persevere in the midst of, experiential challenges. Mechanisms of neuroplasticity permit this responsivity via functional adaptations (flexibility), as well as more substantial structural modifications following chronic stress or injury. This review focuses on prefrontally based flexibility, expressed throughout large-scale neuronal networks through the actions of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters and neuromodulators. With substance use disorders and stress-related internalizing disorders as exemplars, we review human behavioral and neuroimaging data, considering whether executive control, particularly cognitive flexibility, is impaired premorbidly, enduringly compromised with illness progression, or both. We conclude that deviations in control processes are consistently expressed in the context of active illness but operate through different mechanisms and with distinct longitudinal patterns in externalizing versus internalizing conditions.

Rumination and "hot" executive function of middle school students during the COVID-19 pandemic: A moderated mediation model of depression and mindfulness

BACKGROUND

The outbreak of COVID-19 had a widely negative effect on adolescents' academics, stress, and mental health. At a critical period of cortical development, adolescents' cognition levels are highly developed, while the ability of emotion control is not developed at the same pace. Faced with negative emotions such as stress and social loneliness caused by COVID-19, adolescents' "hot" executive function encounters severer emotional regulation challenges than ever before.

OBJECTIVE

The present study established a moderated mediation model to investigate the impact of rumination on "hot" execution function among Chinese middle school students during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the specific role of depression and mindfulness in the association.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted on 650 students recruited from a province in central China. The participants completed questionnaires and experiment between July 2021 and August 2021. Rumination Responses Scales, Self-rating Depression Scale, and Mindful Attention Awareness Scale were used to measure the level of rumination, depression, and mindfulness. The reaction time and accuracy of the emotional conflict experiment were recorded to reflect the "hot" executive function.

RESULTS

The results of the moderated mediation model indicated that rumination of middle school students significantly and positively predicted depression in adolescents (β = 0.26, p < 0.001). Meanwhile, the indirect effect of depression on the relationship between rumination and "hot" executive function was significant; depression partially mediated this relationship (word-face congruent condition: β = -0.09, p < 0.01; word-face incongruent condition: β = -0.07, p < 0.05). Furthermore, mindfulness buffered the association between rumination and depression, according to moderated mediation analysis (β = -0.11, p < 0.001). For adolescents with low levels of mindfulness, the relationship was substantially stronger.

CONCLUSION

In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, middle school students' rumination would lead to depression, which can negatively impact their "hot" executive function. Besides, mindfulness could resist the adverse effect of rumination on depression. The educators should pay more attention to students' mental health, provide targeted strategies that boost mindfulness to promote their cognitive flexibility, and thus protect the normal development of their executive function during crisis events.

Benefits and Costs of Happy Entrepreneurs: The Dual Effect of Entrepreneurial Identity on Entrepreneurs' Subjective Well-Being

Entrepreneurship research generally focuses more on the entrepreneurial outcomes of entrepreneurs and less on their entrepreneurial process. To a certain extent, well-being reflects how tired entrepreneurs are during entrepreneurship. Based on conservation of resources theory, this study proposes a double-edged sword model of the effect of entrepreneurial identity on subjective well-being, using the two-dimensional structure of work rumination as a mediator. This study also concentrates on the moderating role of entrepreneurial mindfulness. Multiple hierarchical regression methods are used to analyze and test 882 valid samples. Results suggest that the effect of entrepreneurial identity produces distinctly different outcomes. On the one hand, entrepreneurial identity induces entrepreneurs' work-related affective rumination to reduce their subjective well-being through the path of resource depletion. On the other hand, entrepreneurial identity stimulates entrepreneurs' contemplation on work-related problem-solving pondering to enhance their subjective well-being through the path of resource acquisition. In the path of resource depletion, work-related affective rumination produces a “suppressing effect” between an entrepreneur's identity and entrepreneurial subjective well-being. In addition, entrepreneurial mindfulness weakens the resource depletion path. Entrepreneurial mindfulness negatively moderates the relationship between entrepreneurial identity and work-related affective rumination. Entrepreneurial mindfulness also does not strengthen the resource acquisition path. Mindfulness does not positively moderate the relationship between entrepreneurial identity and work-related problem-solving pondering. The findings further extend the research on the influence of entrepreneurial identity on subjective well-being. They also reveal the mechanisms and boundary conditions of the effect of entrepreneurial identity on subjective well-being.

Attention, rumination and depression in youth with negative inferential styles: A prospective study

BACKGROUND

Negative inferential style, rumination and attention are cognitive vulnerabilities implicated in depression that first emerge in childhood and adolescence.

METHODS

The current study used a prospective longitudinal design to examine whether rumination mediates the relationship between attention (selective attention, sustained attention, attentional switching, and divided attention) and depression (depressive symptoms and depressive episode onset) conditional on negative inferential style. A diverse community sample of adolescents (n = 364) completed semi-structured diagnostic interviews, behavioral measures of attention, and self-report measures of rumination, negative inferential style, and depression annually for three consecutive years.

RESULTS

Rumination mediated the relationship between strong sustained attention and both depressive symptoms and disorder onset conditional on negative inferential style. Specifically, adolescents high in negative inferential style with strong sustained attention were more likely to experience increased subsequent rumination that, in turn, led to increased depressive symptoms and episode onset. In contrast to study hypotheses, there were no significant effects for models that included selective attention, attentional switching, or divided attention.

LIMITATIONS

Significant effects were relatively small, and therefore, should be interpreted with caution and require replication. We were unable to control for intelligence, and as a result, stronger sustained attention may be indicative of higher intelligence.

