Importance of PLGA microparticle swelling for the control of prilocaine release

PLGA-based long-acting injectable (LAI) formulations

Long-acting injectable (LAI) formulations, which deliver drugs over weeks or months, have been in use for more than three decades. Most clinically approved LAI products are formulated using poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) polymers. Historically, the development of PLGA-based LAI formulations has relied predominantly on trial-and-error methods, primarily due to a limited understanding of the complex factors involved in LAI formulations and insufficient analytical techniques available for characterizing individual PLGA polymers of the prepared formulations. This article offers a personal perspective on recent advancements in characterization methods for PLGA polymers within final formulations, i.e., products, as well as enhanced insights into the drug release mechanisms associated with LAI products. With a deeper understanding of PLGA polymer properties and drug release mechanisms, the formulation development process can transition from traditional trial-and-error practices to a more systematic Quality by Design (QbD) approach. Additionally, this article explores the emerging role of artificial intelligence (AI) in formulation science and its potential, when applied carefully, to enhance the future development of PLGA-based LAI formulations.

A dataset on formulation parameters and characteristics of drug-loaded PLGA microparticles

Polymer microparticles (MPs) are widely used to create long-acting injectable formulations due to their ability to enable sustained drug release. This feature can significantly benefit chronic disease management by reducing dosing frequency and improving patient adherence. To support the design and development of polymer MPs, we have compiled a dataset on MPs formed from poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), the most commonly used polymer in commercial MP drug products. This dataset, derived from the literature, covers 321 in vitro release studies involving 89 different drugs. It aims to streamline future MP development by providing a reference for the current PLGA MP design space and supporting data-driven approaches such as machine learning. Published with open access, this dataset encourages broad utilization and aims to expand the range of available MP formulations.

In vitro-in vivo correlation (IVIVC) development for long-acting injectable drug products based on poly(lactide-co-glycolide)

In vitro-in vivo correlation (IVIVC), linking in vitro drug release to in vivo drug release or in vivo drug absorption, has been explored chiefly for oral extended-release dosage forms. Currently, there are no official guidelines on IVIVC development for non-oral drug delivery systems. Recently, many long-acting injectable (LAI) formulations based on poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) have been developed to deliver various drugs, ranging from small molecules to peptides and proteins, for up to 6 months. The circumstances involved in the LAI formulations are drastically different from those in oral formulations, which generally deliver drugs for a maximum of 24 h. This article examines 37 IVIVC studies of PLGA microparticle formulations available in the literature. Understanding and establishing an IVIVC of LAI formulations requires more than merely plotting the percentage in vitro drug release against the percentage in vivo absorption. In vivo drug absorption (or release) should be measured to provide a complete pharmacokinetic profile when feasible. Accelerated in vitro release methods need to be respective of the real-time measurements by sharing the same release mechanism. Obtaining meaningful IVIVCs with predictive capability will be highly useful for future regulatory actions and for developing generic and new formulations.

A New Analytical Method for Quantifying Acid-End-Cap PLGA in Sub-Milligram Quantities

Characterization of PLGA polymers used in FDA-approved drug products is critical for quality control and qualitative/quantitative (Q1/Q2) evaluation of potential generic formulations. Various techniques have been developed and used to characterize the molecular properties of PLGA polymers, such as molecular weight, molecular composition, and molecular structure. Commonly used techniques include gel permeation chromatography (GPC), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), semisolvent methods, and GPC-based intrinsic viscosity measurement. It is noted that the existing analytical methods may not be able to separate and quantify PLGA polymers when used as a mixture in a drug product (e.g., Durysta and Ozurdex). In particular, one assay method still lacking is quantitating the PLGA polymer with acid-end-cap (PLGA-A) in the mixture containing PLGA with ester-end-cap (PLGA-E), especially when the sample quantity is below the submilligram level. The total PLGA quantities available in Durysta and Ozurdex formulations are too small (<1 mg) to use existing assay methods to quantify the PLGA-A content. A new assay method was developed to quantitate PLGA-A in the mixture with PLGA-E. The acid end-cap was modified with pyrene methylamine (a UV dye) to enhance the signal and compared with the total PLGA quantity measured with the refractive index (RI) after a sample was run through a GPC. This GPC-UV/RI approach is based on measuring the total acid number (TAN) of PLGA-A and converting it to the PLGA-A quantity to compare with the total PLGA. Unlike conventional methods of measuring TAN, the GPC-UV/RI methods enables TAN measurements of submilligram PLGA quantities. Application of this method to Ozurdex-similar samples showed the expected acid:ester ratio of PLGAs. This new approach provides another powerful tool for characterizing PLGA polymers in FDA-approved drug products. This is especially significant considering that the PLGAs of commercial products are likely to have molecular properties different from those of the raw PLGAs before going through the manufacturing process.

