Advancements in cell membrane camouflaged nanoparticles: A bioinspired platform for cancer therapy

Metal-organic frameworks: a biomimetic odyssey in cancer theranostics

This review comprehensively explores biomimetic metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and their significant applications in cancer theranostics. Although MOFs have promising features such as adjustable porosity, improved surface area, and multifunctionality, they are limited by factors like low biocompatibility and specificity. Biomimetic strategies involving biological membranes and materials are proposed to address these challenges. The review begins by examining the unique characteristics and preparation methods of biomimetic carriers used in MOF-based nanoplatforms, with a comparative analysis of each method. It then delves into the various biomedical applications of biomimetic MOFs, including biosensing, bioimaging, immunotherapy, gene therapy, and multimodal therapies. The review also discusses the bio-interaction of these nanoplatforms, including their immunogenicity and interactions with fluids and tissues. Toxicity perspectives are also critically assessed. Overall, the article emphasizes the need for continued research into biomimetic MOFs, highlighting their potential to overcome current obstacles and provide safe, effective, and targeted therapeutic options.

The Confluence of Nanotechnology and Heat Shock Protein 70 in Pioneering Glioblastoma Multiforme Therapy: Forging Pathways Towards Precision Targeting and Transformation

Heat-shock protein 70 (HSP70) and nanotechnology have emerged as promising avenues in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) therapy, addressing the critical challenges posed by its aggressive nature and therapeutic resistance. HSP70's dual role in cellular stress response and tumour survival emphasises its potential as both a biomarker and therapeutic target. This review explores the innovative integration of HSP70 with nanotechnology, emphasising advancements in imaging, drug delivery and combination therapies. Nanoparticles, including SPIONs, liposomes, gold nanoparticles and metal-organic frameworks, demonstrate enhanced targeting and therapeutic efficacy through HSP70 modulation. Functionalized nanocarriers exploit HSP70's tumour-specific overexpression to improve drug delivery, minimise off-target effects and overcome the blood-brain barrier. Emerging strategies such as chemophototherapy, immunotherapy and photothermal therapy leverage HSP70's interactions within the tumour microenvironment, enabling synergistic treatment modalities. The review also highlights translational challenges, including heterogeneity of GBM, regulatory hurdles and variability in the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Integrating computational modelling, personalised approaches and adaptive trial designs is crucial for clinical translation. By bridging nanotechnology and molecular biology, HSP70-targeted strategies hold transformative potential to redefine GBM diagnosis and treatment, offering hope for improved survival and quality of life. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00054041 and NCT04628806.

Neutrophil-Mediated Tumor Discrimination Biomimetic Nanodevice for Precise Tumor Eradication and Metastasis Cascade Perturbing

The deficient discrimination of tumor cells, limited accumulation of therapeutic agents in tumor foci, and undesirable tumor metastasis result in compromised therapeutic efficacy in antitumor therapy. Neutrophils, the most abundant circulating leukocytes, are key players in tumor progression and have a high affinity to tumors. Herein, a biomimetic tumor discrimination nanodevice (NL-FSB) is developed by harboring a pH-sensitive Fenton agent (FSB) in an activated neutrophil membrane-incorporated liposome for tumor-specific ablation. Inheriting the biointerfacing properties of neutrophils, NL-FSB is endowed with high affinity to tumors. On one hand, NL-FSB can be recruited to acidic tumor sites mediated by chemotaxis attraction and selectively generate reactive oxygen species via amplified Fenton chemical reaction for specific tumor eradication. On the other hand, the biomimetic NL-FSB can also target and bind tumor vascular endothelium or circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in circulation, executing pseudo escort to perturb CTC-neutrophil cluster formation and tumor metastasis cascade. Unprecedentedly, the neutrophil-mediated nanoagent can effectively inhibit the already-formed tumor and prevent tumor metastasis with high specificity. Our study represents a promising yet simple strategy for tumor-specific killing and metastasis cascade blockage via a nanobioengineering functionalization strategy.

Rational Design of Nanozymes for Engineered Cascade Catalytic Cancer Therapy

Nanozymes have shown significant potential in cancer catalytic therapy by strategically catalyzing tumor-associated substances and metabolites into toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) in situ, thereby inducing oxidative stress and promoting cancer cell death. However, within the complex tumor microenvironment (TME), the rational design of nanozymes and factors like activity, reaction substrates, and the TME itself significantly influence the efficiency of ROS generation. To address these limitations, recent research has focused on exploring the factors that affect activity and developing nanozyme-based cascade catalytic systems, which can trigger two or more cascade catalytic processes within tumors, thereby producing more therapeutic substances and achieving efficient and stable cancer therapy with minimal side effects. This area has shown remarkable progress. This Perspective provides a comprehensive overview of nanozymes, covering their classification and fundamentals. The regulation of nanozyme activity and efficient strategies of rational design are discussed in detail. Furthermore, representative paradigms for the successful construction of cascade catalytic systems for cancer treatment are summarized with a focus on revealing the underlying catalytic mechanisms. Finally, we address the current challenges and future prospects for the development of nanozyme-based cascade catalytic systems in biomedical applications.

Modern insights of nanotheranostics in the glioblastoma: An updated review

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly malignant subtype of glioma, originating from the glial cells that provide support to other neurons in the brain. GBM predominantly impacts the cerebral hemisphere of the brain, with minimal effects on the cerebellum, brain stem, or spinal cord. Individuals diagnosed with GBM commonly encounter a range of symptoms, starting from auditory abnormalities to seizures. Recently, cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles (CMCNPs) are evolving as promising theranostic agents that can carry specific biological moieties from their biological origin and effectively target GBM cells. Moreover, exosomes have gained widespread scientific attention as an effective drug delivery approach due to their excellent stability in the bloodstream, high biocompatibility, low immune response, and inherent targeting capabilities. Exosomes derived from specific cell types can transport endogenous signaling molecules that have therapeutic promise for GBM therapy. In this context, researchers are utilizing various techniques to isolate exosomes from liquid biomarkers from patients, such as serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Proper isolation of exosomes may induce the clinical diagnosis in GBM due to their commercial accessibility and real-time monitoring options. Since exosomes are unable to penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB), strategic theranostic methods are ideal. For this, understanding interactions between glioma-specific exosomes in the TME and biomarkers is necessary. The versatile characteristics of NPs and their capacity to cross the BBB enable them to be indispensable against GBM. In this review article, we discussed the recent theranostic applications of nanotechnology by comparing the limitations of existing nanotechnology-based approaches.

Biohybrid nano-platforms manifesting effective cancer therapy: Fabrication, characterization, challenges and clinical perspective

Nanotechnology-based delivery systems have brought a paradigm shift in the management of cancer. However, the main obstacles to nanocarrier-based delivery are their limited circulation duration, excessive immune clearance, inefficiency in interacting effectively in a biological context and overcoming biological barriers. This demands effective engineering of nanocarriers to achieve maximum efficacy. Nanocarriers can be maneuvered with biological components to acquire biological identity for further regulating their biodistribution and cell-to-cell cross-talk. Thus, the integration of synthetic and biological components to deliver therapeutic cargo is called a biohybrid delivery system. These delivery systems possess the advantage of synthetic nanocarriers, such as high drug loading, engineerable surface, reproducibility, adequate communication and immune evasion ability of biological constituents. The biohybrid delivery vectors offer an excellent opportunity to harness the synergistic properties of the best entities of the two worlds for improved therapeutic outputs. The major spotlights of this review are different biological components, synthetic counterparts of biohybrid nanocarriers, recent advances in hybridization techniques, and the design of biohybrid delivery systems for cancer therapy. Moreover, this review provides an overview of biohybrid systems with therapeutic and diagnostic applications. In a nutshell, this article summarizes the advantages and limitations of various biohybrid nano-platforms, their clinical potential and future directions for successful translation in cancer management.