CONCLUSIONS

Stronger sustained attention in early adolescence compared to peers may facilitate rumination on negative self-evaluation and subsequent depression. Use of non-emotion-relevant stimuli to assess attention may account for the lack of findings for selective attention, attentional switching, or divided attention. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

The relationship between executive functioning and repetitive negative thinking in youth: A systematic review of the literature

Repetitive negative thinking (RNT) and executive functioning (EF) deficits are each characteristic of many forms of youth psychopathology. Extensive work has examined the relationship between rumination, a form of RNT, and EF in adults. However, less is known about the relationship between RNT more broadly and EF in youth, for whom these constructs are developing and emerging. Here, we systematically and qualitatively reviewed 27 studies on the associations between EF (e.g., shifting, inhibition, working memory) and RNT (e.g., rumination, worry, obsessions) in youth. All forms of RNT were more commonly positively associated with questionnaire-reported EF problems in daily life, most frequently in the domain of shifting. Task-based assessments of EF were less consistently associated with RNT in youth, with no strong pattern of presence vs. absence of associations. Further, limited longitudinal work has been conducted on this topic to date. This review integrates initial work with regard to RNT and EF deficits in a still-developing population, and discusses clear future need for longitudinal, multi-method assessments of the relationship between RNT and EF subtypes in youth.

Stuck on the Train of Ruminative Thoughts: The Effect of Aggressive Fantasy on Subjective Well-Being

Previous studies have focused almost exclusively on identifying the antecedents of aggression and violence; as such, there are virtually no experimental data about the psychological consequences of fantasizing aggressive and violent actions. The present experiment aimed to fill this significant informational void in the literature by testing whether aggressive fantasy would influence people's rumination tendency and subjective well-being. We hypothesized that aggressive fantasy would make people more likely to ruminate, which would thereby lower their subjective well-being. To test this prediction, we recruited a sample of participants, who were adults in the United States (overall valid N = 113; 39 men; mean age = 36.27, SD = 11.27), and they were randomly assigned to either the aggressive fantasy condition or the control condition. At the beginning of the experiment, participants were asked to think of a person they despised and describe the characteristics of the despised person. Next, participants in the aggressive fantasy condition fantasized aggressive and violent actions toward the despised target, while participants in the control condition fantasized a control experience. Finally, their state rumination and subjective well-being were assessed. The results showed that, relative to participants who did not fantasize aggression, those who engaged in aggressive fantasy reported higher levels of rumination and lower levels of subjective well-being. Further analysis showed that enhanced rumination significantly mediated the effect of aggressive fantasy on subjective well-being. The present findings contribute to the literature by providing new insights into the psychological consequences of aggressive and violent responses and the underlying mechanism.

Effects of a Digital Mental Health Program on Perceived Stress in Adolescents Aged 13-17 Years: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Stress is an important transdiagnostic risk factor in adolescence and predicts a host of physical and psychological problems in adolescence and adulthood. Adolescence is also a developmental stage in which people may be more sensitive or reactive to stress. Indeed, research has shown that adolescents report high levels of stress, particularly when enrolled in school. However, adolescents report engaging in few, if any, stress management techniques. Consequently, the development of effective programs to help address adolescent stress is particularly important. To date, most stress management programs for adolescents are delivered within schools, and the evidence for such programs is mixed. Furthermore, most of these programs rely on traditional stress management techniques rather than incorporating methods to address the underlying negative cognitive processes, such as rumination, that may contribute to or exacerbate the effects of perceived stress.

Objective

The aim of this study is to test the short-term effects of a digital mental health program designed for adolescents aged 13-17 years on perceived stress and rumination.

Methods

This is a randomized controlled trial in which adolescents between the ages of 13 and 17 years, with elevated levels of perceived stress and brooding, will be randomly assigned to complete 8 weeks of a digital mental health program (Happify for Teens) or to a corresponding wait-list control group. The study will take place over 3 months, including the 8-week intervention period and 1-month postintervention follow-up. The primary outcome, perceived stress, along with secondary and exploratory outcomes (ie, brooding, optimism, sleep disturbance, and loneliness) will be assessed via self-report at baseline, 4 weeks, 8 weeks, and 12 weeks to compare changes in these outcomes across conditions.

Results

Recruitment is expected to begin in the second quarter of 2021, with a target sample size of 800 participants (400 per condition). Participants will begin the study as they are recruited and will finish in waves, with the first wave of data expected 8 weeks after recruitment begins and the final wave of data expected by the end of the third quarter of 2021.

Conclusions

Although school-based stress management programs for adolescents are common, research suggests that they may be limited in their reach and more effective for school-based stress than other types of stress. This trial will be one of the first attempts to examine the potential benefits of a digital mental health program on adolescents to address stress along with negative cognitive processes such as rumination. If successful, this would help introduce a more scalable alternative to school-based programs that offers adolescents greater privacy while also providing insight into novel ways to target adolescent mental health more generally.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04567888; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04567888

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

PRR1-10.2196/25545

Cognitive Flexibility and Selective Attention's Associations with Internalizing Symptoms in Adolescents: Are they Reciprocal?

Although both executive functions and internalizing symptoms go through important changes during adolescence, the role of executive functions in internalizing symptoms is unclear. Based on developmental cascade models of psychopathology, this study aimed to fill this gap by studying the bidirectional predictive relationship between executive functions (cognitive flexibility and selective attention) and symptoms of depression and social anxiety. A sample of 698 adolescents (40.8% girls) between 12 and 17 years of age (M = 14.59, SD = 1.36) participated in three waves over 1 year. They completed measures of executive functions and internalizing symptoms. Depressive symptoms predicted deficits in executive functions. Conversely, social anxiety symptoms predicted an improvement in cognitive flexibility. These results suggest that executive function deficits are not a risk factor for the development of depressive symptoms but a consequence of them, and there are specific patterns of associations for depressive and social anxiety symptoms.

