A new tool to ensure the fluorescent dye labeling stability of nanocarriers: A real challenge for fluorescence imaging

Robust streamlined two-dimensional offline coupling of asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation and capillary electrophoresis for the separation and quantitation of a five-component submicron particle mixture

Characterization of submicrometer particles by size and surface charge is critical to understanding their property and functionality in industrial formulations. Although the recently reported offline coupling of asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation and capillary electrophoresis (AF4×CE) shows success in separating a five-component submicrometer particle mixture based on size and mobility, it is a long and tedious process requiring extensive method development and instrument expertise. Moreover, it suffers from low throughput and ambiguity in large particle identification, limiting its widespread acceptance and application in industry. Here we report a new AF4×CE-laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) method which involves minimal method development and eliminates both the large sample injection and subsequent on-capillary stacking in CE separation, to significantly streamline separation and improve analysis throughput. Comprehensive characterization of eight fluorescently labeled five-component submicrometer particle mixture standards, at the concentration ratio of 200 : 200: 133 : 133: 334 and the total concentration level of 1000-10,000 mg/L, and a random sample can be performed within several days. In the lowest-concentration standard, as few as 2.97 × 102 particles at the peak center can be detected on the two-dimensional plot for the 500 nm particles, indicating extremely high detection sensitivity. By eliminating the overstacking issue, large particles can be unambiguously identified on the 2D plot based on the migration time. AF4-light scattering (LS) quantitation demonstrates good accuracy for the artificial five-component sample even when the five components are not completely separated. Moreover, AF4×CE-LIF quantitation is explored for future more challenging mixtures requiring higher separation capacity and resolution.

Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) Demonstrates In Vitro Chitosan-Coated Nanocapsules Suitability for Intranasal Brain Delivery

Intranasal drug delivery to the brain offers a promising strategy to overcome biological barriers. Chitosan-coated nanoemulsion-based nanocapsules demonstrate significant potential due to their mucoadhesive properties, ability to permeate epithelial cells, and ability to solubilize poorly water-soluble drugs, making them ideal candidates for bypassing the blood-brain barrier and overcoming the nasal mucosa. To ensure effective drug delivery, it is critical to assess the integrity of these nanocapsules during their transit across such barriers. In this study, we employed Förster resonance energy transfer to track the structural integrity of nanocapsules during transport. A simplified in vitro model was established using Calu-3 cells to mimic the mucosal epithelial barrier and Balb-c 3T3 fibroblasts as target cells. Our findings demonstrated that the nanoemulsion core of the nanocapsules successfully crossed the in vitro epithelial barrier and reached target cells while maintaining its structural integrity. These results validate the potential of chitosan-coated nanocapsules as a robust platform for the intranasal delivery of drugs to the brain.

Thymoquinone loaded lipid nanocapsule dispersion: two methods of preparation, characterization and in vitro evaluations for oral administration

This work explores two methods to encapsulate Thymoquinone (TQ) into lipid nanocapsules (LNCs) for oral administration. TQ was added during the phase inversion temperature method (TQ-LNCs-1) or to unload LNCs dispersion (TQ-LNCs-2). LNCs were evaluated for mean diameter, polydispersity index (PDI), ζ-potential, drug loading (DL), drop tensiometer, storage stability, in vitro stability in simulated gastrointestinal fluids (SGIF), and intestinal permeability across Caco-2 cells. TQ-LNCs-1 and TQ-LNCs-2 produced NPs (58.3 ± 3.7 nm and 61.5 ± 3.5 nm, respectively), with a DL of 8.7 ± 0.2 and 7.7 ± 0.6 mg/mL of suspension, respectively. For both, less than 14% of TQ was released in SGIF, and a minor increase in TQ intestinal permeability with LNCs compared to free TQ was observed. TQ-LNCs represented a promising formulation for oral delivery of TQ. Encapsulation of TQ by adding it at LNCs dispersion can be extended for further drugs.

Development and characterization of lipid nanocapsules loaded with iron oxide nanoparticles for magnetic targeting to the blood-brain barrier

Brain drug delivery is severely hindered by the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Its functionality relies on the interactions of the brain endothelial cells with additional cellular constituents, including pericytes, astrocytes, neurons, or microglia. To boost brain drug delivery, nanomedicines have been designed to exploit distinct delivery strategies, including magnetically driven nanocarriers as a form of external physical targeting to the BBB. Herein, a lipid-based magnetic nanocarrier prepared by a low-energy method is first described. Magnetic nanocapsules with a hydrodynamic diameter of 256.7 ± 8.5 nm (polydispersity index: 0.089 ± 0.034) and a ξ-potential of -30.4 ± 0.3 mV were obtained. Transmission electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis revealed efficient encapsulation of iron oxide nanoparticles within the oily core of the nanocapsules. Both thermogravimetric analysis and phenanthroline-based colorimetric assay showed that the iron oxide percentage in the final formulation was 12 wt.%, in agreement with vibrating sample magnetometry analysis, as the specific saturation magnetization of the magnetic nanocapsules was 12% that of the bare iron oxide nanoparticles. Magnetic nanocapsules were non-toxic in the range of 50-300 μg/mL over 72 h against both the human cerebral endothelial hCMEC/D3 and Human Brain Vascular Pericytes cell lines. Interestingly, higher uptake of magnetic nanocapsules in both cell types was evidenced in the presence of an external magnetic field than in the absence of it after 24 h. This increase in nanocapsules uptake was also evidenced in pericytes after only 3 h. Altogether, these results highlight the potential for magnetic targeting to the BBB of our formulation.

Nanoencapsulated deltamethrin combined with indoxacarb: An effective synergistic association against aphids

Widespread pesticide use for decades has caused environmental damage, biodiversity loss, serious human and animal health problems, and resistance to insecticides. Innovative strategies are needed to reduce treatment doses in pest management and to overcome insecticide resistance. In the present study, combinations of indoxacarb, an oxadiazine insecticide, with sublethal concentrations of deltamethrin encapsulated in lipid nanocapsules, have been tested on the crop pest Acyrthosiphon pisum. In vivo toxicological tests on A. pisum larvae have shown a synergistic effect of nanoencapsulated deltamethrin with a low dose of indoxacarb. Furthermore, the stability of deltamethrin nanoparticles has been demonstrated in vitro under different mimicking environmental conditions. In parallel, the integrity and stability of lipid nanoparticles in the digestive system of aphid larvae over time have been observed by Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) imaging. Thus, the deltamethrin nanocapsules/indoxacarb synergistic association is promising for the development of future formulations against pest insects to reduce insecticide doses.

