Friendship and adjustment among adolescents

A Spectrum of Understanding: A Qualitative Exploration of Autistic Adults' Understandings and Perceptions of Friendship(s)

Background

Previous research has often documented that friendship is an area of difficulty for autistic people, however this may be caused by a neurotypical understanding of friendship. The current study aimed at adopting a more inclusive account of friendship, involving an autistic participant group representing a range of genders and communication preferences while exploring the following question-What are autistic adults' perceptions of friendships?

Method

Participants (n = 20) were interviewed using their preferred method of communication (speaking and non-speaking) during 2021-2022.

Results

The results showed that three main themes emerged under an overarching theme of A Spectrum of Understanding: Identity with Others, Sharing Value, and Shared Presence. The inclusive approaches used in the current study allowed under-researched autistic groups such as non-speaking autistic people and autistic people who identify as non-binary to participate in meaningful research.

Conclusions

The study offers a new perspective on the Double Empathy theory, suggesting it may be helpful to conceptualize it as a continuum of neuro-cultural learning rather than a distinctive binary centered on an autistic-allistic misunderstanding. Increased understanding of friendships in autistic groups will help to increase awareness of social belonging and support that can protect against poor mental health outcomes.

The Relation Between Social Anxiety and Perceptions of Likeability and Friendship in Adolescents

Background

This study investigated how different social anxiety symptoms (i.e., worrying about negative evaluation versus avoidance tendencies) in adolescents are related to the perception accuracy of likeability by peers and friendships with peers.

Method

A community sample of 263 adolescents between 12 and 15 years old reported on their social anxiety symptoms. In addition, they estimated how much their peers liked them, indicated how much they liked their peers, and who their friends were in their classroom.

Results

Results showed that socially anxious adolescents who mainly worried about negative evaluations, underestimated their likeability by peers. Adolescents with strong social avoidance tendencies had a more accurate perception of their likeability and friendships; they were less liked by their peers and had fewer friends.

Conclusion

The results emphasize the importance of treating avoidance behavior in social anxiety since avoidance tendencies may not only maintain the social anxiety symptoms but are also related to a more negative judgment by others.

Cultural modes of conflict resolution, roommate satisfaction, and school belonging: The role of socioeconomic status in university peer relations

It is often assumed that ethnic differences are the source of cross-cultural conflict and misunderstandings in the United States. However, research indicates that socioeconomic differences, i.e., family ecologies, play an important role in producing cross-cultural value conflict between student peers in a university setting. Our prior research revealed two resolution styles: (1) a collectivistic strategy - maintaining interpersonal harmony by avoidance or implicit communication, or (2) an individualistic strategy - advocating for and expressing one's personal feelings via explicit communication. In a small qualitative study of first-generation university students from Latin American immigrant families, improved roommate relations resulted from use of the more individualistic strategy. The purpose of the present study was to extend this work by examining whether the positive role of explicit conflict resolution with dormitory roommates generalizes to a large diverse sample of university students in the United States and to examine the role of socioeconomic status, a key aspect of the ecological surround. By means of a survey of 347 first-year UCLA students, we explored the interrelations of socioeconomic status, conflict resolution style, roommate relations, sense of belonging in the university environment, and psychological distress. Socioeconomic status consisted of parent education and income, which were closely related. Being a first-generation university student (i.e., neither parent had a postsecondary degree) was, as predicted, associated with harmony-maintaining modes of resolving roommate conflicts. In accord with our earlier qualitative findings, these modes of conflict resolution were less effective than an explicit mode in producing satisfying roommate relations. Less satisfying roommate relations led, in turn, to a lower sense of belonging in the university environment and more psychological distress. This causal chain from first-generation university status to less satisfying roommate relations, a lower sense of belonging, and more psychological distress may help explain the prevalence of "imposter" syndrome among first-generation university students.

A prospective study of the relative contribution of adolescent peer support quantity and quality to depressive symptoms

BACKGROUND

During adolescence, peer support has an increasingly important role in identity formation and well-being. Prior research has identified that lack of social support from peers in adolescence is a potent risk factor for depression. Two ways that social support has been operationalized is by the number of one's friends (i.e., 'quantity') and perception of one's network (i.e., 'quality'). Typically, these aspects of peer support are assessed separately.