Drug release from PLGA microparticles can be slowed down by a surrounding hydrogel

This study aimed to evaluate and better understand the potential impact that a layer of surrounding hydrogel (mimicking living tissue) can have on the drug release from PLGA microparticles. Ibuprofen-loaded microparticles were prepared with an emulsion solvent extraction/evaporation method. The drug loading was about 48%. The surface of the microparticles appeared initially smooth and non-porous. In contrast, the internal microstructure of the particles exhibited a continuous network of tiny pores. Ibuprofen release from single microparticles was measured into agarose gels and well-agitated phosphate buffer pH 7.4. Optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray powder diffraction, and X-ray μCT imaging were used to characterize the microparticles before and after exposure to the release media. Importantly, ibuprofen release was much slower in the presence of a surrounding agarose gel, e.g., the complete release took two weeks vs. a few days in well agitated phosphate buffer. This can probably be attributed to the fact that the hydrogel sterically hinders substantial system swelling and, thus, slows down the related increase in drug mobility. In addition, in this particular case, the convective flow in agitated bulk fluid likely damages the thin PLGA layer at the microparticles' surface, giving the outer aqueous phase more rapid access to the inner continuous pore network: Upon contact with water, the drug dissolves and rapidly diffuses out through a continuous network of water-filled channels. Without direct surface access, most of the drug "has to wait" for the onset of substantial system swelling to be released.

Drug release mechanisms of high-drug-load, melt-extruded dexamethasone intravitreal implants

Ozurdex is an FDA-approved sustained-release, biodegradable implant formulated to deliver the corticosteroid dexamethasone to the posterior segment of the eye for up to 6 months. Hot-melt extrusion is used to prepare the 0.46 mm × 6 mm, rod-shaped implant by embedding the drug in a matrix of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) in a 60:40 drug:polymer ratio by weight. In our previous work, the Ozurdex implant was carefully studied and reverse engineered to produce a compositionally and structurally equivalent implant for further analysis. In this work, the reverse-engineered implant is thoroughly characterized throughout the in vitro dissolution process to elucidate the mechanisms of controlled drug release. The implant exhibits a triphasic release profile in 37 °C normal saline with a small burst release (1-2 %), a one-week lag phase with limited release (less than10 %), and a final phase where the remainder of the dose is released over 3-4 weeks. The limited intermolecular interaction between dexamethasone and PLGA renders the breakdown of the polymer the dominating mechanism of controlled release. A close relationship between drug release and total implant mass loss was observed. Unique chemical and structural differences were seen between the core of the implant and the implant surface driven by diffusional limitations, autocatalytic hydrolysis, and osmotic effects.

Model-based Optimization of Drug Release Rate from a Size Distributed Population of Biodegradable Polymer Carriers

In the present study, a comprehensive polymer degradation-drug diffusion model is developed to describe the polymer degradation kinetics and quantify the release rate of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) from a size-distributed population of drug-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) carriers in terms of material and morphological properties of the drug carriers. To take into account the spatial-temporal variation of the drug and water diffusion coefficients, three new correlations are developed in terms of spatial-temporal variation of the molecular weight of the degrading polymer chains. The first one relates the diffusion coefficients with the time-spatial variation of the molecular weight of PLGA and initial drug loading and, the second one with the initial particle size, and the third one with evolution of the particle porosity due to polymer degradation. The derived model, comprising a system of partial differential and algebraic equations, is numerically solved using the method of lines and validated against published experimental data on the drug release rate from a size distributed population of piroxicam-PLGA microspheres. Finally, a multi-parametric optimization problem is formulated to calculate the optimal particle size and drug loading distributions of drug-loaded PLGA carriers to realize a desired zero-order drug release rate of a therapeutic drug over a specified administration period of several weeks. It is envisaged that the proposed model-based optimization approach will aid the optimal design of new controlled drug delivery systems and, consequently, the therapeutic outcome of an administered drug.