A Novel 3D Printed Model of Infected Human Hair Follicles to Demonstrate Targeted Delivery of Nanoantibiotics

Hair follicle-penetrating nanoparticles offer a promising avenue for targeted antibiotic delivery, especially in challenging infections like acne inversa or folliculitis decalvans. However, demonstrating their efficacy with existing preclinical models remains difficult. This study presents an innovative approach using a 3D in vitro organ culture system with human hair follicles to investigate the hypothesis that antibiotic nanocarriers may reach bacteria within the follicular cleft more effectively than free drugs. Living human hair follicles were transplanted into a collagen matrix within a 3D printed polymer scaffold to replicate the follicle's microenvironment. Hair growth kinetics over 7 days resembled those of simple floating cultures. In the 3D model, fluorescent nanoparticles exhibited some penetration into the follicle, not observed in floating cultures. Staphylococcus aureus bacteria displayed similar distribution profiles postinfection of follicles. While rifampicin-loaded lipid nanocapsules were as effective as free rifampicin in floating cultures, only nanoencapsulated rifampicin achieved the same reduction of CFU/mL in the 3D model. This underscores the hair follicle microenvironment's critical role in limiting conventional antibiotic treatment efficacy. By mimicking this microenvironment, the 3D model demonstrates the advantage of topically administered nanocarriers for targeted antibiotic therapy against follicular infections.

Evidence of residual micellar structures in a lipid nanocapsule dispersion. A multi-technique approach

Nanoemulsions are metastable emulsions in the nanometric range which can be obtained using low-energy processes. A decade ago, it was demonstrated that a non-negligible amount of residual surfactant micelles may coexist with the oil nanodroplets in a model oil/surfactant system. Those micelles were called "wasted" micelles as they did not participate in the formation of the nanodroplets. Little attention has been focused on the potential presence or effect of such secondary structures in nanoemulsions used as drug delivery systems. Here, we present an extensive characterization of lipid nanocapsules, a nanoemulsion obtained from a medium-chain triglyceride mixed with a pegylated surfactant by a process comprising a temperature-dependent phase inversion followed by a cold-water quench. Lipid nanocapsules demonstrate a very good shelf stability. First, for clarity and academic purposes, we briefly present the pros and the cons of the various diffusion-based characterization techniques used i.e., multi-angle and single-angle dynamic light scattering, nanoparticle tracking analysis, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, and diffusometry nuclear magnetic resonance. Then, combining all these techniques, we show that up to 40 wt% of the surfactant is not involved in the lipid nanocapsule construction but forms residual micellar structures. Those micelles also contain a small quantity of medium-chain triglyceride (2 wt% of the initial amount) and encapsulate around 40 wt% of a fluorescent dye originally dispersed in the oily phase.

Virtual staining for pixel-wise and quantitative analysis of single cell images

Immunocytochemical staining of microorganisms and cells has long been a popular method for examining their specific subcellular structures in greater detail. Recently, generative networks have emerged as an alternative to traditional immunostaining techniques. These networks infer fluorescence signatures from various imaging modalities and then virtually apply staining to the images in a digital environment. In numerous studies, virtual staining models have been trained on histopathology slides or intricate subcellular structures to enhance their accuracy and applicability. Despite the advancements in virtual staining technology, utilizing this method for quantitative analysis of microscopic images still poses a significant challenge. To address this issue, we propose a straightforward and automated approach for pixel-wise image-to-image translation. Our primary objective in this research is to leverage advanced virtual staining techniques to accurately measure the DNA fragmentation index in unstained sperm images. This not only offers a non-invasive approach to gauging sperm quality, but also paves the way for streamlined and efficient analyses without the constraints and potential biases introduced by traditional staining processes. This novel approach takes into account the limitations of conventional techniques and incorporates improvements to bolster the reliability of the virtual staining process. To further refine the results, we discuss various denoising techniques that can be employed to reduce the impact of background noise on the digital images. Additionally, we present a pixel-wise image matching algorithm designed to minimize the error caused by background noise and to prevent the introduction of bias into the analysis. By combining these approaches, we aim to develop a more effective and reliable method for quantitative analysis of virtually stained microscopic images, ultimately enhancing the study of microorganisms and cells at the subcellular level.

VEGFR-2 adhesive nanoprobes reveal early diabetic retinopathy in vivo

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a debilitating organ manifestation of diabetes. Absent of early diagnosis and intervention, vision tends to drastically and irreversibly decline. Previously, we showed higher vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR-2) expression in diabetic microvessels, and the suitability of this molecule as a biomarker for early DR diagnosis. However, a hurdle to translation remained generation of biodegradable nanoprobes that are sufficiently bright for in vivo detection. Here, an adhesive fluorescent nanoprobe with high brightness was developed using biodegradable materials. To achieve that, a fluorophore with bulky hydrophobic groups was encapsulated in the nanoparticles to minimize fluorophore π-π stacking, which diminishes brightness at higher loading contents. The nanoprobe selectively targeted the VEGFR-2 under dynamic flow conditions. Upon systemic injection, the nanoprobes adhered in the retinal microvessels of diabetic mice and were visualized as bright spots in live retinal microscopy. Histology validated the in vivo results and showed binding of the nanoprobes to the microvascular endothelium and firmly adhering leukocytes. Leukocytes were found laden with nanoprobes, indicating the potential for payload transport across the blood-retinal barrier. Our results establish the translational potential of these newly generated nanoprobes in early diagnosis of DR.

Synthetic Ionizable Colloidal Drug Aggregates Enable Endosomal Disruption

Colloidal drug aggregates enable the design of drug-rich nanoparticles; however, the efficacy of stabilized colloidal drug aggregates is limited by entrapment in the endo-lysosomal pathway. Although ionizable drugs are used to elicit lysosomal escape, this approach is hindered by toxicity associated with phospholipidosis. It is hypothesized that tuning the pKa of the drug would enable endosomal disruption while avoiding phospholipidosis and minimizing toxicity. To test this idea, 12 analogs of the nonionizable colloidal drug fulvestrant are synthesized with ionizable groups to enable pH-dependent endosomal disruption while maintaining bioactivity. Lipid-stabilized fulvestrant analog colloids are endocytosed by cancer cells, and the pKa of these ionizable colloids influenced the mechanism of endosomal and lysosomal disruption. Four fulvestrant analogs-those with pKa values between 5.1 and 5.7-disrupted endo-lysosomes without measurable phospholipidosis. Thus, by manipulating the pKa of colloid-forming drugs, a tunable and generalizable strategy for endosomal disruption is established.