METHODS

Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 3,857), this study sought to test whether (1) adolescent depression relates to having fewer friends versus lower quality friendships, (2) these aspects of adolescent peer support prospectively predict depression in adulthood, (3) gender moderates the effects of peer support on depression, and (4) these aspects of peer support buffer the effects of stressful life events on depression.

RESULTS

Peer support quality uniquely predicted depression in adolescence and adulthood among both males and females. The effect of peer support quality on depressive symptoms, however, was greater for females than males. By contrast, peer support quantity did not uniquely predict depression for males or females.

CONCLUSIONS

Qualitative aspects of adolescent peer support uniquely contribute to mental health not only in adolescence, but in adulthood as well. Potential processes through which peer support relates to depression are discussed, as well as implications for treatment.

Adult friendship and wellbeing: A systematic review with practical implications

This study aimed to systematically review research findings regarding the relationship between adult friendship and wellbeing. A multidimensional scope for wellbeing and its components with the use of the PERMA theory was adopted. A total of 38 research articles published between 2000 and 2019 were reviewed. In general, adult friendship was found to predict or at least be positively correlated with wellbeing and its components. In particular, the results showed that friendship quality and socializing with friends predict wellbeing levels. In addition, number of friends, their reactions to their friend's attempts of capitalizing positive events, support of friend's autonomy, and efforts to maintain friendship are positively correlated with wellbeing. Efforts to maintain the friendship, friendship quality, personal sense of uniqueness, perceived mattering, satisfaction of basic psychological needs, and subjective vitality mediated this relationship. However, research findings highlighted several gaps and limitations of the existing literature on the relationship between adult friendship and wellbeing components. For example, for particular wellbeing components, findings were non-existent, sparse, contradictory, fragmentary, or for specific populations only. Implications of this review for planning and implementing positive friendship interventions in several contexts, such as school, work, counseling, and society, are discussed.

Quality over quantity: A transactional model of social withdrawal and friendship development in late adolescence

The aim of this study was to test a longitudinal, transactional model that describes how social withdrawal and friendship development are interrelated in late adolescence, and to investigate if post-secondary transitions are catalysts of change for highly withdrawn adolescents' friendships. Unilateral friendship data of 1,019 adolescents (61.3% female, 91% Dutch-origin) from the Tracking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS) cohort were collected five times from ages 17 to 18 years. Social withdrawal was assessed at 16 and 19 years. The transactional model was tested within a Structural Equation Modeling framework, with intercepts and slopes of friendship quantity, quality, and stability as mediators and residential transitions, education transitions, and sex as moderators. The results confirmed the presence of a transactional relation between withdrawal and friendship quality. Whereas higher age 16 withdrawal predicted having fewer, lower-quality, and less-stable friendships, only having lower-quality friendships, in turn, predicted higher age 19 withdrawal, especially in girls. Residential transitions were catalysts of change for highly withdrawn youth's number of friends: higher withdrawal predicted a moderate increase in number of friends for adolescents who relocated, and no change for those who made an educational transition or did not transition. Taken together, these results indicate that the quality of friendships-over and above number of friends and the stability of those friendships-is particularly important for entrenching or diminishing withdrawal in late adolescence, and that relocating provides an opportunity for withdrawn late adolescents to expand their friendship networks.

Reciprocal Social Behavior and Related Social Outcomes in Individuals at Clinical High Risk for Psychosis

Reciprocal social behavior (RSB) deficits have been noted in formal psychotic disorders and may play a role in the clinical high-risk for psychosis (CHR) syndrome. The present study examined RSB deficits and clinical and social functioning correlates in 45 individuals meeting criteria for a CHR syndrome and 47 healthy comparisons (HC). Further, this study examined associations with number of friends, problematic social Internet use, and perceived social support. Compared to the HC group, the CHR group exhibited greater deficits in total RSB and in all RSB subdomains. Total RSB deficits were associated with greater negative but not positive symptom severity in the CHR group, and greater social functional impairment. RSB deficits also may have related to fewer friendships, more problematic social Internet use, and less perceived belonging and tangible social support, although relationships with Internet use and perceived social support did not survive FDR-correction. These findings provide further evidence that RSB is impaired in the CHR syndrome and suggest specific social outcomes that may be affected. Further investigations with larger, diverse samples and repeated measures can confirm these findings.