Negative Emotions and Job Burnout in News Media Workers: A Moderated Mediation Model of Rumination and Empathy

News media workers are in stressful and competitive professions susceptible to negative emotions. Although the relationship between negative emotions and job burnout has been evidenced in some professional fields, it has not yet been examined in the population of news media workers. Far few studies have revealed the mediating and moderating mechanism between negative emotions and job burnout. Based on Resource Allocation Theory and Theory of Compassion Fatigue, this study examined (a) the mediating role of rumination in the relationship between negative emotions and job burnout, (b) the moderating role of empathy in the direct and indirect effect of negative emotions on job burnout, and (c) the moderating role of gender in the direct effect of negative emotions on rumination. Two hundred and eleven Chinese news media workers filled out questionnaires regarding negative emotions, job burnout, rumination, and empathy. The results indicated that negative emotions were positively correlated with job burnout. Mediation analysis revealed that rumination partially mediated the association between negative emotions and job burnout. Moderated mediation analysis further indicated that empathy moderated the effect of negative emotions on rumination, with a high level of empathy strengthening the association between negative emotions and rumination; gender moderated the effect of negative emotions on rumination, with the association between negative emotions and rumination was stronger among males than females. These findings encourage to design psychological interventions to reduce rumination and express proper empathy in the face of stress or negative affective status to avoid job burnout among news media workers.

Switch Off Totally or Switch Off Strategically? The Consequences of Thinking About Work on Job Performance

As a universal workplace phenomenon, the impact of work-related rumination on job performance is attracting scholars' attention. In the current study, the relationship between two types of work-related rumination, counterproductive behavior, and creativity at work were examined, as well as the mechanism of this association. Participants were 1109 employees from a variety of jobs in mainland China. The results showed that affective rumination was negatively associated with employees' work creativity and positively associated with counterproductive behavior. On the contrary, problem-solving pondering was positively related to creativity and negatively related to counterproductive behavior. The loss of self-control resource partially mediated the link between affective rumination and counterproductive behavior. Problem-solving pondering had no significant impact on self-control resource. Results suggest the significant effects of problem-solving pondering may be positive in the workplace and clarify the self-control resource is the internal mechanism linking rumination and job performance.

Transactional relations between developmental trajectories of executive functioning and internalizing and externalizing symptomatology in adolescence

Adolescence is a period of social, physical, and neurobiological transitions that may leave individuals more vulnerable to the development of internalizing and externalizing symptomatology. Extant research demonstrates that executive functioning (EF) is associated with psychopathology outcomes in adolescence; however, it has yet to be examined how EF and psychopathology develop transactionally over time. Data were collected from 167 adolescents (47% female, 13-14 years old at Time 1) and their primary caregiver over 4 years. At each time point, adolescents completed three behavioral tasks that capture the underlying dimensions of EF, and both adolescents and their primary caregiver completed measures of adolescent psychopathology. Latent growth curve modeling was used to test the associations between initial levels and trajectories of EF and psychopathology. Results indicated that higher initial levels of internalizing and externalizing symptomatology were associated with lower EF at Time 4 (controlling for Time 1 EF). Initial levels of EF did not predict changes in internalizing and externalizing symptomatology. These findings suggest that early psychopathology may be a risk factor for maladaptive EF development in adolescence.

Goal-directed rumination and its antagonistic effects on problem solving: a two-week diary study

BACKGROUND

The tendency to repetitively and intrusively think about a particular negative event, goal failure, or problem (i.e., goal-directed rumination) is generally associated with impairments in well-being, thus decreasing performance in solving this failure. However, rumination is also associated with higher levels of resources invested in problem solving, likely leading to an improvement in performance.

OBJECTIVES

The current study thus examines the indirect effect of rumination via various mediators on subjective problem-solving performance in the everyday context.

DESIGN

Over a period of two weeks, 147 students completed a brief survey each evening (i.e., diary study).

METHODS

Data were analyzed by means of a multiple mediation model in the multilevel structural equation modeling (MSEM) framework.

RESULTS

The analyses revealed that perceived stress and negative mood negatively mediated the relationship between rumination and problem solving, while attention and effort positively mediated this relationship. Finally, both a negative direct and total effect of rumination on problem solving was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Conclusively, goal-directed rumination exerted a negative indirect effect on subjective problem solving via perceived stress and negative mood, whereas it positively affected problem solving via attention and effort. Possible limitations and implications are discussed.

Insomnia Symptoms Moderate the Relationship Between Perseverative Cognition and Backward Inhibition in the Task-Switching Paradigm

Perseverative cognition (PC), that is, the continuous cognitive representation of uncontrollable threats, is known to dampen executive control processes in experimental paradigms. Similarly, PC has been shown to impair sleep and to be implicated in the exacerbation of insomnia, which may in turn contribute to the disruption of executive functions. The interactions between PC and insomnia in influencing executive functions, however, have never been tested to date. In the present study, we explored whether insomnia symptoms may moderate the associations between PC and disrupted executive functions, with the hypothesis to find a stronger relationship between these variables at increasing levels of insomnia. Fifty participants completed measures of trait PC and insomnia severity in the previous month and also completed a computerized task-switching paradigm assessing backward inhibition, switch cost, and accuracy. Prior to the task switching, participants completed a measure of state rumination in order to control for the effects of state PC on cognitive performance. Results show that trait PC was significantly correlated with higher insomnia symptoms and state rumination and marginally correlated with lower backward inhibition and longer switch cost. Moreover, insomnia severity moderated the relationship between trait PC and backward inhibition after controlling for the effects of state rumination; that is, the relationship between PC and inhibitory deficits was stronger in those with higher versus lower levels of insomnia symptoms. Findings suggest the need to better elucidate the associations between PC, insomnia, and executive functioning in clinical samples and longitudinal designs.