Dual-Labelled Nanoparticles Inform on the Stability of Fluorescent Labels In Vivo

Fluorescent labelling is commonly used to monitor the biodistribution of nanomedicines. However, meaningful interpretation of the results requires that the fluorescent label remains attached to the nanomedicine. In this work, we explore the stability of three fluorophores (BODIPY650, Cyanine 5 and AZ647) attached to polymeric hydrophobic biodegradable anchors. Using dual-labelled poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(lactic acid) (PEG-PLA) nanoparticles that are both radioactive and fluorescent, we investigated how the properties of the fluorophores impact the stability of the labelling in vitro and in vivo. Results suggest that the more hydrophilic dye (AZ647) is released faster from nanoparticles, and that this instability results in misinterpretation of in vivo data. While hydrophobic dyes are likely more suitable to track nanoparticles in biological environments, quenching of the fluorescence inside the nanoparticles can also introduce artefacts. Altogether, this work raises awareness about the importance of stable labelling methods when investigating the biological fate of nanomedicines.

Lipid nanocapsules for the nose-to-brain delivery of the anti-inflammatory bioactive lipid PGD2-G

Here, prostaglandin D₂-glycerol ester (PGD₂-G) was selected to target neuroinflammation. As PGD₂-G is reported to have a short plasmatic half-life, we propose to use lipid nanocapsules (LNC) as vehicle to safely transport PGD₂-G to the central nervous system (CNS). PGD₂-G-loaded LNC (PGD₂-G-LNC) reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in activated microglial cells, even so after crossing a primary olfactory cell monolayer. A single nasal administration of PGD₂-G-LNC in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated mice reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in the olfactory bulb. Coating LNC's surface with a cell-penetrating peptide, transactivator of transcription (TAT), increased its accumulation in the brain. Although TAT-coated PGD₂-G-LNC modestly exerted its anti-inflammatory effect in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis similar to free PGD₂-G after nasal administration, TAT-coated LNC surprisingly reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory chemokines in the CNS. These data propose LNC as an interesting drug delivery tool and TAT-coated PGD₂-G-LNC remains a good candidate, in need of further work.

Distinguishing nanoparticle drug release mechanisms by asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation

This research demonstrates the development, application, and mechanistic value of a multi-detector asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) approach to acquire size-resolved drug loading and release profiles from polymeric nanoparticles (NPs). AF4 was hyphenated with multiple online detectors, including dynamic and multi-angle light scattering for NP size and shape factor analysis, fluorescence for drug detection, and total organic carbon (TOC) to quantify the NPs and dissolved polymer in nanoformulations. The method was demonstrated on poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NPs loaded with coumarin 6 (C6) as a lipophilic drug surrogate. The bulk C6 release profile using AF4 was validated against conventional analysis of drug extracted from the NPs and complemented with high performance liquid chromatography - quadrupole time-of-flight (HPLC-QTOF) mass spectrometry analysis of oligomeric PLGA species. Interpretation of the bulk drug release profile was ambiguous, with several release models yielding reasonable fits. In contrast, the size-resolved release profiles from AF4 provided critical information to confidently establish the release mechanism. Specifically, the C6-loaded NPs exhibited size-independent release rate constants and no significant NP size or shape transformations, suggesting surface desorption rather than diffusion through the PLGA matrix or erosion. This conclusion was supported through comparative experimental evaluation of PLGA NPs carrying a fully entrapped drug, enrofloxacin, which showed size-dependent diffusive release, along with density functional theory (DFT) calculations indicating a higher adsorption affinity of C6 onto PLGA. In summary, the development of the size-resolved AF4 method and data analysis framework fulfills salient analytical gaps to determine drug localization and release mechanisms from nanomedicines.

In vitro interaction of polyethylene glycol-block-poly(D,L-lactide) nanocapsule devices with host cardiomyoblasts and Trypanosoma cruzi-infective forms

Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is an important public health problem in Latin America. Nanoencapsulation of anti-T. cruzi drugs has significantly improved their efficacy and reduced cardiotoxicity. Thus, we investigated the in vitro interaction of polyethylene glycol-block-poly(D,L-lactide) nanocapsules (PEG-PLA) with trypomastigotes and with intracellular amastigotes of the Y strain in cardiomyoblasts, which are the infective forms of T. cruzi, using fluorescence and confocal microscopy. Fluorescently labeled nanocapsules (NCs) were internalized by non-infected H9c2 cells toward the perinuclear region. The NCs did not induce significant cytotoxicity in the H9c2 cells, even at the highest concentrations and interacted equally with infected and non-infected cells. In infected cardiomyocytes, NCs were distributed in the cytoplasm and located near intracellular amastigote forms. PEG-PLA NCs and trypomastigote form interactions also occurred. Altogether, this study contributes to the development of engineered polymeric nanocarriers as a platform to encapsulate drugs and to improve their uptake by different intra- and extracellular forms of T. cruzi, paving the way to find new therapeutic strategies to fight the causative agent of Chagas disease.

Development of a nanocapsule-loaded hydrogel for drug delivery for intraperitoneal administration

Intraperitoneal (IP) drug delivery of chemotherapeutic agents, administered through hyperthermal intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC) and pressurized intraperitoneal aerosolized chemotherapy (PIPAC), is effective for the treatment of peritoneal malignancies. However, these therapeutic interventions are cumbersome in terms of surgical practice and are often associated with the formation of peritoneal adhesions, due to the catheters inserted into the peritoneal cavity during these procedures. Hence, there is a need for the development of drug delivery systems that can be administered into the peritoneal cavity. In this study, we have developed a nanocapsule (NCs)-loaded hydrogel for drug delivery in the peritoneal cavity. The hydrogel has been developed using poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and thiol-maleimide chemistry. NCs-loaded hydrogels were characterized by rheology and their resistance to dilution and drug release were determined in vitro. Using IVIS® to measure individual organ and recovered gel fluorescence intensity, an in vivo imaging study was performed and demonstrated that NCs incorporated in the PEG gel were retained in the IP cavity for 24 h after IP administration. NCs-loaded PEG gels could find potential applications as biodegradable, drug delivery systems that could be implanted in the IP cavity, for example at a the tumour resection site to prevent recurrence of microscopic tumours.