Review of recent preclinical and clinical research on ligand-targeted liposomes as delivery systems in triple negative breast cancer therapy

Triple-negative breast Cancer (TNBC) is one of the deadliest types, making up about 20% of all breast cancers. Chemotherapy is the traditional manner of progressed TNBC treatment; however, it has a short-term result with a high reversibility pace. The lack of targeted treatment limited and person-dependent treatment options for those suffering from TNBC cautions to be the worst type of cancer among breast cancer patients. Consequently, appropriate treatment for this disease is considered a major clinical challenge. Therefore, various treatment methods have been developed to treat TNBC, among which chemotherapy is the most common and well-known approach recently studied. Although effective methods are chemotherapies, they are often accompanied by critical limitations, especially the lack of specific functionality. These methods lead to systematic toxicity and, ultimately, the expansion of multidrug-resistant (MDR) cancer cells. Therefore, finding novel and efficient techniques to enhance the targeting of TNBC treatment is an essential requirement. Liposomes have demonstrated that they are an effective method for drug delivery; however, among a large number of liposome-based drug delivery systems annually developed, a small number have just received authorization for clinical application. The new approaches to using liposomes target their structure with various ligands to increase therapeutic efficiency and diminish undesired side effects on various body tissues. The current study describes the most recent strategies and research associated with functionalizing the liposomes' structure with different ligands as targeted drug carriers in treating TNBCs in preclinical and clinical stages.

Research progress of paclitaxel nanodrug delivery system in the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive subtype of breast cancer, characterized by the loss or low expression of estrogen receptor (ER), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) and progesterone receptor (PR). Due to the lack of clear therapeutic targets, paclitaxel (PTX) is often used as a first-line standard chemotherapy drug for the treatment of high-risk and locally advanced TNBC. PTX is a diterpenoid alkaloid extracted and purified from Taxus plants, functioning as an anticancer agent by inducing and promoting tubulin polymerization, inhibiting spindle formation in cancer cells, and preventing mitosis. However, its clinical application is limited by low solubility and high toxicity. Nanodrug delivery system (NDDS) is one of the feasible methods to improve the water solubility of PTX and reduce side effects. In this review, we summarize the latest advancements in PTX-targeted NDDS, as well as its combination with other codelivery therapies for TNBC treatment. NDDS includes passive targeting, active targeting, stimuli-responsive, codelivery, and multimode strategies. These systems have good prospects in improving the bioavailability of PTX, enhancing tumor targeting, reducing toxicity, controlling drug release, and reverse tumor multidrug resistance (MDR). This review provides valuable insights into the clinical development and application of PTX-targeted NDDS in the treatment of TNBC.

Polymer lipid hybrid nanoparticles for phytochemical delivery: challenges, progress, and future prospects

Phytochemicals, naturally occurring compounds in plants, possess a wide range of therapeutic properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities. However, their clinical application is often hindered by poor water solubility, low bioavailability, rapid metabolism, and instability under physiological conditions. Polymer lipid hybrid nanoparticles (PLHNPs) have emerged as a novel delivery system that combines the advantages of both polymeric and lipid-based nanoparticles to overcome these challenges. This review explores the potential of PLHNPs to enhance the delivery and efficacy of phytochemicals for biomedical applications. We discuss the obstacles in the conventional delivery of phytochemicals, the fundamental architecture of PLHNPs, and the types of PLHNPs, highlighting their ability to improve encapsulation efficiency, stability, and controlled release of the encapsulated phytochemicals. In addition, the surface modification strategies to improve overall therapeutic efficacy by site-specific delivery of encapsulated phytochemicals are also discussed. Furthermore, we extensively discuss the preclinical studies on phytochemical encapsulated PLHNPs for the management of different diseases. Additionally, we explore the challenges ahead and prospects of PLHNPs regarding their widespread use in clinical settings. Overall, PLHNPs hold strong potential for the effective delivery of phytochemicals for biomedical applications. As per the findings from pre-clinical studies, this may offer a promising strategy for managing various diseases.

Nanotheranostics in Breast Cancer Bone Metastasis: Advanced Research Progress and Future Perspectives

Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related morbidity and mortality among women worldwide, with bone being the most common site of all metastatic breast cancer. Bone metastases are often associated with pain and skeletal-related events (SREs), indicating poor prognosis and poor quality of life. Most current therapies for breast cancer bone metastasis primarily serve palliative purposes, focusing on pain management, mitigating the risk of bone-related complications, and inhibiting tumor progression. The emergence of nanodelivery systems offers novel insights and potential solutions for the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer-related bone metastasis. This article reviews the recent advancements and innovative applications of nanodrug delivery systems in the context of breast cancer bone metastasis and explores future directions in nanotheranostics.

Breaking barriers in cancer management: The promising role of microsphere conjugates in cancer diagnosis and therapy

Cancer is a significant worldwide health concern, and there is a demand for ongoing breakthroughs in treatment techniques. Microspheres are among the most studied drug delivery platforms for delivering cargo to a specified location over an extended period of time. They are biocompatible, biodegradable, and capable of surface modifications. Microspheres and their conjugates have emerged as potential cancer therapeutic options throughout the years. This review provides an in-depth look at the current advancements and applications of microspheres and their conjugates in cancer treatment. The review encompasses a wide array of conjugates, ranging from polymers such as ethyl cellulose and Eudragit to stimuli-responsive polymers, proteins, peptides, polysaccharides such as HA and chitosan, inorganic metals, aptamers, quantum dots (QDs), biomimetic conjugates, and radio conjugates designed for radioembolization. Conjugated microspheres precisely deliver chemotherapeutics to the intended target while achieving controlled drug release to prevent side effects. It offers a means of integrating several distinct therapeutic modalities (chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, etc.) to provide synergistic effects during cancer treatment. This review offers insights into the prospects and evolving role of microspheres and their conjugates in the dynamic landscape of cancer therapy. This review provides a comprehensive resource for researchers and clinicians working towards advancements in cancer treatment through innovative applications in therapy and translational research.

A Direct Approach for Living Biomembrane Printing on a Nanoparticle

Biomembrane coating technologies have been developed to equip synthetic nanomaterials with natural biointerfaces. We report a one-step method for nondestructively coating the biomembranes of "living" cells onto nanoparticle surfaces. By using simple centrifugation, nanoparticles pass through a concentrated layer of living cells. This process mimics exosome release via endocytosis and exocytosis, preserving the membrane integrity of the source cells. The resulting silica nanoparticles were efficiently coated with membrane components from Raw264.7 cells. Nanoflow-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry confirmed that the proteins composing the membrane originated from the source cells. Additionally, the biomembrane coating suppressed the phagocytosis of silica nanoparticles by Raw264.7 cells while enhancing their uptake by HeLa cells. Our simple and efficient method for living biomembrane coating holds promise for the development of nanoparticles for medical and pharmaceutical applications.

Artificial Neutrophil-Mediated CEBPA-saRNA Delivery to Ameliorate ALI/ARDS

Acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ALI/ARDS) still faces great challenges due to uncontrollable inflammation disorders, complicated causes of occurrence, and high mortality. Small-activating RNA (saRNA) has emerged as a novel and powerful gene-activating tool that may be useful in the treatment of ALI/ARDS. However, effective saRNA therapy is still challenged by the lack of effective and safe gene delivery vehicles. In this study, we develop a type of artificial neutrophil that is used to deliver saRNAs for ALI/ARDS treatment. The saRNA targeting CCAAT-enhancer binding protein α (CEBPA-saRNA) is complexed with H1 histone and further camouflaged with neutrophil membranes (NHR). Interestingly, we are the first to find that the H1 histone possesses the most effective binding capability to saRNA, compared to other subtypes. The prepared NHR shows excellent physicochemical properties, effective cellular uptake by the inflammatory M1 macrophages, and efficient activation of CEBPA, leading to significant M2 polarization. NHR shows an extended circulation lifetime and high-level accumulation in the inflamed lungs. The in vivo experiments indicate that NHR ameliorates ALI in a mouse model. This type of artificial neutrophil shows powerful inflammatory inhibition both in vitro and in vivo, which opens a new avenue for the treatment of ALI/ARDS.