New long-acting injectable microspheres prepared by IVL-DrugFluidic™ system: 1-month and 3-month in vivo drug delivery of leuprolide

The microspheres for 1-month (PLGA-based) and 3-month (PLA-based) drug releases of leuprolide were manufactured using an IVL-DrugFluidic™ system and their morphology, particle size and distribution, and encapsulation efficiency were compared with the commercialized products. In vivo test was also conducted to monitor the amount of leuprolide and testosterone in plasma after a single subcutaneous injection in male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats and male Beagle dogs. The median diameter, span value, drug loading, and encapsulation efficiency of PLGA-based microspheres (63.29 μm, 0.26, 13.15%, and 78.90%, respectively) and PLA-based microspheres (80.28 μm, 0.21, 14.42%, and 86.50%, respectively) demonstrated narrow particle size distribution (monodispersed) and efficient drug loading/encapsulation efficiency. Both the microspheres exhibited a desired time-dependent drug release profile and reduced initial burst release by 16-fold in SD rats and 240-fold in Beagle dogs compared to Leuplin DPS®. Moreover, the testosterone level in plasma was suppressed to < 0.50 ng/mL after 28 days with a steady plasma drug concentration. The results suggested that newly developed leuprolide-loaded microspheres produced by the IVL-DrugFluidic™ system could provide extended drug release with advantages such as reduced initial burst release and testosterone level suppression, along with steady plasma drug concentration, over the existing products.

How agarose gels surrounding PLGA implants limit swelling and slow down drug release

The aim of this study was to better understand to which extent and in which way the presence of an agarose gel (mimicking living tissue) around a PLGA [poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)] implant affects the resulting drug release kinetics. Ibuprofen-loaded implants were prepared by hot melt extrusion. Drug release was measured upon exposure to phosphate buffer pH 7.4 in Eppendorf tubes, as well as upon inclusion into an agarose gel which was exposed to phosphate buffer pH 7.4 in an Eppendorf tube or in a transwell plate. Dynamic changes in the implants' dry & wet mass and dimensions were monitored gravimetrically and by optical macroscopy. Implant erosion and polymer degradation were observed by SEM and GPC. Different pH indicators were used to measure pH changes in the bulk fluids, gels and within the implants during drug release. Ibuprofen release was bi-phasic in all cases: A zero order release phase (~20% of the dose) was followed by a more rapid, final drug release phase. Interestingly, the presence of the hydrogel delayed the onset of the 2nd release phase. This could be attributed to the sterical hindrance of implant swelling: After a certain lag time, the degrading PLGA matrix becomes sufficiently hydrophilic and mechanically instable to allow for the penetration of substantial amounts of water into the system. This fundamentally changes the conditions for drug release: The latter becomes much more mobile and is more rapidly released. A gel surrounding the implant mechanically hinders system swelling and, thus, slows down drug release. These observations also strengthen the hypothesis of the "orchestrating" role of PLGA swelling for the control of drug release and can help developing more realistic in vitro release set-ups.

Three months extended-release microspheres prepared by multi-microchannel microfluidics in beagle dog models

To evaluate in vivo drug release profiles in beagle dogs, finasteride-loaded PLGA microspheres were prepared using a novel method of IVL-PPF Microsphere® microfluidic device. Briefly, the dispersed phase (PLGA and finasteride in dichloromethane) was mixed with the continuous phase (0.25% w/v PVA aqueous solution) in the parallelized microchannels. After lyophilization, the diameter of the microspheres was around 40 μm (PLGA 7502A or 5002A) and around 30 µm (PLGA/PLA02A mixture). Their CV and span values suggested a narrow size distribution in repeated batch preparations. The in vivo drug release from the PLGA microspheres exhibited three substantial phases: an initial burst, a moderate release, and then a plateau. The microspheres based on PLGA 7502A (75:25 co-polymer) demonstrated extended drug release for around 1 month with a minimized initial burst release compared to PLGA 5002A (50:50 co-polymer). Moreover, the in vivo drug release profile in beagle dogs was proportionally related to the amount of drug loading. Furthermore, the addition of PLA02A into the fabrication of the microsphere synergistically extended the drug release up to 3 months. These results demonstrated the value of this method to achieve uniform microspheres and extend the drug release properties with interpretative in vivo PK profiles.