Perceived barriers, relationship quality, and informal mentors: Adolescents' preference for disclosing about dating violence

This study examined associations among adolescents' likelihood of disclosure about dating violence, perceptions of barriers to disclosure, and quality of the relationship with various sources of support. Data were gathered from 152 students in a southern high school. Results indicated youth perceived fewer barriers to disclosing to mentors compared with friends and parents, and youth reported highest relationships quality with informal mentors. However, youth indicated highest likelihood of disclosure to friends, followed by informal mentors and parents. Both relationship quality and perceived barriers to disclosure about dating violence were associated with likelihood of disclosure to friends and parents, but only relationship quality was related to likelihood of disclosure to informal mentors. Current findings (a) suggest adolescents' preferences for disclosing about dating violence are influenced by perceived barriers and relationship quality with sources of support and (b) highlight the promise of informal mentors as an additional resource for adolescents.

Spotting Loneliness at School: Associations between Self-Reports and Teacher and Peer Nominations

In two independent studies, we aimed to examine the extent to which teacher and peer nominations of loneliness are associated with children’s and adolescents’ self-reported loneliness, respectively. Additionally, we examined whether loneliness nominations from teachers and peers were informative above and beyond peer status and social behaviors associated with loneliness. In Study 1 (N = 1594, M_age = 9.43 years), teacher nominations of loneliness showed a small to moderate correlation with children’s self-reported loneliness as assessed using the Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Questionnaire (LSDQ). The results of a hierarchical regression analysis showed that teacher nominations of loneliness predicted children’s self-reported loneliness above and beyond teacher nominations of peer status and social behaviors. In Study 2 (N = 350, M_age = 13.81 years), peer nominations of loneliness showed a small to moderate correlation with adolescents’ self-reported loneliness as assessed using the peer-related loneliness subscale of the Loneliness and Aloneness Scale for Children and Adolescents (LACA). The results of a hierarchical regression analysis showed that peer nominations of loneliness predicted adolescents’ self-reported loneliness above and beyond peer nominations of peer status and social behaviors. We conclude that loneliness nominations are valuable, but caution is needed when they are used exclusively to identify lonely children and adolescents.

Teen Dating Relationships: How Daily Disagreements are Associated with Relationship Satisfaction

Being in a satisfying romantic relationship in adolescence is associated to many short- and long-term benefits. However, more research is needed to better understand what promotes relationship satisfaction in adolescence. To address this gap, this study used a diary approach to examine the relation between disagreements and daily variations in adolescent romantic relationship satisfaction. A sample of 186 adolescents was recruited (Mage = 17.08 years, SD = 1.48; 56% female). Multilevel modeling was used to evaluate how disagreement occurrences, resolution, and resolution strategies were related to daily perceived relationship satisfaction at both the between- and within-subjects levels. At the within-subjects level, satisfaction was lower on days when a disagreement occurred, especially for girls. Adolescents also reported lower relationship satisfaction on days when they used more destructive strategies than usual, and higher relationship satisfaction on days when they successfully resolved disagreements. This study demonstrates that adolescents' evaluations of their daily relationship satisfaction vary as function of disagreement processes.

Does level of motor competence affect the associations between identity health and self-perceptions in adolescents?

BACKGROUND

Adolescence is a particularly important time for the development of self-perceptions and identity as many environmental and personal factors are influential. One relatively unexplored factor is level of motor competence.

AIM

To examine the relationship between identity health and self-perceptions in male and female adolescents with low motor competence (LMC) compared to typically developing (TD) adolescents.

METHOD

Adolescents (N = 160, 64.4% males, M_age = 14.45 yrs., SD = 0.75) completed the Adolescent Motor Competence Questionnaire (AMCQ), Assessment of Identity Development in Adolescence (AIDA), and Harter's Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (SPPA). Based on the AMCQ score, the sample was grouped into LMC and TD. Pearson's product moment correlations between the AIDA and SPPA subscales were derived for gender, competence groups, and gender x competence sub-groups.