Single-cell encapsulation systems for probiotic delivery: Armor probiotics

Functional foods or drugs based on probiotics have gained unprecedented attention and development due to the increasingly clear relationship between probiotics and human health. Probiotics can regulate intestinal microbiota, dynamically participating in various physiological activities to directly affect human health. Some probiotic-based functional preparations have shown great potential in treating multiple refractory diseases. Currently, the survival and activity of probiotic cells in complex environments in vitro and in vivo have taken priority, and various encapsulation systems based on food-derived materials have been designed and constructed to protect and deliver probiotics. However, traditional encapsulation technology cannot achieve precise protection for a single probiotic, which makes it unable to have a significant effect after release. In this case, single-cell encapsulation systems can be assembled based on biological interfaces to protect and functionalize individual probiotic cells, maximizing their physiological activity. This review discussed the arduous challenges of probiotics in food processing, storage, human digestion, and the commonly used probiotic encapsulation system. Besides, a novel technology of probiotic encapsulation was introduced based on single-cell coating, namely, "armor probiotics". We focused on the classification, structural design, and functional characteristics of armor coatings, and emphasized the essential functional characteristics of armor probiotics in human health regulation, including regulating intestinal health and targeted bioimaging and treatment of diseased tissues. Subsequently, the benefits, limitations, potential challenges, as well as future direction of armor probiotics were put forward. We hope this review may provide new insights and ideas for developing a single-cell probiotics encapsulating system.

Recent advances in biomimetic cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles for cancer therapy

The emerging strategy of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) via cellular membrane camouflage holds great promise in cancer therapy. This scholarly review explores the utilization of cellular membranes derived from diverse cellular entities; blood cells, immune cells, cancer cells, stem cells, and bacterial cells as examples of NP coatings. The camouflaging strategy endows NPs with nuanced tumor-targeting abilities such as self-recognition, homotypic targeting, and long-lasting circulation, thus also improving tumor therapy efficacy overall. The comprehensive examination encompasses a variety of cell membrane camouflaged NPs (CMCNPs), elucidating their underlying targeted therapy mechanisms and delineating diverse strategies for anti-cancer applications. Furthermore, the review systematically presents the synthesis of source materials and methodologies employed in order to construct and characterize these CMCNPs, with a specific emphasis on their use in cancer treatment.

Macrophage based drug delivery: Key challenges and strategies

As a natural immune cell and antigen presenting cell, macrophages have been studied and engineered to treat human diseases. Macrophages are well-suited for use as drug carriers because of their biological characteristics, such as excellent biocompatibility, long circulation, intrinsic inflammatory homing and phagocytosis. Meanwhile, macrophages' uniquely high plasticity and easy re-education polarization facilitates their use as part of efficacious therapeutics for the treatment of inflammatory diseases or tumors. Although recent studies have demonstrated promising advances in macrophage-based drug delivery, several challenges currently hinder further improvement of therapeutic effect and clinical application. This article focuses on the main challenges of utilizing macrophage-based drug delivery, from the selection of macrophage sources, drug loading, and maintenance of macrophage phenotypes, to drug migration and release at target sites. In addition, corresponding strategies and insights related to these challenges are described. Finally, we also provide perspective on shortcomings on the road to clinical translation and production.

A Reactive Oxygen Species "Sweeper" Based on Hollow Mesopore Cerium Oxide Nanospheres for Targeted and Anti-Inflammatory Management of Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a progressive joint disorder characterized by sustained oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, and the degradation of cartilage. Despite extensive research on nanocarrier treatment strategies, the therapeutic efficacy remains limited due to the lack of satisfactory vehicles that can simultaneously exhibit excellent ROS scavenging capabilities and high drug loading capacity for effective nonsurgical management of OA. In this work, we propose an innovative strategy utilizing hollow mesoporous cerium oxide nanospheres coated with membranes derived from apoptotic chondrocytes as a reactive oxygen species "sweeper" for targeted and anti-inflammatory therapy of OA. The developed DEX@HMCeNs@M demonstrates superior drug loading capacity, notable antioxidant properties, favorable biocompatibility, and controlled drug release. By leveraging the camouflage provided by apoptotic chondrocyte membranes, the engineered DEX@HMCeNs@M, which bear natural "eat me" signals, can effectively mimic chondrocyte apoptotic bodies within the joints, thereby enabling targeted delivery of the anti-inflammatory drug DEX and subsequent controlled release triggered by the acidic environment of OA. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments validate the enhanced therapeutic efficacy of our DEX@HMCeNs@M sweeper, which operates through a synergistic mechanism involving scavenging of ROS overproduction, inhibition of inflammation, restoration of mitochondrial damage, and reduction of chondrocyte apoptosis. These findings underscore the potential and efficiency of our developed DEX@HMCeNs@M strategy as an encouraging interventional approach for the progressive treatment of OA.

Nanoparticles Coated with Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cell Membranes can Target and Cross the Blood-Brain Barrier to Deliver Drugs to Brain Tumors

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) contains tightly connected brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) that hinder drug delivery to the brain, which makes brain tumors difficult to treat. Previous studies have shown that nanoparticles coated with tumor cell membranes selectively target their homologous tumors. Therefore, this study investigated whether bEnd.3-line BMEC membrane-coated nanoparticles with poly(lactide-co-glycolide)-poly(ethylene glycol)-based doxorubicin-loaded cores (BM-PDs) can be used to target BMECs and cross the BBB. In vitro, the BM-PDs effectively target BMECs and cross a BBB model. The BM-PDs enter the BMECs via macropinocytosis, clathrin-mediated endocytosis, caveolin-mediated endocytosis, and membrane fusion, which result in excellent cellular uptake. The BM-PDs also show excellent cellular uptake in brain tumor cells. In vivo, the BM-PDs target BMECs, cross the BBB, accumulate in brain tumors, and efficiently kill tumor cells. Therefore, the proposed strategy has great therapeutic potential owing to its ability to cross the BBB to reach brain tumors.

A minimalist cancer cell membrane-shielded biomimetic nanoparticle for nasopharyngeal carcinoma active-targeting therapy

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a common head and neck malignancy, which is characterized by high incidence and aggression with poor diagnosis and limited therapeutic opportunity. The innovative strategy for achieving precise NPC active-targeting drug delivery has emerged as a prominent focus in clinical research. Here, a minimalist cancer cell membrane (CCM) shielded biomimetic nanoparticle (NP) was designed for NPC active-targeting therapy. Chemotherapeutant model drug doxorubicin (DOX) was loaded in polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer. The PAMAM/DOX (PD) NP was further shielded by human CNE-2 NPC CCM. Characterization results verified that the biomimetic PAMAM/DOX@CCM (abbreviated as PDC) NPs had satisfactory physical properties with high DOX-loading and excellent stability. Cell experiments demonstrated that the CNE-2 membrane-cloaked PDC NPs presented powerful cellular uptake in the sourcing cells by homologous targeting and adhesive interaction. Further in vivo results confirmed that this biomimetic nanoplatform had extended circulation and remarkable tumor-targeting capability, and the PDC NPs effectively suppressed the progression of CNE-2 tumors by systemic administration. This CCM-shielded biomimetic NP displayed a minimalist paradigm nanoplatform for precise NPC therapy, and the strategy of CCM-shielded biomimetic drug delivery system (DDS) has great potential for extensive cancer active-targeting therapy.