Neurocognitive Correlates of Rumination Risk in Children: Comparing Competing Model Predictions in a Clinically Heterogeneous Sample

The current study examined associations between rumination and executive function difficulties in preadolescent youth, using predictions outlined in the attentional scope and multiple systems models of rumination. This study aimed to (a) extend current conceptual models of rumination to youth, (b) clarify disparate model predictions regarding working memory updating ("updating"), inhibition, and shifting abilities, and (c) examine differential neurocognitive predictions between two forms of rumination, sadness and anger. One hundred and fifty-nine youths oversampled for ADHD and other forms of child psychopathology associated with executive dysfunction (aged 8-13; 53.5% male; 59.1% Caucasian) completed a battery of assessments, including self-report measures of rumination and computerized neurocognitive tasks. Multiple regression analyses were conducted assessing relations between rumination and each executive function, controlling for both sadness and anger rumination to assess their unique associations. Sadness rumination was associated with poorer updating (β = -0.18, p = 0.046) and shifting abilities (β = 0.20, p = 0.03) but not inhibition (β = -0.04, p = 0.62), offering partial support to the attentional scope and multiple systems models. In contrast, anger rumination was associated with better updating abilities (β = 0.20, p = 0.03) but not shifting (β = -0.15, p = 0.11) or inhibition (β = 0.08, p = 0.35). Together, these results suggest (a) developmental differences in the neurocognitive correlates associated with rumination risk in youth compared to findings from the adult literature, and (b) that the executive function correlates of children's responses to negative emotions are affect-specific, such that sadness rumination is associated with difficulties replacing negative thoughts and shifting between mental sets, while anger rumination is associated with a better ability to maintain negative thoughts.

Academic performance: A longitudinal study on the role of goal-directed rumination and psychological distress

BACKGROUND

In this research, we examine the relationship between goal-directed rumination, psychological distress, and performance. Although previous research has largely contributed to our understanding of how these constructs are related, the direction of their relationships remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

We argue that goal-directed rumination and psychological distress (conceived as perceived stress and strain) are reciprocally related, and that goal-directed rumination has a positive effect on performance when controlling for the negative effect of psychological distress.

DESIGN

We explored these relationships in a longitudinal field study, drawing on multiple sources: self-reports of 147 students on goal-directed rumination and psychological distress and objective ratings of academic performance.

METHOD

Based on structural equation modelling, we employed a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model and hierarchical regressions to examine our hypotheses.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that goal-directed rumination predicted perceived stress one week later but not vice versa, while its relationship to strain was less clear. Furthermore, goal-directed rumination positively predicted academic performance when we controlled for psychological distress.

CONCLUSIONS

We found evidence for a unidirectional relationship between goal-directed rumination and psychological distress, especially for perceived stress. Additionally, we observed that psychological distress diminishes the beneficial effect of goal-directed rumination on academic performance.

Mind the social feedback: effects of tDCS applied to the left DLPFC on psychophysiological responses during the anticipation and reception of social evaluations

The left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (lDLPFC) is implicated in anticipatory (i.e. during anticipation of emotional stimuli) and online (i.e. during confrontation with emotional stimuli) emotion regulatory processes. However, research that investigates the causal role of the lDLPFC in these processes is lacking. In this study, 74 participants received active or sham transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the lDLPFC. Participants were told strangers evaluated them. These (rigged) social evaluations were presented, and in 50% of the trials, participants could anticipate the valence (positive or negative) of the upcoming social feedback. Pupil dilation (a marker of cognitive resource allocation), and skin conductance responses (a marker of arousal) were measured. The results indicate that active (compared to sham) tDCS reduced arousal during the confrontation with anticipated feedback, but only marginally during the confrontation with unanticipated feedback. When participants were given the opportunity to anticipate the social feedback, tDCS reduced arousal, irrespective of whether one was anticipating or being confronted with the anticipated feedback. Moreover, tDCS reduced cognitive resource allocation during anticipation, which was associated with resource allocation increases during the subsequent confrontation. Altogether, results suggest that the lDLPFC is causally implicated in the interplay between anticipatory and online emotion regulatory processes.

The role of affective control in emotion regulation during adolescence

In this review, we evaluate evidence for the hypothesis that developmental changes in emotion regulation tendencies during adolescence depend on the maturation of affective control. Affective control refers to the application of cognitive control to affective contexts, that is, the capacity to attend and respond to goal-relevant affective information, while inhibiting attention and responses toward distracting affective information. The evidence suggests that affective control develops throughout adolescence into adulthood. However, the developmental trajectory appears not to be uniform across different facets of affective control. In particular, the capacity to inhibit attention and responses to distracting affective information may be reduced during adolescence relative to childhood and adulthood. Focusing on the association between affective control and emotion regulation development in adolescence, the research reviewed supports the notion of affective control as a cognitive building block of successful emotion regulation. Good affective control appears related to fewer ruminative tendencies in adolescence as well as more frequent and successful reappraisal in older adolescents. Lower use of habitual suppression, itself a type of affective inhibition, shows an association with updating capacity. We conclude by discussing the implications of these findings for mental health and the potential mental health benefits associated with improving affective control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The Reciprocal Effects of Language Proficiency and Depression among Low Income Latinx Youth