Investigating PLGA microparticle swelling behavior reveals an interplay of expansive intermolecular forces

This study analyzes the swelling behavior of native, unmodified, spherically uniform, monodisperse poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microparticles in a robust high-throughput manner. This work contributes to the complex narrative of PLGA microparticle behavior and release mechanisms by complementing and extending previously reported studies on intraparticle microenvironment, degradation, and drug release. Microfluidically produced microparticles are incubated under physiological conditions and observed for 50 days to generate a profile of swelling behavior. Microparticles substantially increase in size after 15 days, continue increasing for 30 days achieving size dependent swelling indices between 49 and 83%. Swelling capacity is found to correlate with pH. Our study addresses questions such as onset, duration, swelling index, size dependency, reproducibility, and causal mechanistic forces surrounding swelling. Importantly, this study can serve as the basis for predictive modeling of microparticle behavior and swelling capacity, in addition to providing clues as to the microenvironmental conditions that encapsulated material may experience.

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microsphere production based on quality by design: a review

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) has garnered increasing attention as a candidate drug delivery polymer owing to its favorable properties, including its excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, non-immunogenicity, and mechanical strength. PLAG are specifically used as microspheres for the sustained/controlled and targeted delivery of hydrophilic or hydrophobic drugs, as well as biological therapeutic macromolecules, including peptide and protein drugs. PLGAs with different molecular weights, lactic acid (LA)/glycolic acid (GA) ratios, and end groups exhibit unique release characteristics, which is beneficial for obtaining diverse therapeutic effects. This review aims to analyze the composition of PLGA microspheres, and understand the manufacturing process involved in their production, from a quality by design perspective. Additionally, the key factors affecting PLGA microsphere development are explored as well as the principles involved in the synthesis and degradation of PLGA and its interaction with active drugs. Further, the effects elicited by microcosmic conditions on PLGA macroscopic properties, are analyzed. These conditions include variations in the organic phase (organic solvent, PLGA, and drug concentration), continuous phase (emulsifying ability), emulsifying stage (organic phase and continuous phase interaction, homogenization parameters), and solidification process (relationship between solvent volatilization rate and curing conditions). The challenges in achieving consistency between batches during manufacturing are addressed, and continuous production is discussed as a potential solution. Finally, potential critical quality attributes are introduced, which may facilitate the optimization of process parameters.

Muscle Tissue as a Surrogate for In Vitro Drug Release Testing of Parenteral Depot Microspheres

Despite the importance of drug release testing of parenteral depot formulations, the current in vitro methods still require ameliorations in biorelevance. We have investigated here the use of muscle tissue components to better mimic the intramuscular administration. For convenient handling, muscle tissue was used in form of a freeze-dried powder, and a reproducible process of incorporation of tested microspheres to an assembly of muscle tissue of standardized dimensions was successfully developed. Microspheres were prepared from various grades of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) or ethyl cellulose, entrapping flurbiprofen, lidocaine, or risperidone. The deposition of microspheres in the muscle tissue or addition of only isolated lipids into the medium accelerated the release rate of all model drugs from microspheres prepared from ester-terminated PLGA grades and ethyl cellulose, however, not from the acid-terminated PLGA grades. The addition of lipids into the release medium increased the solubility of all model drugs; nonetheless, also interactions of the lipids with the polymer matrix (ad- and absorption) might be responsible for the faster drug release. As the in vivo drug release from implants is also often faster than in simple buffers in vitro, these findings suggest that interactions with the tissue lipids may play an important role in these still unexplained observations.

In-vitro drug release testing of parenteral formulations via an agarose gel envelope to closer mimic tissue firmness

Current in vitro drug-release testing of the sustained-release parenterals represents the in vivo situation insufficiently. In this work, a thin agarose hydrogel layer surrounding the tested dosage form was proposed to mimic the tissue. The method was applied on implantable formulations of different geometries (films, microspheres, and cylindrical implants); prepared from various polymers (several Resomer® grades or ethyl cellulose) and loaded with different model drugs: flurbiprofen, lidocaine or risperidone. The hydrogel layer did not possess any retarding effect on the released drug and acted as a physical restriction to swelling and/or plastic deformation of the tested dosage forms. This led to a different surface area available for drug-release compared with testing in release medium alone and correspondingly to significantly different release profiles of the majority of the formulations obtained between the two methods (e.g. t50% = 18 days in pure release medium vs. t50% = 26 days in gel-setup for risperidone loaded Resomer® 503 H films or t50% = 7 days vs. t50% = 19 days for risperidone loaded Resomer® 503 H microspheres). The limited space for swelling and the rigidity of the agarose gel might mimic the tight encapsulation of the dosage form in the tissue better than the conventional liquid medium.