Semiconducting polymer dots for multifunctional integrated nanomedicine carriers

The expansion applications of semiconducting polymer dots (Pdots) among optical nanomaterial field have long posed a challenge for researchers, promoting their intelligent application in multifunctional nano-imaging systems and integrated nanomedicine carriers for diagnosis and treatment. Despite notable progress, several inadequacies still persist in the field of Pdots, including the development of simplified near-infrared (NIR) optical nanoprobes, elucidation of their inherent biological behavior, and integration of information processing and nanotechnology into biomedical applications. This review aims to comprehensively elucidate the current status of Pdots as a classical nanophotonic material by discussing its advantages and limitations in terms of biocompatibility, adaptability to microenvironments in vivo, etc. Multifunctional integration and surface chemistry play crucial roles in realizing the intelligent application of Pdots. Information visualization based on their optical and physicochemical properties is pivotal for achieving detection, sensing, and labeling probes. Therefore, we have refined the underlying mechanisms and constructed multiple comprehensive original mechanism summaries to establish a benchmark. Additionally, we have explored the cross-linking interactions between Pdots and nanomedicine, potential yet complete biological metabolic pathways, future research directions, and innovative solutions for integrating diagnosis and treatment strategies. This review presents the possible expectations and valuable insights for advancing Pdots, specifically from chemical, medical, and photophysical practitioners' standpoints.

Cisplatin-loaded mesoporous polydopamine nanoparticles capped with MnO2 and coated with platelet membrane provide synergistic anti-tumor therapy

A multifunctional nanoplatform was constructed in this work, with the goal of ameliorating the challenges faced with traditional cancer chemotherapy. Cisplatin (CP) was loaded into mesoporous polydopamine (mPDA) nanoparticles (NPs) with a drug loading of 15.8 ± 0.1 %, and MnO2 used as pore sealing agent. Finally, the NPs were wrapped with platelet membrane (PLTM). P-selectin on the PLTM can bind to CD44, which is highly expressed on the tumor cell membrane, so as to improve the targeting performance of the NPs. In addition, the CD47 on the PLTM can prevent the NPs from being phagocytosed by macrophages, which is conducive to immune escape. The final PLTM-CP@mPDA/MnO2 NPs were found to have a particle size of approximately 198 nm. MnO2 is degraded into Mn2+ in the tumor microenvironment, leading to CP release from the pores in the mPDA. CP both acts as a chemotherapy agent and can also increase the concentration of H2O2 in cells. Mn2+ can catalyze the conversion of H2O2 to OH, resulting in oxidative damage and chemodynamic therapy. In addition, Mn2+ can be used as a contrast agent in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In vitro and in vivo experiments were performed to explore the therapeutic effect of the NPs. When the concentration of CP is 30 μg/mL, the NPs cause approximately 50 % cell death. It was found that the PLTM-CP@mPDA/MnO2 NPs are targeted to cancerous cells, and in the tumor site cause extensive apoptosis. Tumor growth is thereby repressed. No negative off-target side effects were noted. MRI could be used to confirm the presence of the NPs in the tumor site. Overall, the nano-platform developed here provides cooperative chemotherapy and chemodynamic therapy, and can potentially be used for effective cancer treatment which could be monitored by MRI.

Natural biomimetic nano-system for drug delivery in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: a literature review of the last 5 years

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease characterized primarily by synovitis, leading to the destruction of articular cartilage and bone and ultimately resulting in joint deformity, loss of function, and a significant impact on patients' quality of life. Currently, a combination of anti-rheumatic drugs, hormonal drugs, and biologics is used to mitigate disease progression. However, conventional drug therapy has limited bioavailability, and long-term use often leads to drug resistance and toxic side effects. Therefore, exploring new therapeutic approaches for RA is of great clinical importance. Nanodrug delivery systems offer promising solutions to overcome the limitations of conventional drugs. Among them, liposomes, the first nanodrug delivery system to be approved for clinical application and still widely studied, demonstrate the ability to enhance therapeutic efficacy with fewer adverse effects through passive or active targeting mechanisms. In this review, we provide a review of the research progress on the targeting mechanisms of various natural biomimetic nano-delivery systems in RA therapy. Additionally, we predict the development trends and application prospects of these systems, offering new directions for precision treatment of RA.

Tailoring Biomaterials Ameliorate Inflammatory Bone Loss

Inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, periodontitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and celiac disease, disrupt the delicate balance between bone resorption and formation, leading to inflammatory bone loss. Conventional approaches to tackle this issue encompass pharmaceutical interventions and surgical procedures. Nevertheless, pharmaceutical interventions exhibit limited efficacy, while surgical treatments impose trauma and significant financial burden upon patients. Biomaterials show outstanding spatiotemporal controllability, possess a remarkable specific surface area, and demonstrate exceptional reactivity. In the present era, the advancement of emerging biomaterials has bestowed upon more efficacious solutions for combatting the detrimental consequences of inflammatory bone loss. In this review, the advances of biomaterials for ameliorating inflammatory bone loss are listed. Additionally, the advantages and disadvantages of various biomaterials-mediated strategies are summarized. Finally, the challenges and perspectives of biomaterials are analyzed. This review aims to provide new possibilities for developing more advanced biomaterials toward inflammatory bone loss.

A biomimetic camouflaged metal organic framework for enhanced siRNA delivery in the tumor environment

Gene silencing through RNA interference (RNAi), particularly using small double-stranded RNA (siRNA), has been identified as a potent strategy for targeted cancer treatment. Yet, its application faces challenges such as nuclease degradation, inefficient cellular uptake, endosomal entrapment, off-target effects, and immune responses, which have hindered its effective delivery. In the past few years, these challenges have been addressed significantly by using camouflaged metal-organic framework (MOF) nanocarriers. These nanocarriers protect siRNA from degradation, enhance cellular uptake, and reduce unintended side effects by effectively targeting desired cells while evading immune detection. By combining the properties of biomimetic membranes and MOFs, these nanocarriers offer superior benefits such as extended circulation times, enhanced stability, and reduced immune responses. Moreover, through ligand-receptor interactions, biomimetic membrane-coated MOFs achieve homologous targeting, minimizing off-target adverse effects. The MOFs, acting as the core, efficiently encapsulate and protect siRNA molecules, while the biomimetic membrane-coated surface provides homologous targeting, further increasing the precision of siRNA delivery to cancer cells. In particular, the biomimetic membranes help to shield the MOFs from the immune system, avoiding unwanted immune responses and improving their biocompatibility. The combination of siRNA with innovative nanocarriers, such as camouflaged-MOFs, presents a significant advancement in cancer therapy. The ability to deliver siRNA with precision and effectiveness using these camouflaged nanocarriers holds great promise for achieving more personalized and efficient cancer treatments in the future. This review article discusses the significant progress made in the development of siRNA therapeutics for cancer, focusing on their effective delivery through novel nanocarriers, with a particular emphasis on the role of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) as camouflaged nanocarriers.

Tea polyphenol-engineered hybrid cellular nanovesicles for cancer immunotherapy and androgen deprivation therapy

Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is a crucial and effective strategy for prostate cancer, while systemic administration may cause profound side effects on normal tissues. More importantly, the ADT can easily lead to resistance by involving the activation of NF-κB signaling pathway and high infiltration of M2 macrophages in tumor microenvironment (TME). Herein, we developed a biomimetic nanotherapeutic platform by deriving cell membrane nanovesicles from cancer cells and probiotics to yield the hybrid cellular nanovesicles (hNVs), loading flutamide (Flu) into the resulting hNVs, and finally modifying the hNVs@Flu with Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG). In this nanotherapeutic platform, the hNVs significantly improved the accumulation of hNVs@Flu-EGCG in tumor sites and reprogramed immunosuppressive M2 macrophages into antitumorigenic M1 macrophages, the Flu acted on androgen receptors and inhibited tumor proliferation, and the EGCG promoted apoptosis of prostate cancer cells by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway, thus synergistically stimulating the antitumor immunity and reducing the side effects and resistance of ADT. In a prostate cancer mouse model, the hNVs@Flu-EGCG significantly extended the lifespan of mice with tumors and led to an 81.78% reduction in tumor growth compared with the untreated group. Overall, the hNVs@Flu-EGCG are safe, modifiable, and effective, thus offering a promising platform for effective therapeutics of prostate cancer.