RESULTS

Overall, males had lower AIDA scores (healthier identity) than the females and significant associations with all self-perception domains. For females, only scholastic and social competence, physical appearance, behavioural conduct, close friendship and Global Self-worth (GSW) domains were significantly related to their AIDA score. The adolescents in the LMC group had higher AIDA scores (less-healthier identity) and fewer self-perception domains [scholastic competence, physical appearance, behavioural conduct, close friendships and GSW] were associated to their AIDA scores. For the TD group, all self-perception domains were significantly correlated with their AIDA scores. When grouped by gender and motor competence, the TD males had the healthiest identity scores which were strongly associated with all self-perception subdomains. For males with LMC, only scholastic competence, behavioural conduct and GSW domains were significantly related with their identity score. Females from both competence groups reported significant associations between physical appearance, close friendships, behavioural conduct, and social competence domains with their identity scores. Scholastic competence was also significantly associated with identity only for females with LMC.

CONCLUSION

Positive self-perceptions across a range of domains are associated with a healthier identity, but differ according to level of motor competence and gender. For those with LMC, the self-perception subdomains unrelated to physical activity and sport, such as school-based aspects were associated with a healthier identity. These findings should guide school based interventions to provide support in these domains in order to strengthen self-worth and identity health.

The Influence of Motor Competence on Adolescent Identity Health: A Mixed Method Study

Our identity develops with age, and many impacting factors will determine whether it is healthy or unhealthy. A particularly fragile phase of identity development occurs during adolescence when level of motor competence may be influential, yet is rarely considered. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine male and female adolescent's perceptions towards their motor competence and identity development. In-depth information was also collected to understand what factors are important towards identity development during adolescence. Method: An explanatory sequential mixed methods study was used to examine the extent motor competence influenced the health of an adolescent's identity. A sample of 160 adolescents (male n = 103, female n = 57, M_age = 14.45 SD = .75) completed the Adolescent Motor Competence Questionnaire (AMCQ) and the Assessment of Identity Development in Adolescence (AIDA). The AMCQ scores were used to group the participants into high (HMC = > 83) and low (LMC = < 83) motor competence. Results: More females had less-healthy identities than males and those with LMC had less-healthy identities than those with HMC. Subsamples of 17 participants were interviewed in order to explain these results. The most at risk group, females with LMC, identified negative peer comparisons, poor social support and higher stress levels to achieve academic performance as key challenges. Conclusions. Well-designed support services for those with LMC, especially for the females should incorporate activities to develop individual competency and close friendships.

'It's different for girls': Gender differences in the friendships and conflict of autistic and neurotypical adolescents

This mixed-methods study examined gender differences in the friendships and conflict experiences of autistic girls and boys relative to their neurotypical peers. In total, 102 adolescents (27 autistic girls, 26 autistic boys, 26 neurotypical girls, and 23 neurotypical boys), aged between 11 and 18 years completed the Friendship Qualities Scale, the Revised Peer Experiences Questionnaire and were interviewed about their friendships. Results demonstrated that in many ways, the friendships and social experiences of autistic girls are similar to those of neurotypical girls. Autistic girls, however, have significantly more social challenges than their neurotypical peers, experiencing more conflict and finding that conflict harder to manage successfully. Autistic boys showed quantitatively different friendship patterns to all other groups. There were consistent gender differences in the type of conflict which boys and girls experienced, regardless of diagnostic status. These findings suggest that gender, rather than diagnosis per se, plays a critical role in the way that autistic adolescents perceive and experience their social relationships.