Mechanistic explanation of the (up to) 3 release phases of PLGA microparticles: Diprophylline dispersions

The aim of this study was to better understand the root causes for the (up to) 3 drug release phases observed with poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microparticles containing diprophylline particles: The 1st release phase ("burst release"), 2nd release phase (with an "about constant release rate") and 3rd release phase (which is again rapid and leads to complete drug exhaust). The behavior of single microparticles was monitored upon exposure to phosphate buffer pH 7.4, in particular with respect to their drug release and swelling behaviors. Diprophylline-loaded PLGA microparticles were prepared with a solid-in-oil-in-water solvent extraction/evaporation method. Tiny drug crystals were rather homogeneously distributed throughout the polymer matrix after manufacturing. Batches with "small" (63 µm), "medium-sized" (113 µm) and "large" (296 µm) microparticles with a practical drug loading of 5-7% were prepared. Importantly, each microparticle releases the drug "in its own way", depending on the exact distribution of the tiny drug crystals within the system. During the burst release, drug crystals with direct surface access rapidly dissolve. During the 2nd release phase tiny drug crystals (often) located in surface near regions which undergo swelling, are likely released. During the 3rd release phase, the entire microparticle undergoes substantial swelling. This results in high quantities of water present throughout the system, which becomes "gel-like". Consequently, the drug crystals dissolve, and the dissolved drug molecules rather rapidly diffuse through the highly swollen polymer gel.

In-situ forming implants for the treatment of periodontal diseases: Simultaneous controlled release of an antiseptic and an anti-inflammatory drug

Different types of in-situ forming implants based on poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) for the controlled dual release of an antiseptic drug (chlorhexidine) and an anti-inflammatory drug (ibuprofen) were prepared and thoroughly characterized in vitro. N-methyl-pyrrolidone (NMP) was used as water-miscible solvent, acetyltributyl citrate (ATBC) as plasticizer and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) was added to enhance the implants' stickiness/bioadhesion upon formation within the periodontal pocket. Different drug forms exhibiting substantially different solubilities were used: chlorhexidine dihydrochloride and digluconate as well as ibuprofen free acid and lysinate. The initial drug loadings were varied from 1.5 to 16.1%. In vitro drug release, dynamic changes in the pH of the surrounding bulk fluid and in the systems' wet mass as well as polymer degradation were monitored. Importantly, the release of both drugs, chlorhexidine and ibuprofen, could effectively be controlled simultaneously during several weeks. Interestingly, the tremendous differences in the drug forms' solubilities (e.g., factor >5000) did not translate into major differences in the resulting release kinetics. In the case of ibuprofen, this can likely (at least in part) be attributed to significant drug-polymer interactions (ibuprofen acts as a plasticizer for PLGA). In the case of chlorhexidine, the release of the much less soluble dihydrochloride was even faster compared to the more soluble digluconate (when combined with ibuprofen free acid). In the case of ibuprofen, at higher initial drug loadings also limited solubility effects within the implants seem to play a role, in contrast to chlorhexidine. In the latter case, instead, increased system porosity effects likely dominate at higher drug loadings.

Modification of Three-Phase Drug Release Mode of Octreotide PLGA Microspheres by Microsphere-Gel Composite System

In order to obtain sustained release of biodegradable microspheres, the purpose of this study was to design and characterize an injectable octreotide microsphere-gel composite system. The octreotide microspheres were prepared by phase separation method, which used PLGA as a carrier material, dimethyl silicone oil as a phase separation reagent, and n-heptane-Span 80 as a hardener. In addition, we used poloxamer 407 (PL 407) and poloxamer 188 (PL 188) as the thermosensitive gel matrix material. The composite system was obtained by scattering octreotide microspheres in a poloxamer gel. In vitro data showed that the release time of the composite system could last for about 50 days. Because of the blocking and control actions of the poloxamer gel, the initial burst release was significantly reduced and the plateau phase was eliminated. Pharmacokinetic data showed that the burst release of the composite system was significantly less than that of the microspheres, i.e., Cmax1 was reduced by about half. From day 2 to day 50, higher plasma concentration levels and more stable drug release behavior were exhibited. In addition, the good biocompatibility of the composite system in vivo was also demonstrated by hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining. Therefore, the octreotide microsphere-gel composite system will be a new direction for hydrophilic polypeptide/protein-loaded sustained release dosage forms with high pharmacological activity.