Objective: Extant research associates language with essential social and emotional processes. Although the risk for depression among Latinx youth in the United States is well documented, the link between their language proficiency and depressive symptoms remains poorly understood. Further, research employing standardized language assessments with Latinx early adolescents is scarce and reciprocal associations between language proficiency and depressive symptoms have not been examined.Method: This longitudinal study addressed these gaps by investigating the relation between language proficiency and depression in a sample of 218 dual language Latinx students of predominantly low-income backgrounds (M_age = 12.1, SD = 1.1; 49.1% female) recruited from seven public schools in a large city in the Midwest of the United States. Language proficiency in English and Spanish was assessed using the Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey-Revised and depressive symptoms were assessed using the Children's Depression Inventory.Results: Paired samples t-tests showed lower than expected growth in English vocabulary and higher than expected growth in the ability to reason using lexical knowledge in Spanish over a one-year period. Cross-lagged panel analyses (χ² (99) = 211.19, p < .001, CFI = .93, TLI = .92, RMSEA = .07 (90% CI [.06, .09])) indicated that growth in English language proficiency is predictive of decreased depressive symptoms. Likewise, increases in depressive symptoms are predictive of decreased English language proficiency.Conclusions: Results have important implications for the design of appropriate psychological interventions and sensible educational policies for students of linguistic minority backgrounds.

Reflective pondering is associated with executive control for emotional information: An adolescent prospective study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

In adult populations, rumination and executive control impairments have been highlighted as vulnerability factors for later depression and rumination as a whole construct has recently been linked to lower executive control. However, research with adolescent populations is limited and little is known developmentally of the association between rumination and executive control. A prospective design was used to investigate the relationship between brooding rumination and reflective pondering and executive control for emotional and non-emotional material in adolescence, whilst controlling for the effects of depression and anxiety symptoms.

METHODS

The present study examined the relationship between the subcomponents of rumination and executive control for emotional and non-emotional information, within an adolescent development. A total of 149 adolescents (13-16 years) were tested at two time points, approximately six months between sessions. At each time point, participants completed a computerised, valenced measure of executive control and measures of brooding rumination, reflective pondering, depression symptoms and anxiety symptoms.

RESULTS

Findings indicate that reflective pondering was predictive of greater executive control for processing emotional information over time. Contrary to research with adults, brooding rumination was not associated with executive control.

LIMITATIONS

This study, conducted across two time points 6 months apart, awaits confirmation from further research across multiple time points and different intervals.

CONCLUSIONS

Reflective pondering may act as a protective factor against later impairment in executive control.

The developmental origins of ruminative response style: An integrative review

Rumination has been conceptualized as a stable, trait-level response style involving repetitive and passive focus on the symptoms of distress and the possible causes and consequences of those symptoms. This theoretical review examines developmental risk factors of ruminative response style, incorporating a developmental psychopathology perspective. A model integrating these developmental factors within a conceptual framework is proposed, wherein risk factors for distress (i.e., temperamental negative affectivity, stressful environments, parenting, and genetic vulnerability) lead to engagement in rumination. We propose that when rumination is well-practiced, it will consolidate into a trait-like response style, especially among adolescents who experience cognitive control deficits. Reciprocal relationships and moderators that may contribute to the formation of a ruminative response style are also included. To understand how these factors converge and influence the formation of ruminative response styles, we review patterns of stability and change in physical and cognitive development to demonstrate that individual differences in rumination may emerge and consolidate into enduring, trait-level response styles during early adolescence.

Neurocognitive Predictors of Clinical Improvement in Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor-Treated Adolescents with Major Depressive Disorder

OBJECTIVES

Numerous studies have suggested cognitive deficits as consistently associated with adolescent depression. No study to date, however, has assessed neurocognitive predictors of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) treatment response in adolescents with depression. This study examined neurocognitive tasks at baseline as predictors of clinical improvement with SSRI treatment (fluoxetine) at week 6 and 12 in an adolescent population.

METHODS

Adolescents with depression were recruited from a child and adolescent psychiatry outpatient clinic at a university medical center. Twenty-four adolescents (mean age 14.8 years) with Major Depressive Disorder completed tasks of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery, including visual memory, executive functioning, sustained attention, and impulsivity. Depression severity, measured by the Children's Depression Rating Scale-Revised (CDRS-R), was assessed at week 6 and 12 and clinical improvement was defined as percentage (%) change in CDRS-R from baseline.

RESULTS

Clinical improvement is noted at both week 6 (mean % change in CDRS-R [M] = 46.8, standard deviation [SD] = 51.9) and week 12 (M = 87.9, SD = 57.2). Results reveal that less difficulty in sustained attention (p = 0.02), lower impulsivity (p = 0.00), and better planning (p = 0.04) at baseline were predictors of greater clinical improvement at week 6. Lower impulsivity at baseline remained significantly predictive of clinical improvement at week 12 (p = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Neurocognitive assessments could potentially help identify a subset of depressed adolescents who may not respond to conventional SSRI treatment and who may be better candidates for alternative or augmentation treatments.