LET's CONNECT community mentorship program for youths with peer social problems: Preliminary findings from a randomized effectiveness trial

This study examined the effectiveness of LET's CONNECT (LC), a community mentorship program for youths who report peer social problems, which is based on a positive youth development framework. Participants were 218 youths (66.5% girls), aged 12 to 15 years, who were recruited from an urban medical emergency department and screened positive for bullying victimization, bullying perpetration, and/or low social connectedness. Youths were randomized to LC (n = 106) or the control condition (n = 112). Six-month outcomes were assessed with self-report measures of youth social connectedness, community connectedness, thwarted belongingness, depression, self-esteem, and suicidal ideation. LC was associated with a significant increase in only one of these outcomes, social connectedness (effect size = 0.4). It was associated consistently with trend-level positive changes for thwarted belongingness (decreased), depression (decreased), community connectedness, and self-esteem (effect sizes = 0.2). There was no effect on suicidal ideation (effect size = 0.0), and although not a primary outcome, eight youths in the LC condition and seven youths in the control condition engaged in suicidal behavior between baseline and follow-up. Although LC effect sizes are consistent with those from previous studies of community mentorship, there were multiple challenges to LC implementation that affected dosage and intervention fidelity, and that may account for the lack of stronger positive effects.

Shyness, Preference for Solitude, and Adolescent Internalizing: The Roles of Maternal, Paternal, and Best-Friend Support

The researchers examined differential outcomes related to two distinct motivations for withdrawal (preference for solitude and shyness) as well as the possibility that support from important others (mothers, fathers, and best friends) attenuate any such links. Adolescents (159 males, 171 females) reported on their motivations to withdraw, internalizing symptoms, and relationship quality in eighth grade, as well as their anxiety and depression in ninth grade. Using structural equation modeling, the authors found that maternal support weakened the association between shyness and internalizing problems; friend support weakened the association between preference for solitude and depression; and friend support strengthened the association between shyness and depression. Results suggest that shy adolescents may not derive the same benefits from supportive friendships as their typical peers.

Peer relationships and quality of life in 11-12-year-old children: The Health Oriented Pedagogical Project (HOPP)

AIMS

Social interactions play an important role in our everyday life. Studies on children's quality of life (QoL) show that peer relations are associated with both positive and negative outcomes. Popularity defines the degree to which a child is liked by his or her peers, whereas reciprocal friendship occurs when two children mutually nominate each other as friends. The overall aim was to examine associations between peer relations and children's QoL.

METHODS

Baseline data were from the Health Oriented Pedagogical Project (HOPP). From a sample of 2297, 691 children aged 11-12 years participated. QoL was measured using the Norwegian version of the Inventory of Life Quality in Children and Adolescents (ILC). Popularity and friendship variables were based on number of nominations and represent quantitative features of peer relationships.

RESULTS

Both popularity and reciprocal friendship had a positive association with children's QoL. Number of nominations (both for popularity and reciprocal friendship) played a significant role for the above-mentioned associations. Consequently, popularity (β = 0.18) and reciprocal friendship (β = 0.25) were associated with children's QoL with 95% CIs of 0.12-0.27 and 0.17-0.31, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings from the current study contribute to contemporary research focused on children's QoL. Being able to rank reciprocal friendships, as well as recognizing that having more than one reciprocal friendship increases QoL, is important and could be beneficial for developing programs that promote high QoL, hence preventing possible maladjustments in a long-term perspective.

Intra- and Inter-Individual Differences in Adolescent Depressive Mood: the Role of Relationships with Parents and Friends

Utilizing four waves of data from 1126 secondary school Dutch adolescents (Mage = 13.95 at the first wave; 53% boys), the current study examined the interplay between parent-adolescent and friend-adolescent relationship quality (satisfaction and conflict) in relation to adolescents' depressive mood. Using multilevel analyses, the interacting effects of parent/friend relationship quality on depressive mood were tested at both the intra- and inter-individual level. Analyses at the intra-individual level investigated whether individual depressive mood fluctuated along with changes in their social relationships regardless of one's general level of depressive mood; and analyses at the inter-individual level examined whether the average differences in depressive mood between adolescents were associated with different qualities of social relationships. We interpreted the patterns of interactions between parent and friend relationships using four theoretical models: the reinforcement, toxic friends, compensation, and additive model. The results demonstrate the covariation of parent- and friend- relationship quality with adolescents' depressive mood, and highlight that parent and peer effects are not independent from each other-affirming the compensation and additive models at the intra-individual and the reinforcement and additive models at the inter-individual level. The findings highlight the robustness of the protective effects of parent and peer support and the deleterious effects of conflictual relationships for adolescent mental health. The results have implications for both the theoretical and practical design of (preventive) interventions aimed at decreasing adolescents' depressive mood.