Modified Lipid Nanocapsules for Targeted Tanshinone IIA Delivery in Liver Fibrosis

Introduction

Liver fibrosis represents a serious global disease with no approved treatment. Tanshinone IIA (TSIIA) is a phytomedicine with documented activity in treating many hepatic disorders. TSIIA has been reported to have potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. It can also induce apoptosis for activated hepatic stellate cells, and is thereby considered as a promising herbal remedy for treating fibrotic liver. However, its poor aqueous solubility, short half-life, exposure to the first-pass effect, and low concentration reaching targeted cells constitute the major barriers hindering its effective therapeutic potential. Therefore, this work aimed at enhancing TSIIA systemic bioavailability together with achieving active targeting potential to fibrotic liver via its incorporation into novel modified lipid nanocapsules (LNCs).

Methods

Blank and TSIIA-loaded LNCs modified with either hyaluronate sodium or phosphatidyl serine were successfully prepared, optimized, and characterized both in vitro and in vivo.

Results

The developed LNCs showed good colloidal properties (size ≤100 nm and PDI ≤0.2), high drug-entrapment efficiency (>97%) with sustained-release profile for 24 hours, high storage stability up to 6 months, and good in vitro serum stability. After a single intraperitoneal injection, the administered LNCs exhibited a 2.4-fold significant increase in AUC_0–∞ compared with the TSIIA suspension (p≤0.01). Biodistribution-study results proved the liver-targeting ability of the prepared modified LNCs, with a significant ~1.5-fold increase in hepatic accumulation compared with the unmodified formulation (p≤0.05). Moreover, the modified formulations had an improved antifibrotic effect compared with both unmodified LNCs and TSIIA suspension, as evidenced by the results of biochemical and histopathological evaluation.

Conclusion

The modified TSIIA-LNCs could be regarded as promising novel targeted nanomedicines for effective management of liver fibrosis.

Fluorescently Labeled PLGA Nanoparticles for Visualization In Vitro and In Vivo: The Importance of Dye Properties

Fluorescently labeled nanoparticles are widely used for evaluating their distribution in the biological environment. However, dye leakage can lead to misinterpretations of the nanoparticles' biodistribution. To better understand the interactions of dyes and nanoparticles and their biological environment, we explored PLGA nanoparticles labeled with four widely used dyes encapsulated (coumarin 6, rhodamine 123, DiI) or bound covalently to the polymer (Cy5.5.). The DiI label was stable in both aqueous and lipophilic environments, whereas the quick release of coumarin 6 was observed in model media containing albumin (42%) or liposomes (62%), which could be explained by the different affinity of these dyes to the polymer and lipophilic structures and which we also confirmed by computational modeling (log PDPPC/PLGA: DiI-2.3, Cou6-0.7). The importance of these factors was demonstrated by in vivo neuroimaging (ICON) of the rat retina using double-labeled Cy5.5/Cou6-nanoparticles: encapsulated Cou6 quickly leaked into the tissue, whereas the stably bound Cy.5.5 label remained associated with the vessels. This observation is a good example of the possible misinterpretation of imaging results because the coumarin 6 distribution creates the impression that nanoparticles effectively crossed the blood-retina barrier, whereas in fact no signal from the core material was found beyond the blood vessels.

Liposomal Extravasation and Accumulation in Tumors as Studied by Fluorescence Microscopy and Imaging Depend on the Fluorescent Label

Tumor trafficking of liposomes is routinely monitored via fluorescence microscopy and imaging. To investigate whether an accumulation of liposomes depends on the type of fluorescent label, we prepared PEGylated liposomes dual-labeled with indocarbocyanine lipids (ICLs: DiD or DiI) and fluorescent phospholipids (FPLs: Cy3-DSPE or Cy5-DSPE) with similar cyanine headgroups but different spectra. Using ex vivo confocal microscopy and imaging, we compared tumor extravasation and accumulation of ICLs and FPLs. After systemic injection in a syngeneic mouse model of 4T1 breast cancer, ICLs and FPLs initially colocalized in tumor blood vessels and perivascular space. At later time points, ICLs spread over a significantly larger tumor area and accumulated in tumor macrophages, whereas FPLs were mostly restricted to the vasculature with limited extravascular signal. This phenomenon was independent of liposomal composition and ICL/FPL type and was also observed in syngeneic intracranial GL261 glioma and LY2 head and neck cancer models. The dual-labeled liposomes were stable in plasma and delivered both dyes to tumors at early time points. Notably, while the level of ICLs increased over time, FPLs gradually disappeared from tumors and other organs in vivo, likely due to degradation of the phospholipid. These findings demonstrate that trafficking and stability of the label is of critical importance when assessing extravasation and accumulation of nanocarriers in tumors and other organs by fluorescence microscopy and imaging.

Specificity of pharmacokinetic modeling of nanomedicines

Nanomedicines have been developed for more than four decades to optimize the pharmacokinetics (PK) of drugs, especially absorption, distribution, and stability in vivo. Unfortunately, only a few drug products have reached the market. One reason among others is the lack of proper PK modeling and evaluation, which impedes the optimization of these promising drug delivery systems. In this review, we discuss the specificity of nanomedicines and propose key parameters to take into account for future accurate PK evaluation of nanomedicine. We believe that this could help these innovative drug products to reach to market and change the fate of many diseases.

Evaluation of Biodegradable PVA-Based 3D Printed Carriers during Dissolution

The presence of additive manufacturing, especially 3D printing, has the potential to revolutionize pharmaceutical manufacturing owing to the distinctive capabilities of personalized pharmaceutical manufacturing. This study's aim was to examine the behavior of commonly used polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) under in vitro dissolution conditions. Polylactic acid (PLA) was also used as a comparator. The carriers were designed and fabricated using computer-aided design (CAD). After printing the containers, the behavior of PVA under in vitro simulated biorelevant conditions was monitored by gravimetry and dynamic light scattering (DLS) methods. The results show that in all the dissolution media PVA carriers were dissolved; the particle size was under 300 nm. However, the dissolution rate was different in various dissolution media. In addition to studying the PVA, as drug delivery carriers, the kinetics of drug release were investigated. These dissolution test results accompanied with UV spectrophotometry tracking indirectly determine the possibilities for modifying the output of quality by computer design.