Cleansing the Attentional Palate: A Preliminary Test of a Novel Approach to Facilitate Disengagement From Rumination

Resource allocation theory suggests that rumination depletes cognitive resources that could be directed toward task-relevant processes. We propose a new approach to the treatment of rumination that specifically targets this misappropriation of cognitive resources, wherein individuals engage in an attentionally demanding task in order to interrupt the ruminative cycle. We argue that this strategy would serve to free cognitive resources from rumination and facilitate performance on other tasks. Thus, the present study served as an initial test of this novel approach. This study employed a within-subjects design, in which participants were 30 college students who completed self-report measures of baseline mood state, anxiety, depression, and trait rumination. Subsequently, they underwent sad mood and rumination inductions followed by random assignment to either a low attentional demand disengagement strategy (DS) followed by a high attentional demand DS or vice versa. Reading comprehension was assessed at baseline and following each of the two DSs. The high attentional demand DS condition was associated with better performance on the reading comprehension task compared to the low attentional demand DS condition. These results provide initial support for our novel approach to targeting rumination and demonstrate that attentionally demanding DSs may successfully free cognitive resources that might otherwise be consumed by rumination. Thus, future research into attentionally demanding DSs that interrupt ruminative cycles is warranted. This approach could be a useful adjunct for interventions targeting disorders driven by rumination, such as depression.

Preschool Executive Control and Internalizing Symptoms in Elementary School

Depression and anxiety are prevalent and impairing forms of psychopathology in children and adolescents. Deficits in early executive control (EC) may contribute to the development of these problems, but longitudinal studies with rigorous measurement across key developmental periods are limited. The current study examines EC in preschool as a predictor of subsequent depression and anxiety symptoms in elementary school in a community sample (N = 280). Child participants completed a battery of nine developmentally-appropriate tasks designed to measure major aspects of EC at age 5 years, 3 months. Children later participated in an elementary school follow-up phase, during which they completed validated norm-referenced self-report questionnaires of depression and anxiety symptoms in fourth grade. Results indicate that poorer preschool EC was significantly associated with both greater depression and anxiety symptoms in elementary school, controlling for baseline depression and anxiety symptoms in preschool and other relevant variables. These findings suggest that poor EC may be an important risk factor for the development of internalizing psychopathology in childhood. Given emerging evidence for the modifiability of EC, particularly in preschool, EC promotion interventions may hold promise as a potential target in psychopathology prevention.

Is Worse Attention a Risk Factor for or a Consequence of Depression, or Are Worse Attention and Depression Better Accounted for by Stress? A Prospective Test of Three Hypotheses

It is unclear whether impaired cognition is a risk factor for depression, a consequence of depression, or whether both depression and impaired cognition are caused by a third underlying process (e.g., stress). These three hypotheses were tested in 523 adolescents assessed annually for depression, attentional functioning, and childhood/recent life stress. Baseline switching, sustained, and selective attention did not predict first onset of depression (foD) or depressive symptoms. Divided attention predicted depressive symptoms only. Piecewise growth modelling indicated that the trajectory of switching attention declined prior to foD; there was evidence of significant recovery in switching attention following foD. Structural equation modelling indicated that impaired switching attention prospectively predicted higher depressive symptoms and that higher depressive symptoms predicted worse selective and switching attention. Further, childhood stress prospectively predicted higher depressive symptoms via switching attention and worse switching attention via depressive symptoms.

Abstract and experiential thinking differentially account for anomalous perception of reality in people with or without schizophrenia

repetitive thinking is often increased in various psychopathological conditions. However, evidence for its possible contribution to psychotic symptoms relies only on correlational analysis and has not been experimentally tested within the psychotic continuum. This research aims to examine whether repetitive thinking about a negative past experience using concrete versus abstract processing might modify the reporting of anomalous sensory experiences. 89 patients with schizophrenia and 89 matched controls were asked to reflect on their most negative Self-Defining Memory during a thirty-minute period. By means of a written script, half of the participants were instructed to remember thoughts, feelings and sensations associated with the event in an abstract mode, while the other half followed an equivalent script but with concrete questions. After induced concrete-experiential thinking, both controls and patients significantly reduced self-reported anomalous reality perception. However, participants in the induced abstract-analytical thinking condition increased anomalous experience, especially sensory experience from an unexplained source. Multigroup path analyses showed that involvement in abstract-analytical thinking during the task significantly mediated the relationship between pre-test and post-test anomalous perception scores, but only in the patient group. These results suggest that abstract thinking contributes to distorted sensory experiences. In contrast, training in a concrete processing mode of past experiences may be a useful tool to reduce subjective anomalous perceptions.

Reliability, Convergent Validity and Time Invariance of Default Mode Network Deviations in Early Adult Major Depressive Disorder

There is substantial variability across studies of default mode network (DMN) connectivity in major depressive disorder, and reliability and time-invariance are not reported. This study evaluates whether DMN dysconnectivity in remitted depression (rMDD) is reliable over time and symptom-independent, and explores convergent relationships with cognitive features of depression. A longitudinal study was conducted with 82 young adults free of psychotropic medications (47 rMDD, 35 healthy controls) who completed clinical structured interviews, neuropsychological assessments, and 2 resting-state fMRI scans across 2 study sites. Functional connectivity analyses from bilateral posterior cingulate and anterior hippocampal formation seeds in DMN were conducted at both time points within a repeated-measures analysis of variance to compare groups and evaluate reliability of group-level connectivity findings. Eleven hyper- (from posterior cingulate) and 6 hypo- (from hippocampal formation) connectivity clusters in rMDD were obtained with moderate to adequate reliability in all but one cluster (ICC's range = 0.50 to 0.76 for 16 of 17). The significant clusters were reduced with a principle component analysis (5 components obtained) to explore these connectivity components, and were then correlated with cognitive features (rumination, cognitive control, learning and memory, and explicit emotion identification). At the exploratory level, for convergent validity, components consisting of posterior cingulate with cognitive control network hyperconnectivity in rMDD were related to cognitive control (inverse) and rumination (positive). Components consisting of anterior hippocampal formation with social emotional network and DMN hypoconnectivity were related to memory (inverse) and happy emotion identification (positive). Thus, time-invariant DMN connectivity differences exist early in the lifespan course of depression and are reliable. The nuanced results suggest a ventral within-network hypoconnectivity associated with poor memory and a dorsal cross-network hyperconnectivity linked to poorer cognitive control and elevated rumination. Study of early course remitted depression with attention to reliability and symptom independence could lead to more readily translatable clinical assessment tools for biomarkers.