An Examination of Reciprocal Associations Between Social Preference, Popularity, and Friendship during Early Adolescence

Getting along with peers becomes increasingly important to health and well-being during early adolescence (10-14 years). Young adolescents may succeed with peers when they are well-liked by and popular among the larger peer group (or at the group-level of social complexity). They might also fare well with peers when they are able to form numerous mutual and high quality friendships (at the dyadic-level of social complexity). Theory emphasizes the interrelatedness of different types of peer experiences, but few longitudinal studies have examined the interplay among and between group- and dyadic-level peer experiences in the same study. As a result, it is not known whether group-level peer experiences are predictors of dyadic-level peer experiences, and/or vice versa. To address this limitation, this study examined the prospective and reciprocal relations between four indices of peer experiences, preference (or being highly liked and not disliked by peers), popularity (or having a reputation as popular), friendship quantity (or having many mutual friends), and friendship or relationship quality, during early adolescence. Participants were 271 adolescents (49% girls; M_age = 11.52 years) who completed peer nominations of preference and popularity, a self-report measure of friendship quality, and nominated friends at two waves (Wave 1: November, Grade 6; Wave 2: October, Grade 7). Structural equation modeling indicated that friendship quantity predicted increases in preference and popularity and that friendship quality predicted increases in friendship quantity. Initial popularity was associated with decreases in preference. The importance of these findings for future research is discussed along with study limitations.

Distinguishing Attachment and Affiliation in Early Adolescents' Narrative Descriptions of Their Best Friendship

This study was designed to test for specificity in the relationship between individual friendship provisions and adjustment across early adolescence. Using a narrative procedure, attachment (i.e., accessing care) and affiliation (i.e., forming cooperative partnerships) were found to be distinct functional themes organizing 293 adolescents' (Mage  = 13) internal representations of their best friendship across three annual measurement occasions. Longitudinal, cross-lag analyses revealed a unique transactional relationship between friendship affiliation and greater social competence over time, controlling for friendship stability, maternal relationship quality, socioeconomic status, and gender. By contrast, friendship attachment predicted fewer subsequent internalizing symptoms from ages 14 to 15. Together, findings point to the importance of understanding individual differences in the content of adolescents' internal representations of friendship.

Self-esteem development in the school context: The roles of intrapersonal and interpersonal social predictors

OBJECTIVE

When considering that social inclusion is a basic human need, it makes sense that self-esteem is fueled by social feedback and the sense of being liked by others. This is particularly true with respect to early adolescence, when peers become increasingly important. In the current article, we tested which components of social inclusion are particularly beneficial for the development of self-esteem by differentiating between intrapersonal components (i.e., self-perceptions of social inclusion) and interpersonal components (i.e., perceiver and target effects of liking).

METHOD

Using longitudinal data from 2,281 fifth graders and 1,766 eighth graders (TRAIN; Jonkmann et al., 2013), we tested mean-level self-esteem development and the role of intrapersonal components in this development. Using classroom round-robin data on liking from subsamples of 846 (689) fifth-(eighth-)grade students nested in 46 (39) classes, we tested effects of interpersonal relationship components on self-esteem development in the classroom context.

RESULTS

The three major findings demonstrated, first, no consistent trends in mean levels of self-esteem in early to middle adolescence; second, constant positive effects of intrapersonal components between students and within students across time; and third, no stable effects of interpersonal components.

CONCLUSIONS

The discussion highlights the role of intrapersonal components and the methodological challenges of our study.