Solution dynamics of 5-fluorouracil entrapped in poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) microsphere-A study with 1D selective NMR methods

In this report, our main focus is to introduce a set of one-dimensional (1D) NMR methods based on chemical shift, relaxation, and magnetization transfer, namely, NOE and chemical exchange involving selective pulse excitation to study the solution dynamics of drug in free and encapsulated state within polymeric microsphere. In this regard 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) loaded poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) microspheres are prepared as model system via standard water-in-oil-in-water emulsification method. One-dimensional 1 H and 19 F nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of 5-FU in presence of PLGA microspheres presented a significant change in linewidth and relaxation rates compared with free 5-FU confirming encapsulation. Furthermore, loss of coupling pattern in 1 H and 19 F NMR of PLGA encapsulated 5-FU as compared with free 5-FU suggests an enhanced -NH and -H2 O protons exchange dynamics in the interior of the microsphere indicating hydrated microsphere cavity. Quantification of exchange dynamics in case of free and PLGA-encapsulated 5-FU was attempted employing 1D selective NOESY and 1D multiply selective inversion recovery experiments. Analysis of the exchange rates confirmed existence of more than one kind of water population within the cavity as mentioned in an earlier solid state NMR report.

In-situ forming PLGA implants for intraocular dexamethasone delivery

Different types of in-situ forming implants based on poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and N-methyl-pyrrolidone (NMP) were prepared for controlled ocular delivery of dexamethasone. The impact of the volume of the release medium, initial drug content, polymer molecular weight and PLGA concentration on the resulting drug release kinetics were studied and explained based on a thorough physico-chemical characterization of the systems. This included for instance the monitoring of dynamic changes in the implants' wet and dry mass, morphology, PLGA polymer molecular weight, pH of the surrounding bulk fluid and water/NMP contents upon exposure to phosphate buffer pH 7.4. Importantly, the systems can be expected to be rather robust with respect to variations in the vitreous humor volumes encountered in vivo. Interestingly, limited drug solubility effects within the implants as well as in the surrounding aqueous medium play an important role for the control of drug release at a drug loading of only 7.5%. Furthermore, the polymer molecular weight and PLGA concentration in the liquid formulations are decisive for how the polymer precipitates during solvent exchange and for the swelling behavior of the systems. These features determine the resulting inner system structure and the conditions for mass transport. Consequently, they affect the degradation and drug release of the in-situ formed implants.

Long-Acting Release Microspheres Containing Novel GLP-1 Analog as an Antidiabetic System

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) has recently received significant attention as an efficacious way to treat diabetes mellitus. However, the short half-life of the peptide limits its clinical application in diabetes. In our previous study, a novel GLP-1 analog (PGLP-1) with a longer half-life was synthesized and evaluated. Herein, we prepared the PGLP-1-loaded poly(d,l-lactide- co-glycolide) microspheres to achieve long-term effects on blood glucose control. The incorporation of zinc ion into the formulation can effectively decrease the initial burst release, and a uniform drug distribution was obtained, in contrast to native PGLP-1 encapsulated microspheres. We demonstrated that the solubility of the drug encapsulated in microspheres played an important role in in vitro release behavior and drug distribution inside the microspheres. The Zn-PGLP-1 microspheres had a prominent acute glucose reduction effect in the healthy mice. A hypoglycemic effect was observed in the streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic mice through a 6-week treatment of Zn-PGLP-1-loaded microspheres. Meanwhile, the administration of Zn-PGLP-1 microspheres led to the β-cell protection and stimulation of insulin secretion. The novel GLP-1 analog-loaded sustained microspheres may greatly improve patient compliance along with a desirable safety feature.