Inflexibility as a Vulnerability to Depression: A Systematic Qualitative Review

The study of vulnerabilities to depression typically identifies factors that are thought to be universally maladaptive or adaptive. In contrast, researchers recently have theorized that the ability to flexibly engage in different thoughts and behaviors that fit situational demands may be most indicative of psychological health. We review empirical evidence from 147 studies reporting associations between five components of flexibility (set-shifting, affective set-shifting, cardiac vagal control, explanatory flexibility, and coping flexibility) and depression and classify studies according to strength of study design. Evidence from correlational and case-controlled studies suggests cross-sectional relationships, but few prospective studies have been conducted. We discuss limitations of existing studies, identify new directions for programmatic research, and discuss implications that flexibility has for the prevention and treatment of depression.

Cognitive Control Deficits in Shifting and Inhibition in Preschool Age Children are Associated with Increased Depression and Anxiety Over 7.5 Years of Development

Although depression and anxiety are common in youth (Costello et al. 2003), factors that put children at risk for such symptoms are not well understood. The current study examined associations between early childhood cognitive control deficits and depression and anxiety over the course of development through school age. Participants were 188 children (at baseline M = 5.42 years, SD = 0.79 years) and their primary caregiver. Caregivers completed ratings of children's executive functioning at preschool age and measures of depression and anxiety severity over seven assessment waves (a period of approximately 7.5 years). Longitudinal multilevel linear models were used to examine the effect of attention shifting and inhibition deficits on depression and anxiety. Inhibition deficits at preschool were associated with significantly greater depression severity scores at each subsequent assessment wave (up until 7.5 years later). Inhibition deficits were associated with greater anxiety severity from 3.5 to 7.5 years later. Greater shifting deficits at preschool age were associated with greater depression severity up to 5.5 years later. Shifting deficits were also associated with significantly greater anxiety severity up to 3.5 years later. Importantly, these effects were significant even after accounting for the influence of other key predictors including assessment wave/time, gender, parental education, IQ, and symptom severity at preschool age, suggesting that effects are robust. Overall, findings indicate that cognitive control deficits are an early vulnerability factor for developing affective symptoms. Timely assessment and intervention may be beneficial as an early prevention strategy.

The Role of Trait Anxiety and Preoccupation With Reading Disabilities of Children and Their Mothers in Predicting Children's Reading Comprehension

This study investigated the relationship between reading comprehension (RC), trait anxiety, and preoccupation with reading disability (RD) in 88 school children in Grades 3 through 5 and in their mothers. Children's trait anxiety had a significant direct negative relationship with RC and also mediated the association between preoccupation with RD and RC. Mothers' preoccupation with their children's RDs had a direct negative association with their children's RC. This association was also mediated through children's trait anxiety. No association was found between mothers' trait anxiety and children's RC. In a final model, RC was explained significantly by children's word reading fluency and trait anxiety as well as by their mothers' preoccupation with their children's RDs. This study extends our understanding of multicomponential models of RC by shedding light on the significant role played by anxiety- and preoccupation-related factors involving both children with RDs and their mothers.

The relationships between rumination and core executive functions: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Rumination has been thought to relate to deficits in core executive functions (EFs), but the empirical findings for this idea are mixed. The aim of the present study is to synthesize existing literature to clarify these relations.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search revealed 34 published as well as unpublished studies on the associations between rumination and core EF. These studies report on 3,066 participants. The effect size in the meta-analyses was obtained by the z transformation of correlation coefficients.

RESULTS

Analysis revealed significant negative associations between rumination and both inhibition (r = -.23) and set-shifting (r = -.19). There was no significant association between rumination and working memory. These associations were not moderated by age, sex, type of sample (depressed or healthy), type of outcome measure (accuracy vs. reaction time), or affective content of the task, although statistical power for these tests was limited.

CONCLUSIONS

We found significant negative associations between rumination and inhibition or set-shifting. There was no significant association between rumination and working memory. Future research should adopt multiple measures of EF to provide clear evidence on the associations between EF and rumination. A better understanding of this relationship may have important implications for intervention of rumination, such as training programs to improve EF or teach compensatory strategies to mitigate the effects of EF impairments.

The association between cognitive function and subsequent depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Despite a growing interest in understanding the cognitive deficits associated with major depressive disorder (MDD), it is largely unknown whether such deficits exist before disorder onset or how they might influence the severity of subsequent illness. The purpose of the present study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal datasets to determine whether cognitive function acts as a predictor of later MDD diagnosis or change in depression symptoms. Eligible studies included longitudinal designs with baseline measures of cognitive functioning, and later unipolar MDD diagnosis or symptom assessment. The systematic review identified 29 publications, representing 34 unique samples, and 121 749 participants, that met the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Quantitative meta-analysis demonstrated that higher cognitive function was associated with decreased levels of subsequent depression (r = -0.088, 95% confidence interval. -0.121 to -0.054, p < 0.001). However, sensitivity analyses revealed that this association is likely driven by concurrent depression symptoms at the time of cognitive assessment. Our review and meta-analysis indicate that the association between lower cognitive function and later depression is confounded by the presence of contemporaneous depression symptoms at the time of cognitive assessment. Thus, cognitive deficits predicting MDD likely represent deleterious effects of subclinical depression symptoms on performance rather than premorbid risk factors for disorder.