Friends also matter: Examining friendship adjustment indices as moderators of anxious-withdrawal and trajectories of change in psychological maladjustment

The present study evaluated whether 3 indices of friendship adjustment (mutual friendship involvement, friendship stability, friendship quality) are important, but overlooked, moderators of the impact of anxious-withdrawal on trajectories of psychological maladjustment during early adolescence. Participants included 271 young adolescents (51% boys; M_age = 11.83 years; 42% ethnic minority) who completed peer nomination and self-report measures at 3 waves in a longitudinal study. In line with hypotheses, growth curve analyses revealed that anxious-withdrawal predicted less negative psychological adjustment trajectories for friended young adolescents, albeit somewhat differently for boys and girls. Understanding the unique significance of friendships in the lives of anxious-withdrawn young adolescents could improve interventions as their friendships may be more successfully targeted than their group-level peer difficulties. (PsycINFO Database Record

A Psychometric Evaluation of the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire among Students from Poland and Chile

This study verifies the psychometric properties of the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire (SCSORFQ). This measure consists of 10 items regarding strength of religious faith, regardless of religious denomination or affiliation. Participants were 177 students from Chile and 393 students from Poland. The SCSORFQ method is a reliable measure with good internal consistency evaluated by the α-Cronbach coefficient. Factor analysis statistically confirmed the unidimensional structure of the SCSORFQ. The strength of religious faith in both student groups was moderate to strong correlated with public or private aspects of religiousness and strong correlated with spiritual experiences. It was weakly correlated with the cognitive indicator of well-being as satisfaction with life as well as with existential variables like hope and meaning of life. The results confirm that the SCSORFQ is psychometrically sound and is therefore recommended for use by researchers studying the construct of religiousness.

Adolescents' Loneliness and Depression Associated with Friendship Experiences and Well-Being: A Person-Centered Approach

Loneliness and depressive symptoms are distinct, but partly overlapping constructs. The current study examined whether clusters of loneliness and depressive symptoms could be identified through latent profile analysis in two samples of 417 and 1140 adolescents (48.40 and 48.68 % male, respectively), on average 12.47 and 12.81 years old, respectively. Four clusters were identified, (1) low on loneliness and depressive symptoms, (2) low on loneliness and high on depressive symptoms, (3) high on loneliness and low on depressive symptoms, and (4) high on loneliness and depressive symptoms. We found that these four clusters were differentially related to friendship quantity and quality as well as to happiness and self-esteem. The current study stresses the importance of assessing both loneliness and depressive symptoms, as their mutual relation within individuals is differentially related to various aspects of adjustment.

Associations among solicitation, relationship quality, and adolescents' disclosure and secrecy with mothers and best friends

Disclosure and secrecy with mothers and best friends about personal, bad behavior, and multifaceted (e.g., staying out late) activities were examined using daily diaries among 102 ethnically diverse, urban middle adolescents (M = 15.18 years, SD = .89). Adolescents disclosed more and kept fewer secrets from best friends than from mothers and more frequently disclosed and kept secrets about their personal than their bad behavior and multifaceted activities. Better daily relationship quality was associated with more disclosure about personal and multifaceted activities and less secrecy about bad behaviors for both mothers and best friends. Overall, when mothers solicited information, adolescents disclosed more but also kept more secrets from them, whereas best friends' solicitation was mostly associated with more disclosure.

Friendship quality and psychosocial outcomes among children with traumatic brain injury

This study examined differences in friendship quality between children with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and orthopedic injury (OI) and behavioral outcomes for children from both groups. Participants were 41 children with TBI and 43 children with OI (M age=10.4). Data were collected using peer- and teacher-reported measures of participants' social adjustment and parent-reported measures of children's post-injury behaviors. Participants and their mutually nominated best friends also completed a measure of the quality of their friendships. Children with TBI reported significantly more support and satisfaction in their friendships than children with OI. Children with TBI and their mutual best friend were more similar in their reports of friendship quality compared to children with OI and their mutual best friends. Additionally, for children with TBI who were rejected by peers, friendship support buffered against maladaptive psychosocial outcomes, and predicted skills related to social competence. Friendship satisfaction was related to higher teacher ratings of social skills for the TBI group only. Positive and supportive friendships play an important role for children with TBI, especially for those not accepted by peers. Such friendships may protect children with TBI who are rejected against maladaptive psychosocial outcomes, and promote skills related to social competence.

Can friends protect genetically vulnerable children from depression?