Liposome-based nanomedicine for immune checkpoint blocking therapy and combinatory cancer therapy

The discovery of immune checkpoint (IC) has led to a wave of leap forward in cancer immunotherapy that represents probably the most promising strategy for cancer therapy. However, the clinical use of immune checkpoint block (ICB) therapy is limited by response rates and side effects. A strategy that addresses the limitations of ICB therapies through combination therapies, using nanocarriers as mediators, has been mentioned in numerous research papers. Liposomes have been probably one of the most extensively used nanocarriers for clinical applications, with broad drug delivery and high safety. A timely review on this hot subject of research, i.e., the application of liposomes for ICB, is thus highly desirable for both fundamental and clinical translatable studies, but remains, to our knowledge, unexplored so far. For this purpose, this review is composed to address the dilemma of ICB therapy and the reasons for this dilemma. We later describe how other cancer treatments have broken this dilemma. Finally, we focus on the role of liposomes in various combinatory cancer therapy. This review is believed to serve as a guidance for the rational design and development of liposome for immunotherapy with enhanced therapeutic efficiency.

Mimotope peptide modified pompon mum-like magnetic microparticles for precise recognition, capture and biotransformation analysis of rituximab in biological fluids

Due to low immobilized ligand density, limited binding capacity, and severe interference from serum proteins, developing ideal peptide-based biomaterials for precise recognition and in vivo analysis of biopharmaceuticals remains a huge challenge. In this study, mimotope peptide modified pompon mum-like biomimetic magnetic microparticles (MMPs, 3.8 μm) that mimic the specific functionalities of CD20 on malignant B cells were developed for the first time. Benefit from the numerous ligand binding sites (Ni2+) on the pompon mum-like MMPs, these novel materials achieved ≥10 times higher peptide ligand densities (>2300 mg/g) and antibody binding capacities (1380 mg/g) compared to previous reported biomaterials. Leveraging the high specificity of the mimotope peptide, rituximab can be precisely recognized and enriched from cell culture media or serum samples. We also established an LC‒MS/MS method using the MMPs for tracking rituximab biotransformation in patient serum. Intriguingly, deamidation of Asn55 and Asn33, as well as oxidation of Met81 and Met34 were observed at the key complementarity determining regions of rituximab, which could potentially influence antibody function and require careful monitoring. Overall, these versatile biomimetic MMPs demonstrate superior recognition and enrichment capabilities for target antibodies, offering interesting possibilities for biotransformation analysis of biopharmaceuticals in patient serum.

Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Bone Metastasis in Breast Cancer: Recent Advances and Challenges

Although the frequency of bone metastases from breast cancer has increased, effective treatment is lacking, prompting the development of nanomedicine, which involves the use of nanotechnology for disease diagnosis and treatment. Nanocarrier drug delivery systems offer several advantages over traditional drug delivery methods, such as higher reliability and biological activity, improved penetration and retention, and precise targeting and delivery. Various nanoparticles that can selectively target tumor cells without causing harm to healthy cells or organs have been synthesized. Recent advances in nanotechnology have enabled the diagnosis and prevention of metastatic diseases as well as the ability to deliver complex molecular "cargo" particles to metastatic regions. Nanoparticles can modulate systemic biodistribution and enable the targeted accumulation of therapeutic agents. Several delivery strategies are used to treat bone metastases, including untargeted delivery, bone-targeted delivery, and cancer cell-targeted delivery. Combining targeted agents with nanoparticles enhances the selective delivery of payloads to breast cancer bone metastatic lesions, providing multiple delivery advantages for treatment. In this review, we describe recent advances in nanoparticle development for treating breast cancer bone metastases.

Moving beyond traditional therapies: the role of nanomedicines in lung cancer

Amidst a global rise in lung cancer occurrences, conventional therapies continue to pose substantial side effects and possess notable toxicities while lacking specificity. Counteracting this, the incorporation of nanomedicines can notably enhance drug delivery at tumor sites, extend a drug's half-life and mitigate inadvertent toxic and adverse impacts on healthy tissues, substantially influencing lung cancer's early detection and targeted therapy. Numerous studies signal that while the nano-characteristics of lung cancer nanomedicines play a pivotal role, further interplay with immune, photothermal, and genetic factors exist. This review posits that the progression towards multimodal combination therapies could potentially establish an efficacious platform for multimodal targeted lung cancer treatments. Current nanomedicines split into active and passive targeting. Active therapies focus on a single target, often with unsatisfactory results. Yet, developing combination systems targeting multiple sites could chart new paths in lung cancer therapy. Conversely, low drug delivery rates limit passive therapies. Utilizing the EPR effect to bind specific ligands on nanoparticles to tumor cell receptors might create a new regime combining active-passive targeting, potentially elevating the nanomedicines' concentration at target sites. This review collates recent advancements through the lens of nanomedicine's attributes for lung cancer therapeutics, the novel carrier classifications, targeted therapeutic modalities and their mechanisms, proposing that the emergence of multi-target nanocomposite therapeutics, combined active-passive targeting therapies and multimodal combined treatments will pioneer novel approaches and tools for future lung cancer clinical therapies.

Gene and Photothermal Combination Therapy: Principle, Materials, and Amplified Anticancer Intervention

Gene therapy (GT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) have emerged as promising alternatives to chemotherapy and radiotherapy for cancer treatment, offering noninvasiveness and reduced side effects. However, their efficacy as standalone treatments is limited. GT exhibits slow response rates, while PTT is confined to local tumor ablation. The convergence of GT and PTT, known as GT-PTT, facilitated by photothermal gene nanocarriers, has attracted considerable attention across various disciplines. In this integrated approach, GT reciprocates PTT by sensitizing cellular response to heat, while PTT benefits GT by improving gene translocation, unpacking, and expression. Consequently, this integration presents a unique opportunity for cancer therapy with rapid response and improved effectiveness. Extensive efforts over the past few years have been dedicated to the development of GT-PTT, resulting in notable achievements and rapid progress from the laboratory to potential clinical applications. This comprehensive review outlines recent advances in GT-PTT, including synergistic mechanisms, material systems, imaging-guided therapy, and anticancer applications. It also explores the challenges and future prospects in this nascent field. By presenting innovative ideas and insights into the implementation of GT-PTT for enhanced cancer therapy, this review aims to inspire further progress in this promising area of research.

Biomimetic Nano-Drug Delivery System: An Emerging Platform for Promoting Tumor Treatment

With the development of nanotechnology, nanoparticles (NPs) have shown broad prospects as drug delivery vehicles. However, they exhibit certain limitations, including low biocompatibility, poor physiological stability, rapid clearance from the body, and nonspecific targeting, which have hampered their clinical application. Therefore, the development of novel drug delivery systems with improved biocompatibility and high target specificity remains a major challenge. In recent years, biofilm mediated biomimetic nano-drug delivery system (BNDDS) has become a research hotspot focus in the field of life sciences. This new biomimetic platform uses bio-nanotechnology to encapsulate synthetic NPswithin biomimetic membrane, organically integrating the low immunogenicity, low toxicity, high tumor targeting, good biocompatibility of the biofilm with the adjustability and versatility of the nanocarrier, and shows promising applications in the field of precision tumor therapy. In this review, we systematically summarize the new progress in BNDDS used for optimizing drug delivery, providing a theoretical reference for optimizing drug delivery and designing safe and efficient treatment strategies to improve tumor treatment outcomes.