Spiraling out of control: Stress generation and subsequent rumination mediate the link between poorer cognitive control and internalizing psychopathology

Poor cognitive control is associated with nearly every mental disorder and has been proposed as a transdiagnostic risk factor for psychopathology, including depression and anxiety. What specific mechanisms might cause individuals with poor cognitive control to experience higher levels of psychopathology? The current research tests a new process model linking poor cognitive control to depression and anxiety symptoms via increased dependent stress (i.e., self-generated stressors) and subsequent rumination. This model was supported across two studies in youth during the key period for emergence of internalizing psychopathology. Study 1 provides longitudinal evidence for prospective prediction of change in symptoms. Study 2 confirms this model using well-established executive function tasks in a cross-sectional study. These finding have potential implications for understanding why cognitive control impairments may be broadly associated with psychopathology, and suggest that interventions to prevent stress generation might be effective in preventing negative consequences of poor cognitive control.

INFLEXIBLE COGNITION PREDICTS FIRST ONSET OF MAJOR DEPRESSIVE EPISODES IN ADOLESCENCE

BACKGROUND

Major depressive disorder often is characterized by a lack of cognitive and emotional flexibility, resulting in an impaired ability to adapt to situational demands. Adolescence is an important period of risk for the first onset of depression, yet relatively little is known about whether aspects of inflexibility, such as rumination and deficits in attentional shifting, could confer risk for the development of the disorder during this time.

METHOD

In the present study, a sample of 285 never-depressed adolescents completed self-report and behavioral measures of rumination and attentional shifting at a baseline visit, followed by up to 4 years of annual prospective follow-up diagnostic assessments.

RESULTS

Survival analyses indicated that adolescents with greater levels of rumination or poorer attentional shifting experienced a shorter time until the first onset of major depressive episodes, even after accounting for baseline symptoms and demographic characteristics. Although girls were twice as likely as boys to experience the first onset of depression, rumination predicted a shorter time until depression onset only for boys. Rumination and attentional shifting were not correlated and predicted time until onset of major depression independently of one another.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide evidence that components of cognition that are characterized by rigidity and perseveration confer risk for the first onset of major depression during adolescence. Evaluating rumination and attentional shifting in adolescence may be useful in identifying individuals who are at risk for depression and who may benefit from interventions that target or alter the development of these characteristics.

The role of rumination in illness trajectories in youth: linking trans-diagnostic processes with clinical staging models

Research in developmental psychopathology and clinical staging models has increasingly sought to identify trans-diagnostic biomarkers or neurocognitive deficits that may play a role in the onset and trajectory of mental disorders and could represent modifiable treatment targets. Less attention has been directed at the potential role of cognitive-emotional regulation processes such as ruminative response style. Maladaptive rumination (toxic brooding) is a known mediator of the association between gender and internalizing disorders in adolescents and is increased in individuals with a history of early adversity. Furthermore, rumination shows moderate levels of genetic heritability and is linked to abnormalities in neural networks associated with emotional regulation and executive functioning. This review explores the potential role of rumination in exacerbating the symptoms of alcohol and substance misuse, and bipolar and psychotic disorders during the peak age range for illness onset. Evidence shows that rumination not only amplifies levels of distress and suicidal ideation, but also extends physiological responses to stress, which may partly explain the high prevalence of physical and mental co-morbidity in youth presenting to mental health services. In summary, the normative developmental trajectory of rumination and its role in the evolution of mental disorders and physical illness demonstrates that rumination presents a detectable, modifiable trans-diagnostic risk factor in youth.

The cyclical nature of depressed mood and future risk: Depression, rumination, and deficits in emotional clarity in adolescent girls

Deficits in emotional clarity, the understanding and awareness of one's own emotions and the ability to label them appropriately, are associated with increased depressive symptoms. Surprisingly, few studies have examined factors associated with reduction in emotional clarity for adolescents, such as depressed mood and ruminative response styles. The present study examined rumination as a potential mediator of the relationship between depressive symptoms and changes in emotional clarity, focusing on sex differences. Participants included 223 adolescents (51.60% female, Mean age = 12.39). Controlling for baseline levels of emotional clarity, initial depressive symptoms predicted decreases in emotional clarity. Further, rumination prospectively mediated the relationship between baseline depressive symptoms and follow-up emotional clarity for girls, but not boys. Findings suggest that depressive symptoms may increase girls' tendencies to engage in repetitive, negative thinking, which may reduce the ability to understand and label emotions, a potentially cyclical process that confers vulnerability to future depression.

Executive function and attention in children and adolescents with depressive disorders: a systematic review

Numerous studies have shown that Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) in adults is associated with deficits in cognitive control. Particularly, impairment on executive function (EF) tasks has been observed. Research into EF deficits in children and adolescents with MDD has reported mixed results and it is currently unclear whether paediatric MDD is characterised by impairments in EF and attention. PsycInfo, Scopus and Medline were systematically searched to identify all studies that have investigated EF and attention in paediatric depressive disorders between 1994 and 2014. 33 studies meeting inclusion/exclusion criteria were identified. While across different domains of EF some studies identified a deficit in the clinical group, the majority of studies failed to find deficits in response inhibition, attentional set shifting, selective attention, verbal working memory, and verbal fluency. More research is needed to clarify the relationship between depressive disorders in children and adolescents and spatial working memory processing, sustaining attention, planning, negative attentional bias and measures of 'hot' EF. There is little support for EF deficits in paediatric depression. However, there are numerous methodological problems that may account for null findings. Alternatively, chronicity and/or severity of symptoms may explain discrepancies between cognitive deficits in adult and paediatric MDD. Recommendations for future studies are discussed.