Cyclosporine Lipid Nanocapsules as Thermoresponsive Gel for Dry Eye Management: Promising Corneal Mucoadhesion, Biodistribution and Preclinical Efficacy in Rabbits

An ophthalmic cyclosporine (CsA) formulation based on Lipid nanocapsules (LNC) was developed for dry eye management, aiming to provide targeting to ocular tissues with long-term drug levels and maximum tolerability. CsA-LNC were of small particle size (41.9 ± 4.0 nm), narrow size distribution (PdI ≤ 0.1), and high entrapment efficiency (above 98%). Chitosan (C) was added to impart positive charge. CsA-LNC were prepared as in-situ gels using poloxamer 407 (P). Ex vivo mucoadhesive strength was evaluated using bovine cornea, while in vivo corneal biodistribution (using fluorescent DiI), efficacy in dry eye using Schirmer tear test (STT), and ocular irritation using Draize test were studied in rabbits compared to marketed ophthalmic CsA nanoemulsion (CsA-NE) and CsA in castor oil. LNC incorporation in in-situ gels resulted in an increase in mucoadhesion, and stronger fluorescence in corneal layers seen by confocal microscopy, compared to the other tested formulations. Rate of recovery (days required to restore corneal baseline hydration level) assessed over 10 days, showed that CsA-LNC formulations produced complete recovery by day 7 comparable to CsA-NE. No Ocular irritation was observed by visual and histopathological examination. Based on data generated, CsA-LNC-CP in-situ gel proved to be a promising effective nonirritant CsA ophthalmic formulation for dry eye management.

Release, transfer and partition of fluorescent dyes from polymeric nanocarriers to serum proteins monitored by asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation

Fluorescent probes are used in drug nanocarrier pre-clinical studies or as active compounds in theranostics and photodynamic therapy. In the biological medium, nanoparticles interact with proteins, which can result in the off-target release of their cargo. The present study used asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation with online multi-angle laser light scattering and fluorescence detection (AF4-MALLS-FLD) to study the release, transfer, and partition of fluorescent dyes from polymeric nanoparticles (NP). NP formulations containing the dyes Rose Bengal, Rhodamine B, DiI, 3-(α-azidoacetyl)coumarin and its polymer conjugate, Nile Red, and IR780 and its polymer conjugate were prepared. NP suspensions were incubated in a medium with serum proteins and then analyzed by AF4. AF4 allowed efficient separation of proteins (< 10 nm) from fluorescently labeled NP (range of 54 - 180 nm in diameters). The AF4 analyses showed that some dyes, such as Rose Bengal, IR780, and Coumarin were transferred to a high extent (68-77%) from NP to proteins. By contrast, for DiI and dye-polymer conjugates, transfer occured to a lower extent. The studies of dye release kinetics showed that the transfer of IR780 from NP to proteins occurs at a high extent (~50%) and rate, while Nile Red was slowly released from the NP over time with reduced association with proteins (~20%). This experiment assesses the stability of fluorescence labeling of nanocarriers and probes the transfer of fluorescent dyes from NP to proteins, which is otherwise not accessible with commonly used techniques of separation, such as dialysis and ultrafiltration/centrifugation employed in drug encapsulation and release studies of nanocarriers. Determining the interaction and transfer of dyes to proteins is of utmost importance in the pre-clinical evaluation of drug nanocarriers for improved correlation between in vitro and in vivo studies.

Molecular Modelling Guided Modulation of Molecular Shape and Charge for Design of Smart Self-Assembled Polymeric Drug Transporters

Nanomedicine employs molecular materials for prevention and treatment of disease. Recently, smart nanoparticle (NP)-based drug delivery systems were developed for the advanced transport of drug molecules. Rationally engineered organic and inorganic NP platforms hold the promise of improving drug targeting, solubility, prolonged circulation, and tissue penetration. However, despite great progress in the synthesis of NP building blocks, more interdisciplinary research is needed to understand their self-assembly and optimize their performance as smart nanocarriers. Multi-scale modeling and simulations provide a valuable ally to experiment by mapping the potential energy landscape of self-assembly, translocation, and delivery of smart drug-loaded NPs. Here, we highlight key recent advances to illustrate the concepts, methods, and applications of smart polymer-based NP drug delivery. We summarize the key design principles emerging for advanced multifunctional polymer topologies, illustrating how the unusual architecture and chemistry of dendritic polymers, self-assembling polyelectrolytes and cyclic polymers can provide exceptional drug delivery platforms. We provide a roadmap outlining the opportunities and challenges for the effective use of predictive multiscale molecular modeling techniques to accelerate the development of smart polymer-based drug delivery systems.

Lipid-based nanocarriers co-loaded with artemether and triglycerides of docosahexaenoic acid: Effects on human breast cancer cells

Artemether (ART) was combined with triglyceride of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) as the lipid-core in nanoemulsions (NE), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), and PEG-PLA nanocapsules (NC) formulations, and their effects on human breast cancer cells were evaluated. ART has been extensively used for malaria and has also therapeutic potential against different tumor cells in a repositioning strategy. The concentration-dependent cytotoxicity in vitro was determined in tumor lineages, MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7, and non-tumor MCF-10A cells for free-ART/DHA combination and its formulations. The cells were monitored for viability, effects on cell migration and clonogenicity, cell death mechanism, and qualitative and quantitative cell uptake of nanocarriers. The lipid-nanocarriers showed mean sizes over the range of 110 and 280 nm with monodisperse populations and zeta potential values ranging from -21 to -67 mV. The ART encapsulation efficiencies varied from 57 to 83 %. ART/DHA co-loaded in three different lipid nanocarriers reduced the MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 viability in a dose-dependent manner with enhanced selectivity toward tumor cell lines. They also reduced clonogenicity and the ability of cells to migrate showing antimetastatic potential in both cell lines and triggered apoptosis in MCF-7 cells. Confocal microscopy and flow cytometry analysis showed that NC, NLC, and NE were rapidly internalized by cells, with higher interaction displayed by NE with MCF-7 cells compared to NC and NLC that was correlated with the strongest NE-fluorescence in cells. Therefore, this study not only demonstrated the value of this new combination of ART/DHA as a new strategy for breast cancer therapy but also showed enhanced cytotoxicity and potential metastatic activity of lipid-based formulations against human breast cancer cells that indicate great potential for pre-clinical and clinical translation.

p722 ferrocifen loaded lipid nanocapsules improve survival of murine xenografted-melanoma via a potentiation of apoptosis and an activation of CD8+ T lymphocytes

Metastatic melanoma is a malignant tumor with a poor prognosis. Recent new therapeutics improved the survival of patients at a metastatic stage. However, the low response rate to immunotherapy, explained in part by resistance to apoptosis, needs to develop new strategies. The ferrocifen family represents promising bioorganometallic molecules for melanoma treatment since they show potent anticancer properties. The aim of this study is (i) to evaluate the benefits of a strategy involving encapsulated p722 in lipid nanocapsules (LNC) in B16F10 melanoma mice models and (ii) to compare the beneficial effects with an existing therapy such as anti-CTLA4 mAb. Interestingly, LNC-p722 induces a significant decrease of melanoma cell viability. In vivo data shows a significant improvement in the survival rate and a slower tumor growth with p722-loaded LNC in comparison with anti-CTLA4 mAb. Western blots confirm that LNC-p722 potentiates intrinsic apoptotic pathway. Treatment with LNC-p722 significantly activates CD8⁺ T lymphocytes compared to treatment with anti-CTLA4 mAb. This study uncovers a new therapeutic strategy with encapsulated p722 to prevent B16F10 melanoma growth and to improve survival of treated mice.