Intracellular self-aggregation of biomimetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles for enhanced ferroptosis-inducing therapy of breast cancer

Nanomedicines based on ferroptosis may be effective strategies for cancer therapy due to their unique inducing mechanism. However, the challenges, including non-target distribution, poor accumulation and retention of nanomedicine, have a profound impact on the effectiveness of drug delivery. Here, we developed cancer cell membrane (CCM)-coated Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs) modified with supramolecular precursors and loaded with sulfasalazine (SAS) for breast cancer therapy. Benefiting from the coating of the CCM, these NPs can be specifically recognized and internalized by tumor cells rapidly after being administered and form aggregates via the host-guest interaction between adamantane (ADA) and cyclodextrins (CD), which in turn effectively reduces the exocytosis of tumor cells and prolongs the retention time. In vitro and in vivo studies showed that Fe3O4 NPs possessed effective cellular uptake and precise specific accumulation in tumor cells and tissues through CCM-targeted supramolecular in situ aggregation, demonstrating enhanced ferroptosis-inducing therapy of breast cancer. Overall, this work provided a supramolecular biomimetic platform to achieve targeted delivery of Fe3O4 NPs with high efficiency and precise self-assembly for improved cancer therapy.

Macrophage-related therapeutic strategies: Regulation of phenotypic switching and construction of drug delivery systems

Macrophages, as highly phenotypic plastic immune cells, play diverse roles in different pathological conditions. Changing and controlling the phenotypes of macrophages is considered a novel potential therapeutic intervention. Meanwhile, specific transmembrane proteins anchoring on the surface of the macrophage membrane are relatively conserved, supporting its functional properties, such as inflammatory chemotaxis and tumor targeting. Thus, a series of drug delivery systems related to specific macrophage membrane proteins are commonly used to treat chronic inflammatory diseases. This review summarizes macrophages-based strategies for chronic diseases, discusses the regulation of macrophage phenotypes and their polarization processes, and presents how to design and apply the site-specific targeted drug delivery systems in vivo based on the macrophages and their derived membrane receptors. It aims to provide a better understanding of macrophages in immunoregulation and proposes macrophages-based targeted therapeutic approaches for chronic diseases.

Cell Membrane Biomimetic Nano-Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Nano-delivery systems have demonstrated great promise in the therapy of cancer. However, the therapeutic efficacy of conventional nanomedicines is hindered by the clearance of the blood circulation system and the physiological barriers surrounding the tumor. Inspired by the unique capabilities of cells within the body, such as immune evasion, prolonged circulation, and tumor-targeting, there has been a growing interest in developing cell membrane biomimetic nanomedicine delivery systems. Cell membrane modification on nanoparticle surfaces can prolong circulation time, activate tumor-targeting, and ultimately improve the efficacy of cancer treatment. It shows excellent development potential. This review will focus on the advancements in various cell membrane nano-drug delivery systems for cancer therapy and the obstacles encountered during clinical implementation. It is hoped that such discussions will inspire the development of cell membrane biomimetic nanomedical systems.

Superparamagnetic Artificial Cells PLGA-Fe3O4 Micro/Nanocapsules for Cancer Targeted Delivery

Artificial cells have been extensively used in many fields, such as nanomedicine, biotherapy, blood substitutes, drug delivery, enzyme/gene therapy, cancer therapy, and the COVID-19 vaccine. The unique properties of superparamagnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles have contributed to increased interest in using superparamagnetic artificial cells (PLGA-Fe3O4 micro/nanocapsules) for targeted therapy. In this review, the preparation methods of Fe3O4 NPs and superparamagnetic artificial cell PLGA-drug-Fe3O4 micro/nanocapsules are discussed. This review also focuses on the recent progress of superparamagnetic PLGA-drug-Fe3O4 micro/nanocapsules as targeted therapeutics. We shall concentrate on the use of superparamagnetic artificial cells in the form of PLGA-drug-Fe3O4 nanocapsules for magnetic hyperthermia/photothermal therapy and cancer therapies, including lung breast cancer and glioblastoma.

Cell membrane-camouflaged bufalin targets NOD2 and overcomes multidrug resistance in pancreatic cancer

AIMS

Multidrug resistance in pancreatic cancer poses a significant challenge in clinical treatment. Bufalin (BA), a compound found in secretions from the glands of toads, may help overcome this problem. However, severe cardiotoxicity thus far has hindered its clinical application. Hence, the present study aimed to develop a cell membrane-camouflaged and BA-loaded polylactic-co-glycolic acid nanoparticle (CBAP) and assess its potential to counter chemoresistance in pancreatic cancer.

METHODS

The toxicity of CBAP was evaluated by electrocardiogram, body weight, distress score, and nesting behavior of mice. In addition, the anticarcinoma activity and underlying mechanism were investigated both in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

CBAP significantly mitigated BA-mediated acute cardiotoxicity and enhanced the sensitivity of pancreatic cancer to several clinical drugs, such as gemcitabine, 5-fluorouracil, and FOLFIRINOX. Mechanistically, CBAP directly bound to nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain containing protein 2 (NOD2) and inhibited the expression of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells. This inhibits the expression of ATP-binding cassette transporters, which are responsible for chemoresistance in cancer cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that CBAP directly inhibits NOD2. Combining CBAP with standard-of-care chemotherapeutics represents a safe and efficient strategy for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Current research trends of nanomedicines

Owing to the inherent shortcomings of traditional therapeutic drugs in terms of inadequate therapeutic efficacy and toxicity in clinical treatment, nanomedicine designs have received widespread attention with significantly improved efficacy and reduced non-target side effects. Nanomedicines hold tremendous theranostic potential for treating, monitoring, diagnosing, and controlling various diseases and are attracting an unfathomable amount of input of research resources. Against the backdrop of an exponentially growing number of publications, it is imperative to help the audience get a panorama image of the research activities in the field of nanomedicines. Herein, this review elaborates on the development trends of nanomedicines, emerging nanocarriers, in vivo fate and safety of nanomedicines, and their extensive applications. Moreover, the potential challenges and the obstacles hindering the clinical translation of nanomedicines are also discussed. The elaboration on various aspects of the research trends of nanomedicines may help enlighten the readers and set the route for future endeavors.

Evaluation of cell membrane-derived nanoparticles as therapeutic carriers for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma using an in vitro tumour stroma model

Here, we fabricated nanoparticles made solely from the membrane of cells found in the pancreatic tumour's microenvironment (TME), like the human MiaPaCa-2 cells and M2-polarized macrophages. The cell membrane-derived nanoparticles (CMNPs) deriving from the MiaPaCa-2 cells (MPC2-CMNPs) were loaded with the chemotherapeutic drug paclitaxel (PTX), and the CMNPs deriving from M2-polarized macrophages (M2-CMNPs) were loaded with the colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor inhibitor, pexidartinib (PXDB). The CMNPs' thorough morphological and physicochemical characterisation was followed by an in-depth study of their targeting ability and the endocytosis pathway involved during their internalisation. An in vitro model of the desmoplastic stroma comprising cancer-associated fibroblast-mimicking cells and M2-polarized macrophages was also developed. The model was characterised by collagen and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) expression (overexpressed in desmoplasia) and was used to assess the CMNPs' ability to cross the stroma and target the tumour cells. Moreover, we assessed the effect of PXDB-loaded M2-CMNPs on the expression of M1 (CD80/CD86) and M2 (CD206/CD209) polarisation markers on activated macrophages. Finally, we evaluated the PTX and PXDB-loaded CMNPs' effect on the viability of all the used TME cell lines alone or in combination. Overall, this pilot study showed the potential of the CMNPs to cross an in vitro stroma model and act synergistically to treat PDAC.