When drugs plasticize film coatings: Unusual formulation effects observed with metoprolol and Eudragit RS

Metoprolol tartrate and metoprolol free base loaded pellet starter cores were coated with Eudragit RS, plasticized with 25% triethyl citrate (TEC). The initial drug loading and coating level were varied from 10 to 40 and 0 to 20%, respectively. Drug release was measured in 0.1 N HCl and phosphate buffer pH 7.4. The water uptake and swelling kinetics, mechanical properties and TEC leaching of/from coated pellets and/or thin, free films of identical composition as the film coatings were monitored. The following unusual tendencies were observed: (i) the relative drug release rate from coated pellets increased with increasing initial drug content, and (ii) drug release from pellets was much faster for metoprolol free base compared to metoprolol tartrate, despite its much lower solubility (factor >70). These phenomena could be explained by plasticizing effects of the drug for the polymeric film coatings. In particular: 1) Metoprolol free base is a much more potent plasticizer for Eudragit RS than the tartrate, leading to higher film permeability and overcompensating the pronounced differences in drug solubility. Also, Raman imaging revealed that substantial amounts of the free base migrated into the film coatings, whereas this was not the case for the tartrate. 2) The plasticizing effects of the drug for the film coating overcompensated potential increasing limited solubility effects when increasing the initial drug loading from 10 to 40%. In summary, this study clearly demonstrates how important the plasticization of polymeric controlled release film coatings by drugs can be, leading to unexpected formulation effects.

Preparation and investigation of P28GST-loaded PLGA microparticles for immunomodulation of experimental colitis

The aim of this work was to prepare and characterize (in vitro and in vivo) PLGA-based microparticles loaded with an enzymatic protein derived from the helminth parasite Schistosoma haematobium: glutathione S-transferase P28GST (P28GST). This protein is not only a promising candidate vaccine against schistosomiasis, it also exhibits interesting immunomodulating effects, which can be helpful for the regulation of inflammatory diseases. Helminths express a regulatory role on intestinal inflammation, and immunization by P28GST has recently been shown to be as efficient as infection to reduce inflammation in a murine colitis model. As an alternative to the combination with a classical adjuvant, long acting P28GST microparticles were prepared in order to induce colitis prevention. PLGA was used as biodegradable and biocompatible matrix former, and a W/O/W emulsion/solvent extraction technique applied to prepare different types of microparticles. The effects of key formulation and processing parameters (e.g., the polymer molecular weight, drug loading, W/O/W phase volumes and stirring rates of the primary/secondary emulsions) on the systems' performance were studied. Microparticles providing about constant P28GST release during several weeks were selected and their effects in an experimental model of colitis evaluated. Mice received P28GST-loaded or P28GST-free PLGA microparticles (s.c.) on Day 0, and optionally also on Days 14 and 28. Colitis was induced on Day 35, the animals were sacrificed on Day 37. Interestingly, the Wallace score (being a measure of the severity of the inflammation) was significantly lower in mice treated with P28GST microparticles compared to placebo after 1 or 3 injections. As immunogenicity markers, increased anti-P28GST IgG levels were detected after three P28GST PLGA microparticle injections, but not in the control groups. Thus, the proposed microparticles offer an interesting potential for the preventive treatment of experimental colitis, while the underlying mechanism of action is still to be investigated.

Seeing is believing, PLGA microsphere degradation revealed in PLGA microsphere/PVA hydrogel composites

The aim of this study was to understand the polymer degradation and drug release mechanism from PLGA microspheres embedded in a PVA hydrogel. Two types of microspheres were prepared with different molecular weight PLGA polymers (approximately 25 and 7 kDa) to achieve different drug release profiles, with a 9-day lag phase and without a lag phase, respectively. The kinetics of water uptake into the microspheres coincided with the drug release profiles for both formulations. For the 25 kDa microspheres, minimal water uptake was observed in the early part of the lag phase followed by substantial water uptake at the later stages and in the drug release phase. For the 7 kDa microspheres, water uptake occurred simultaneously with drug release. Water uptake was approximately 2-3 times that of the initial microsphere weight for both formulations. The internal structure of the PLGA microspheres was evaluated using low temperature scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM). Burst drug release occurred followed by pore forming from the exterior to the core of both microspheres. A well-defined hydrogel/microsphere interface was observed. For the 25 kDa microspheres, internal pore formation and swelling occurred before the second drug release phase. The surface layer of the microspheres remained intact whereas swelling, and degradation of the core continued throughout the drug release period. In addition, microsphere swelling reduced glucose transport through the coatings in PBS media and this was considered to be a as a consequence of the increased thickness of the coatings. The combination of the swelling and microdialysis results provides a fresh understanding on the competing processes affecting molecular transport of bioanalytes (i.e. glucose) through these composite coatings during prolonged exposure in PBS.