Correlation between in vitro stability and pharmacokinetics of poly(ε-caprolactone)-based micelles loaded with a photosensitizer

Polymeric micelles are extensively investigated as drug delivery systems for hydrophobic drugs including photosensitizers (PSs). In order to benefit from micelles as targeted delivery systems for PS, rather than only solubilizers, the stability and cargo retention of the (PS-loaded) micelles should be properly assessed in biologically relevant media to get insight into the essential parameters predicting their in vivo performance (i.e., pharmacokinetics). In the present study, asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) was used to investigate the in vitro stability in human plasma of empty and meta-tetra(hydroxyphenyl)chlorin (mTHPC)-loaded dithiolane-crosslinked micelles based on poly(ɛ-caprolactone)-co-poly(1,2-dithiolane‑carbonate)-b-poly(ethylene glycol) (p(CL-co-DTC)-PEG) and non (covalently)-crosslinked micelles composed of poly(ε-caprolactone)-b-poly(ethylene glycol) (pCL-PEG). AF4 allows separation of the micelles from plasma proteins, which showed that small non (covalently)-crosslinked pCL₉-PEG (17 nm) and pCL₁₅-PEG (22 nm) micelles had lower stability in plasma than pCL₂₃-PEG micelles with larger size (43 nm) and higher degree of crystallinity of pCL, and had also lower stability than covalently crosslinked p(CL₉-DTC_3.9)-PEG and p(CL₁₈-DTC_7.5)-PEG micelles with similar small sizes (~20 nm). In addition, PS (re)distribution to specific plasma proteins was observed by AF4, giving strong indications for the (in)stability of PS-loaded micelles in plasma. Nevertheless, fluorescence spectroscopy in human plasma showed that the retention of mTHPC in non (covalently)-crosslinked but semi-crystalline pCL₂₃-PEG micelles (>8 h) was much longer than that in covalently crosslinked p(CL₁₈-DTC_7.5)-PEG micelles (~4 h). In line with this, in vivo circulation kinetics showed that pCL₂₃-PEG micelles loaded with mTHPC had significantly longer half-life values (t½-β of micelles and mTHPC was 14 and 18 h, respectively) than covalently crosslinked p(CL₁₈-DTC_7.5)-PEG micelles (t½-β of both micelles and mTHPC was ~2 h). As a consequence, long circulating pCL₂₃-PEG micelles resulted in significantly higher tumor accumulation of both the micelles and loaded mTHPC as compared to short circulating p(CL₁₈-DTC_7.5)-PEG micelles. These in vivo data were in good agreement with the in vitro stability studies. In conclusion, the present study points out that AF4 and fluorescence spectroscopy are excellent tools to evaluate the (in)stability of nanoparticles in biological media and thus predict the (in)stability of drug loaded nanoparticles after i.v. administration, which is favorable to screen promising delivery systems with reduced experimental time and costs and without excessive use of animals.

Lipid Nanoparticles Vectorized with NFL-TBS.40-63 Peptide Target Oligodendrocytes and Promote Neurotrophin-3 Effects After Demyelination In Vitro

Promoting remyelination in multiple sclerosis is important to prevent axon degeneration, given the lack of curative treatment. Although some growth factors improve this repair, unspecific delivery to cells and potential side effects limit their therapeutic use. Thus, NFL-TBS.40-63 peptide (NFL)-known to enter specifically myelinating oligodendrocytes (OL)-was used to vectorize 100 nm diameter lipid nanoparticles (LNC), and the ability of NFL-LNC to specifically target OL from newborn rat brain was assessed in vitro. Specific uptake of DiD-labeled NFL-LNC by OL characterized by CNP and myelin basic protein was observed by confocal microscopy, as well as DiD colocalization with NFL and with Rab5-a marker of early endosomes. Unvectorized LNC did not significantly penetrate OL and there was no uptake of NFL-LNC by astrocytes. Canonical maturation of OL which extended compacted myelin-like membranes was observed by transmission electron microscopy in cells grown up to 9 days with NFL-LNC. Endocytosis of NFL-LNC appeared to depend on several pathways, as demonstrated by inhibitors. In addition, vectorized NFL-LNC adsorbed on neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) potentiated the proremyelinating effects of NT-3 after demyelination by lysophosphatidyl choline, allowing noticeably decreasing NT-3 concentration. Our results if they were confirmed in vivo suggest that NFL-vectorized LNC appear safe and could be considered as putative carriers for specific drug delivery to OL in order to increase remyelination.

Novel hybrid lipid nanocapsules loaded with a therapeutic monoclonal antibody - Bevacizumab - and Triamcinolone acetonide for combined therapy in neovascular ocular pathologies

The aim of this study was to design and develop a novel hybrid formulation based on lipid nanocapsules containing bevacizumab (BVZ), an effective therapeutic antibody, on the surface and triamcinolone acetonide (TA) in the inner core (BVZ-TA-LNC) intended to improve ocular therapy. Hence, a phase inversion-insertion one step method was developed to drug loading and surface modification of lipid nanocapsules by post-insertion of a bifunctional polymer, followed by antibody coupling using "click" chemistry. The covalent bond and antibody capacity binding to its specific antigen were confirmed by thermal analysis and immunoassay, respectively. BVZ-TA-LNC presented nanometric size (102 nm), negative surface potential (-19 mV) and exhibiting 56% of TA in the lipid core. BVZ-TA-LNC tended to prevent the endothelial cell migration and significantly prevented the capillary formation induced by the vascular endothelium growth factor (VEGF). The novel hybrid system allowed the co-loading of two different therapeutic molecules and may be promising to improve the therapy of eye disorders that occur with inflammation and/or neovascularization.