Role of long non-coding RNAs in cancer: From subcellular localization to nanoparticle-mediated targeted regulation

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of RNA transcripts more than 200 nucleotides in length that play crucial roles in cancer development and progression. With the rapid development of high-throughput sequencing technology, a considerable number of lncRNAs have been identified as novel biomarkers for predicting the prognosis of cancer patients and/or therapeutic targets for cancer therapy. In recent years, increasing evidence has shown that the biological functions and regulatory mechanisms of lncRNAs are closely associated with their subcellular localization. More importantly, based on the important roles of lncRNAs in regulating cancer progression (e.g., growth, therapeutic resistance, and metastasis) and the specific ability of nucleic acids (e.g., siRNA, mRNA, and DNA) to regulate the expression of any target genes, much effort has been exerted recently to develop nanoparticle (NP)-based nucleic acid delivery systems for in vivo regulation of lncRNA expression and cancer therapy. In this review, we introduce the subcellular localization and regulatory mechanisms of various functional lncRNAs in cancer and systemically summarize the recent development of NP-mediated nucleic acid delivery for targeted regulation of lncRNA expression and effective cancer therapy.

Biomimetic Cell-Derived Nanoparticles: Emerging Platforms for Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy can significantly prevent tumor growth and metastasis by activating the autoimmune system without destroying normal cells. Although cancer immunotherapy has made some achievements in clinical cancer treatment, it is still restricted by systemic immunotoxicity, immune cell dysfunction, cancer heterogeneity, and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITME). Biomimetic cell-derived nanoparticles are attracting considerable interest due to their better biocompatibility and lower immunogenicity. Moreover, biomimetic cell-derived nanoparticles can achieve different preferred biological effects due to their inherent abundant source cell-relevant functions. This review summarizes the latest developments in biomimetic cell-derived nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy, discusses the applications of each biomimetic system in cancer immunotherapy, and analyzes the challenges for clinical transformation.

Pre-exposure to titanium or iron oxide nanoparticles suppresses the subsequent cellular uptake of gold nanoparticles

Humans are exposed to a wide variety of natural and engineered nanoparticles (NPs) during their lifetime. However, the effects of pre-exposure to NPs on subsequent uptake of other NPs have not been investigated. In the present study, we investigated the effects of pre-exposure to three NPs (TiO₂, Fe₂O₃, and SiO₂ NPs) on the subsequent uptake of gold NPs (AuNPs) by hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2). When HepG2 cells were pre-exposed to TiO₂ or Fe₂O₃ NPs, but not SiO₂ NPs for 2 days, their subsequent uptake of AuNPs was inhibited. Such inhibition was also observed in human cervical cancer (HeLa) cells, suggesting that this phenomenon is present in different cell types. The mechanisms underlying the inhibitory effect of NP pre-exposure include altered plasma membrane fluidity due to changes in lipid metabolism and reduced intracellular ATP production due to decreased intracellular oxygen. Despite the inhibitory effects of NP pre-exposure, full recovery was observed after transferring the cells to medium without NPs, even when the pre-exposure time was extended from 2 days to 2 weeks. Overall, the pre-exposure effects observed in the present study should be considered in the biological application and risk evaluation of NPs.

Erythrocyte-cancer hybrid membrane-coated reduction-sensitive nanoparticles for enhancing chemotherapy efficacy in breast cancer

Cell-membrane-coated biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted great attention due to their prolonged circulation time, immune escape mechanisms and homotypic targeting properties. Biomimetic nanosystems from different types of cell -membranes (CMs) can perform increasingly complex tasks in dynamic biological environments thanks to specific proteins and other properties inherited from the source cells. Herein, we coated doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded reduction-sensitive chitosan (CS) NPs with 4T1 cancer cell -membranes (CCMs), red blood cell -membranes (RBCMs) and hybrid erythrocyte-cancer membranes (RBC-4T1CMs) to enhance the delivery of DOX to breast cancer cells. The physicochemical properties (size, zeta potential and morphology) of the resulting RBC@DOX/CS-NPs, 4T1@DOX/CS-NPs and RBC-4T1@DOX/CS-NPs, as well as their cytotoxic effect and cellular NP uptake in vitro were thoroughly characterized. The anti-cancer therapeutic efficacy of the NPs was evaluated using the orthotopic 4T1 breast cancer model in vivo. The experimental results showed that DOX/CS-NPs had a DOX-loading capacity of 71.76 ± 0.87 %, and that coating of DOX/CS-NPs with 4T1CM significantly increased the NP uptake and cytotoxic effect in breast cancer cells. Interestingly, by optimizing the ratio of RBCMs:4T1CMs, it was possible to increase the homotypic targeting properties towards breast cancer cells. Moreover, in vivo tumor studies showed that compared to control DOX/CS-NPs and free DOX, both 4T1@DOX/CS-NPs and RBC@DOX/CS-NPs significantly inhibited tumor growth and metastasis. However, the effect of 4T1@DOX/CS-NPs was more prominent. Moreover, CM-coating reduced the uptake of NPs by macrophages and led to rapid clearance from the liver and lungs in vivo, compared to control NPs. Our results suggest that specific self-recognition to source cells resulting in homotypic targeting increased the uptake and the cytotoxic capacity of 4T1@DOX/CS-NPs by breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. In conclusion, tumor-disguised CM-coated DOX/CS-NPs exhibited tumor homotypic targeting and anti-cancer properties, and were superior over targeting with RBC-CM or RBC-4T1 hybrid membranes, suggesting that the presence of 4T1-CM is critical for treatment outcome.

Engineered photoresponsive biohybrids for tumor therapy

Engineered biohybrids have recently emerged as innovative biomimetic platforms for cancer therapeutic applications. Particularly, engineered photoresponsive biohybrids hold tremendous potential against tumors due to their intriguing biomimetic properties, photoresponsive ability, and enhanced biotherapeutic functions. In this review, the design principles of engineered photoresponsive biohybrids and their latest progresses for tumor therapy are summarized. Representative engineered photoresponsive biohybrids are highlighted including biomolecules-associated, cell membrane-based, eukaryotic cell-based, bacteria-based, and algae-based photoresponsive biohybrids. Representative tumor therapeutic modalities of the engineered photoresponsive biohybrids are presented, including photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, synergistic therapy, and tumor therapy combined with tissue regeneration. Moreover, the challenges and future perspectives of these photoresponsive biohybrids for clinical practice are discussed.

Recent progress in cancer cell membrane-based nanoparticles for biomedical applications

Immune clearance and insufficient targeting have limited the efficacy of existing therapeutic strategies for cancer. Toxic side effects and individual differences in response to treatment have further limited the benefits of clinical treatment for patients. Biomimetic cancer cell membrane-based nanotechnology has provided a new approach for biomedicine to overcome these obstacles. Biomimetic nanoparticles exhibit various effects (e.g., homotypic targeting, prolonging drug circulation, regulating the immune system, and penetrating biological barriers) after encapsulation by cancer cell membranes. The sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic methods will also be improved by utilizing the properties of cancer cell membranes. In this review, different properties and functions of cancer cell membranes are presented. Utilizing these advantages, nanoparticles can exhibit unique therapeutic capabilities in various types of diseases, such as solid tumors, hematological malignancies, immune system diseases, and cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, cancer cell membrane-encapsulated nanoparticles show improved effectiveness and efficiency in combination with current diagnostic and therapeutic methods, which will contribute to the development of individualized treatments. This strategy has promising clinical translation prospects, and the associated challenges are discussed.