Design of dye and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticle loaded lipid nanocapsules with dual detectability in vitro and in vivo

Lipid nanocapsules are treasured nanoparticulate systems, although they lack detectability in biological environments. To overcome this, we designed LNCs loaded simultaneously with fluorescent dye and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (Dual LNCs). The introduction of both labels did not alter nanoparticle characteristics such as size (50 nm), size distribution (polydispersity index < 0.1) or surface modifications, including the effectiveness of targeting ligands. Furthermore, the colloidal stability, particle integrity and biocompatibility of the nanoparticles were not negatively affected by label incorporation. These Dual LNCs are concomitantly visualizable via fluorescence and transmitted light imaging after either the internalization by cells or systemic administration to mice. Importantly, they are detectable in liver sections of mice using transmission electron microscopy without additional enhancement. The iron content of 0.24% (m/m) is sufficiently high for precise quantification of nanoparticle concentrations via inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy. Dual LNCs are precious tools for the investigation of in vitro and in vivo performances of lipid nanocapsule formulations, since they allow for the use of complementary imaging methods for broad range detectability.

Enhanced optical imaging properties of lipid nanocapsules as vehicles for fluorescent conjugated polymers

Conjugated polymer nanoparticles (CPNs) have emerged as highly photostable probes for optical and photoacoustic imaging. However, the aggregation of conjugated polymer (CP) molecules upon nanoparticle formation is associated with fluorescence quenching, poor yields and mutable particle sizes. This study investigated whether the CP encapsulation within the liquid midchain triglyceride (MCT) core of lipid nanocapsules (LNCs) may achieve reduced packing of CP chains leading to a stable system with enhanced optical features. The red- and near infrared-emitting CPs, CN-PPV and PCPDTBT, showed precipitation and aggregation-induced quenching with concentrations >~25 µg/mL in MCT alone. Despite this, CP encapsulation within LNCs abolished quenching at concentrations up to 1500 µg/mL. PCPDTBT-LNCs exhibited a quantum yield of 2.8% and a higher signal:background ratio in an optical imaging phantom compared to literature reports of PCPDTBT encapsulated in PEG-PLGA nanoparticles. In contrast, PCPDTBT-LNCs had slightly lower photoacoustic amplitudes than reported PEG-PLGA systems. CP-LNCs were also stable in size (32 ± 0.7 nm) and photoluminescence over 21 days at 4 °C, 25 °C and 37 °C. In summary, encapsulation of CP within the liquid core of lipid nanocapsules enhances the optical properties of fluorescent CP.

Delivery of a model lipophilic membrane cargo to bone marrow via cell-derived microparticles

Bone marrow (BM) is the central immunological organ and the origin of hematological diseases. Efficient and specific drug delivery to the BM is an unmet need. We tested delivery of fluorescent indocarbocyanine lipids (ICLs, DiR, DiD, DiI) as a model lipophilic cargo, via different carriers. Systemically injected T-lymphocyte cell line Jurkat delivered ICLs to the BM more efficiently than erythrocytes, and more selectively than PEGylated liposomes. Near infrared imaging showed that the delivery was restricted to the BM, lungs, liver and spleen, with no accumulation in the kidneys, brain, heart, intestines, fat tissue and pancreas. Following systemic injection of ICL-labeled cells in immunodeficient or immunocompetent mice, few cells arrived in the BM intact. However, between 5 and 10% of BM cells were ICL-positive. Confocal microscopy of intact BM confirmed that ICLs are delivered independently of the injected cells. Flow cytometry analysis showed that the lipid accumulated in both CD11b + and CD11b- cells, and in hematopoietic progenitors. In a xenograft model of acute myeloid leukemia, a single injection of 10 million Jurkat cells delivered DiD to ~15% of the tumor cells. ICL-labeled cells disappeared from blood almost immediately post-intravenous injection, but numerous cell-derived microparticles continued to circulate in blood. The microparticle particle formation was not due to the ICL labeling or complement attack and was observed after injection of both syngeneic and xenogeneic cells. Injection of microparticles produced in vitro from Jurkat cells resulted in a similar ICL delivery as the injection of intact Jurkat cells. Our results demonstrate a novel delivery paradigm wherein systemically injected cells release microparticles that accumulate in the BM. In addition, the results have important implications for studies involving systemically administered cell therapies.

Biological response and cytotoxicity induced by lipid nanocapsules

Background

Lipid nanocapsules (LNCs) are promising vehicles for drug delivery. However, since not much was known about cellular toxicity of these nanoparticles in themselves, we have here investigated the mechanisms involved in LNC-induced intoxication of the three breast cancer cell lines MCF-7, MDA-MD-231 and MDA-MB-468. The LNCs used were made of Labrafac™ Lipophile WL1349, Lipoid^® S75 and Solutol^® HS15.

Results

High resolution SIM microscopy showed that the DiD-labeled LNCs ended up in lysosomes close to the membrane. Empty LNCs, i.e. without encapsulated drug, induced not only increased lysosomal pH, but also acidification of the cytosol and a rapid inhibition of protein synthesis. The cytotoxicity of the LNCs were measured for up to 72 h of incubation using the MTT assay and ATP measurements in all three cell lines, and revealed that MDA-MB-468 was the most sensitive cell line and MCF-7 the least sensitive cell line to these LNCs. The LNCs induced generation of reactive free oxygen species and lipid peroxidation. Experiments with knock-down of kinases in the near-haploid cell line HAP1 indicated that the kinase HRI is essential for the observed phosphorylation of eIF2α. Nrf2 and ATF4 seem to play a protective role against the LNCs in MDA-MB-231 cells, as knock-down of these factors sensitizes the cells to the LNCs. This is in contrast to MCF-7 cells where the knock-down of these factors had a minor effect on the toxicity of the LNCs. Inhibitors of ferroptosis provided a large protection against LNC toxicity in MDA-MB-231 cells, but not in MCF-7 cells.

Conclusions

High doses of LNCs showed a different degree of toxicity on the three cell lines studied, i.e. MCF-7, MDA-MD-231 and MDA-MB-468 and affected signaling factors and the cell fate differently in these cell lines.

Poly(triazolyl methacrylate) glycopolymers as potential targeted unimolecular nanocarriers

Synthetic glycopolymers are increasingly investigated as multivalent ligands for a range of biological and biomedical applications. This study indicates that glycopolymers with a fine-tuned balance between hydrophilic sugar pendant units and relatively hydrophobic polymer backbones can act as single-chain targeted nanocarriers for low molecular weight hydrophobic molecules. Non-covalent complexes formed from poly(triazolyl methacrylate) glycopolymers and low molecular weight hydrophobic guest molecules were characterised through a range of analytical techniques - DLS, SLS, TDA, fluorescence spectroscopy, surface tension analysis - and molecular dynamics (MD) modelling simulations provided further information on the macromolecular characteristics of these single chain complexes. Finally, we show that these nanocarriers can be utilised to deliver a hydrophobic guest molecule, Nile red, to both soluble and surface-immobilised concanavalin A (Con A) and peanut agglutinin (PNA) model lectins with high specificity, showing the potential of non-covalent complexation with specific glycopolymers in targeted guest-molecule delivery.

Self-assembled hyaluronan nanocapsules for the intracellular delivery of anticancer drugs

Preparation of sophisticated delivery systems for nanomedicine applications generally involve multi-step procedures using organic solvents. In this study, we have developed a simple self-assembling process to prepare docetaxel-loaded hyaluronic acid (HA) nanocapsules by using a self-emulsification process without the need of organic solvents, heat or high shear forces. These nanocapsules, which comprise an oily core and a shell consisting of an assembly of surfactants and hydrophobically modified HA, have a mean size of 130 nm, a zeta potential of -20 mV, and exhibit high docetaxel encapsulation efficiency. The nanocapsules exhibited an adequate stability in plasma. Furthermore, in vitro studies performed using A549 lung cancer cells, showed effective intracellular delivery of docetaxel. On the other hand, blank nanocapsules showed very low cytotoxicity. Overall, these results highlight the potential of self-emulsifying HA nanocapsules for intracellular drug delivery.

Facile Hydrophobication of Glutathione-Protected Gold Nanoclusters and Encapsulation into Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) Nanocarriers

We report a simple surface functionalization of glutathione-capped gold nanoclusters by hydrophobic ion pairing with alkylamine followed by a complete phase transfer to various organic solvents with maintained colloidal stability and photoluminescence properties. The described surface hydrophobication enables efficient encapsulation of gold nanoclusters into PLGA nanocarriers allowing their visualization inside cultured cells using confocal fluorescent microscopy. The simplicity and efficiency of the described protocols should extend the biomedical applications of these metallic nanoclusters as a fluorescent platform to label hydrophobic polymeric nanocarriers beyond conventional organic dyes.

Nanoencapsulated deltamethrin as synergistic agent potentiates insecticide effect of indoxacarb through an unusual neuronal calcium-dependent mechanism

The use of neurotoxic chemical insecticides has led to consequences against the environment, insect resistances and side-effects on non-target organisms. In this context, we developed a novel strategy to optimize insecticide efficacy while reducing doses. It is based on nanoencapsulation of a pyrethroid insecticide, deltamethrin, used as synergistic agent, combined with a non-encapsulated oxadiazine (indoxacarb). In this case, the synergistic agent is used to increase insecticide efficacy by activation of calcium-dependant intracellular signaling pathways involved in the regulation of the membrane target of insecticides. In contrast to permethrin (pyrethroid type I), we report that deltamethrin (pyrethroid type II) produces an increase in intracellular calcium concentration in insect neurons through the reverse Na/Ca exchanger. The resulting intracellular calcium rise rendered voltage-gated sodium channels more sensitive to lower concentration of the indoxacarb metabolite DCJW. Based on these findings, in vivo studies were performed on the cockroach Periplaneta americana and mortality rates were measured at 24 h, 48 h and 72 h after treatments. Comparative studies of the toxicity between indoxacarb alone and indoxacarb combined with deltamethrin or nanoencapsulated deltamethrin (LNC-deltamethrin), indicated that LNC-deltamethrin potentiated the effect of indoxacarb. We also demonstrated that nanoencapsulation protected deltamethrin from esterase-induced enzymatic degradation and led to optimize indoxacarb efficacy while reducing doses. Moreover, our results clearly showed the benefit of using LNC-deltamethrin rather than piperonyl butoxide and deltamethrin in combination commonly used in formulation. This innovative strategy offers promise for increasing insecticide efficacy while reducing both doses and side effects on non-target organisms.

Cannabidiol Enhances the Passage of Lipid Nanocapsules across the Blood-Brain Barrier Both in Vitro and in Vivo

Diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS) should be regarded as a major health challenge due to the current lack of effective treatments given the hindrance to brain drug delivery imposed by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Since efficient brain drug delivery should not solely rely on passive targeting, active targeting of nanomedicines into the CNS is being explored. The present study is devoted to the development of lipid nanocapsules (LNCs) decorated with nonpsychotropic cannabinoids as pioneering nonimmunogenic brain-targeting molecules and to the evaluation of their brain-targeting ability both in vitro and in vivo. Noticeably, both the permeability experiments across the hCMEC/D3 cell-based in vitro BBB model and the biodistribution experiments in mice consistently demonstrated that the highest brain-targeting ability was achieved with the smallest-sized cannabinoid-decorated LNCs. Importantly, the enhancement in brain targeting achieved with the conjugation of cannabidiol to LNCs outperformed by 6-fold the enhancement observed for the G-Technology (the main brain active strategy that has already entered clinical trials for the treatment of CNS diseases). As the transport efficiency across the BBB certainly determines the efficacy of the treatments for brain disorders, small cannabinoid-decorated LNCs represent auspicious platforms for the design and development of novel therapies for CNS diseases.

Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of the biomaterials used in Nanocarrier drug delivery systems

Nanocarriers (NCs) are a type of drug delivery system commonly used to regulate the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of drugs. Although a wide variety of NCs has been developed, relatively few have been registered for clinical trials and even fewer are clinically approved. Overt or potential toxicity, indistinct mechanisms of drug release and unsatisfactory pharmacokinetic behavior all contribute to their high failure rate during preclinical and clinical testing. These negative characteristics are not only due to the NCs themselves but also to the materials of the drug nanocarrier system (MDNS) that are released in vivo. In this article, we review the main analytical techniques used for bioassay of NCs and MDNS and their pharmacokinetics after administration by various routes. We anticipate our review will serve to improve the understanding of MDNS pharmacokinetics and facilitate the development of NC drug delivery systems.

Study of a Miniaturizable System for Optical Sensing Application to Human Cells

Conventional approaches to human intracellular optical sensing, generally, require dedicated laboratories with bulky detection systems. They are performed by cell labeling procedures based on the use of fluorophores that are, mostly, phototoxic, invasive, bleached in case of prolonged light exposures, which require carriers and/or structural modifications for the cellular uptake. These issues, together with the sensitivity of the eukaryotic cell model, could be problematic towards the development of a robust sensing system suitable for biomedical screening. In this work, we studied a sensing system resulting from the combination of the commercial tris(2,2’bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) fluorophore, for cell labeling, with a potentially miniaturizable optical system composed by a laser source and a photomultiplier tube, for the fluorescence analysis.