Functionalized biomimetic nanoparticles combining programmed death-1/programmed death-ligand 1 blockade with photothermal ablation for enhanced colorectal cancer immunotherapy

Immune checkpoint blockade therapy targeting programmed death-1 (PD-1) or its major ligand programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) has achieved remarkable success in the treatment of several tumors, including colorectal cancer. However, the efficacy of PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors is limited in some colorectal cancers within the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (such as when there is a lack of immune cell infiltration). Herein, anti-PD-L1 functionalized biomimetic polydopamine-modified gold nanostar nanoparticles (PDA/GNS@aPD-L1 NPs) were developed for synergistic anti-tumor treatment by combining PD-1/PD-L1 blockade with photothermal ablation. PDA/GNS@aPD-L1 NPs were prepared by encapsulating photothermal nanoparticles (polydopamine-modified gold nanostar, PDA-GNS) with cell membrane isolated from anti-PD-L1 single-chain variable fragment (scFv) over-expressing cells. In addition to disrupting PD-1/PD-L1 immunosuppressive signals, the anti-PD-L1 scFv on the membrane of PDA/GNS@aPD-L1 NPs was conducive to the accumulation of PDA-GNS at tumor sites. Importantly, the tumor photothermal ablation induced by PDA-GNS could reverse the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, thereby further improving the efficiency of PD-1/PD-L1 blockade therapy. In this study, the synthetized PDA/GNS@aPD-L1 NPs exhibited good biocompatibility, efficient photothermal conversion ability, and enhanced tumor-targeting ability. In vivo studies revealed that a PDA/GNS@aPD-L1 NP-based therapeutic strategy significantly inhibited tumor growth, and prolonged overall survival by further promoting the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs), increasing the infiltration of CD8⁺T cells, and decreasing the number of immunosuppressive cells (such as regulatory T cells and myeloid-derived suppressive cells). Collectively, the developed PDA/GNS@aPD-L1 NP-based therapeutic strategy combines PD-1/PD-L1 blockade with photothermal ablation, which could remodel the tumor microenvironment for effective clinical colorectal cancer therapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment is the main challenge facing programmed death-1/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) blockade therapy. By encapsulating photothermal nanoparticles (polydopamine-modified gold nanostar, PDA-GNS) with cell membrane over-expressing anti-PD-L1 single-chain variable fragment, we constructed anti-PD-L1 functionalized biomimetic nanoparticles (PDA/GNS@aPD-L1 NPs). By specific binding to the PD-L1 present on tumor cells, PDA/GNS@aPD-L1 NPs could disrupt PD-1/PD-L1 immunosuppression signaling, and effectively deliver PDA-GNS targeting to tumor sites. Additionally, PDA-GNS-mediated local photothermal ablation of tumors promoted the release of tumor-associated antigens and thus activated anti-tumor immune responses. Meanwhile, hyperthermia facilitates immune cell infiltration by increasing tumor vascular permeability. Therefore, PDA/GNS@aPD-L1 NPs could sensitize tumors to PD-1/PD-L1 blockade therapy by remodeling the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, which provides a new strategy for tumor treatment.

Biologically inspired stealth - Camouflaged strategies in nanotechnology for the improved therapies in various diseases

Nanotechnology has received increasing attention in the past decade and it's being used as a model for developing better treatments for a variety of diseases. Despite the fact that nanotechnology-based therapy has greatly improved treatment regimens, it still faces challenges such as inadequate circulation, insufficient accumulation at the target region, and undesired toxicity. In this regard, scientists are working on producing cell-membrane camouflaged nanoparticles as a biomimetic technique for modifying the surface of existing nanoparticles to produce significant therapeutic benefits following imparting myriad of desired functionalities. Membranes originating from erythrocytes, white blood cells, cancer cells, stem cells, platelets, or bacterial cells have been used to coat nanoparticle surfaces and create biologically inspired camouflaged nanoparticles. These biomemitic delivery systems have been proven to have potential applications in diagnosing and treating vaiorus diseases, including drug administration, immunisation, immunological regulation, and detoxification. From its inception to the present, we provide a complete description of this advanced technique for functionalizing nanoparticle surfaces. The method of making these membrane coated nanoparticles as well as their characterisation have been thoroughly discussed. Following that, we focused on the diversity of cell membranes derived from distinct cells in the evolution of nanoparticles, emphasising how these biologically inspired stealth - camouflaged techniques have led to increased therapeutic efficacy in a variety of disease states.

Advances in cell membrane-coated nanoparticles and their applications for bone therapy

Due to the specific structure of natural bone, most of the therapeutics are incapable to be delivered into the targeted site with effective concentrations. Nanotechnology has provided a good way to improve this issue, cell membrane mimetic nanoparticles (NPs) have been emerging as an ideal nanomaterial which integrates the advantages of natural cell membranes with synthetic NPs to significantly improve the biocompatibility as well as achieving long-lasting circulation and targeted delivery. In addition, functionalized modifications of the cell membrane facilitate more precise targeting and therapy. Here, an overview of the preparation of cell membrane-coated NPs and the properties of cell membranes from different cell sources has been given to expatiate their function and potential applications. Strategies for functionalized modification of cell membranes are also briefly described. The application of cell membrane-coated NPs for bone therapy is then presented according to the function of cell membranes. Moreover, the prospects and challenges of cell membrane-coated NPs for translational medicine have also been discussed.

(Nano)platforms in bladder cancer therapy: Challenges and opportunities

Urological cancers are among the most common malignancies around the world. In particular, bladder cancer severely threatens human health due to its aggressive and heterogeneous nature. Various therapeutic modalities have been considered for the treatment of bladder cancer although its prognosis remains unfavorable. It is perceived that treatment of bladder cancer depends on an interdisciplinary approach combining biology and engineering. The nanotechnological approaches have been introduced in the treatment of various cancers, especially bladder cancer. The current review aims to emphasize and highlight possible applications of nanomedicine in eradication of bladder tumor. Nanoparticles can improve efficacy of drugs in bladder cancer therapy through elevating their bioavailability. The potential of genetic tools such as siRNA and miRNA in gene expression regulation can be boosted using nanostructures by facilitating their internalization and accumulation at tumor sites and cells. Nanoparticles can provide photodynamic and photothermal therapy for ROS overgeneration and hyperthermia, respectively, in the suppression of bladder cancer. Furthermore, remodeling of tumor microenvironment and infiltration of immune cells for the purpose of immunotherapy are achieved through cargo-loaded nanocarriers. Nanocarriers are mainly internalized in bladder tumor cells by endocytosis, and proper design of smart nanoparticles such as pH-, redox-, and light-responsive nanocarriers is of importance for targeted tumor therapy. Bladder cancer biomarkers can be detected using nanoparticles for timely diagnosis of patients. Based on their accumulation at the tumor site, they can be employed for tumor imaging. The clinical translation and challenges are also covered in current review.

2D Hetero-Nanoconstructs of Black Phosphorus for Breast Cancer Theragnosis: Technological Advancements

As per global cancer statistics of 2020, female breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and also the foremost cause of cancer death in women. Traditional treatments include a number of negative effects, making it necessary to investigate novel smart drug delivery methods and identify new therapeutic approaches. Efforts for developing novel strategies for breast cancer therapy are being devised worldwide by various research groups. Currently, two-dimensional black phosphorus nanosheets (BPNSs) have attracted considerable attention and are best suited for theranostic nanomedicine. Particularly, their characteristics, including drug loading efficacy, biocompatibility, optical, thermal, electrical, and phototherapeutic characteristics, support their growing demand as a potential substitute for graphene-based nanomaterials in biomedical applications. In this review, we have explained different platforms of BP nanomaterials for breast cancer management, their structures, functionalization approaches, and general methods of synthesis. Various characteristics of BP nanomaterials that make them suitable for cancer therapy and diagnosis, such as large surface area, nontoxicity, solubility, biodegradability, and excellent near-infrared (NIR) absorption capability, are discussed in the later sections. Next, we summarize targeting approaches using various strategies for effective therapy with BP nanoplatforms. Then, we describe applications of BP nanomaterials for breast cancer treatment, which include drug delivery, codelivery of drugs, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, combined therapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy, and multidrug resistance reversal strategy. Finally, the present challenges and future aspects of BP nanomaterials are discussed.