The study examined whether reciprocal friendship quantity or quality can mitigate genetic vulnerability for depression symptoms in children. The sample comprised 168 monozygotic twin pairs and 126 same-sex dizygotic twin pairs assessed in Grade 4 (mean age = 10.04 years). Friendship participation was measured via reciprocal nominations of close friendships within the classroom. Friendship quality was measured through self-reports. Depression symptoms were measured through teacher and peer reports. Genetic vulnerability for depression symptoms was unrelated to friendship participation or the number of reciprocal friends, but it was negatively related to positive friendship quality. In line with gene–environment interaction, genetic risk effects on depression symptoms were mitigated in girls who had at least one close reciprocal friend. In boys, only moderate main effects of genetic vulnerability and friendship participation were found but no interaction between them. However, among boys with at least one reciprocal friend, a greater number of friends was related to fewer depression symptoms whereas no cumulative effect of friendship was found for girls. Finally, positive friendship quality was related to fewer depression symptoms in girls and boys even when controlling for genetic risk. The findings emphasize the importance of teaching social interactional skills that promote high-quality friendship relations to help prevent the development of depression symptoms in children.

Tipping points in adolescent adjustment: predicting social functioning from adolescents' conflict with parents and friends

Despite widespread interest in examining the role of conflict for adolescent development, researchers only rarely have examined adolescents' experiences of conflict across relationships. The present study examined how adolescents' experiences of conflict with parents and friends were linked to their social functioning. Adolescents (n = 189) and their mothers and fathers participated in semistructured discussions about areas of parent-adolescent conflict in the laboratory. In addition, adolescents reported about conflict in their best friendships, and peers reported about adolescents' social acceptance and behavior in social settings. Parent-adolescent conflict was associated with peer-reported aggression and delinquency, and friendship conflict was associated with delinquency and prosocial behavior. In addition, significant Parent-Adolescent Conflict × Friend-Adolescent Conflict interactions revealed that parent-adolescent conflict was associated with poor social functioning only when conflict with best friends was also high. The findings suggest that consideration of conflict across relationships may yield insight into the specific contexts in which conflict is associated with negative outcomes for adolescents.

The stress response and adolescents' adjustment: the impact of child maltreatment

Experience with and management of stress has implications for adolescents' behavioral and socioemotional development. This study examined the relationship between adolescents' physiological response to an acute laboratory stressor (i.e., Trier Social Stress Test; TSST) and anger regulation and interpersonal competence in a sample of 175 low-income urban adolescents (51.8% girls). Findings suggested that heightened reactivity as indicated by cortisol, heart rate, and blood pressure was associated with increased interpersonal competence and anger regulation. However, these findings were context dependent such that, for youth high in self-reported child maltreatment, heightened reactivity was associated with decreased interpersonal competence and anger regulation. Results highlight the importance of considering how context may condition the effect of stress reactivity on functioning during adolescence.

How can peer group influence the behavior of adolescents: explanatory model

The current work aims to study both the peer group and family influence on adolescent behaviour. In order to achieve the aforementioned objective, an explanatory model based on the Structural Equations Modelling (SEM) was proposed. The sample used was the group of adolescents that participated in the Portuguese survey of the European study Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC). The Portuguese survey included students from grades 6, 8 and 10 within the public education system, with an average age of 14 years old (SD=1.89). The total sample of the HBSC study carried out in 2006 was 4,877; however with the use of the SEM, 1,238 participants were lost out of the total sample. The results show that peers have a direct influence in adolescents' risk behaviours. The relationship with parents did not demonstrate the expected mediation effect, with the exception of the following elements: relation between type of friends and risk behaviour; and communication with parent and lesser involvement in violence behaviours and increased well-being. The negative influence of the peer group is more connected to the involvement in risk behaviours, whilst the positive influence is more connected with protective behaviours.

Future Directions in the Study of Close Relationships: Conflict is Bad (Except When It's Not)

Beneficial and detrimental correlates of interpersonal disagreement have been postulated and documented. The conclusion: Conflict is both bad and good. The evidence for these paradoxical effects is summarized. In this essay, we argue that the consequences of conflict for individuals depends on its frequency, the way in which it is managed, and the quality of the relationship in which it arises. Nonlinear patterns of association are hypothesized such that constructive conflicts, particularly those arising in supportive relationships, should (up to a limit) predict more beneficial and fewer detrimental outcomes. In contrast, coercive conflicts, particularly those arising in unsupportive relationships, should predict more adverse and fewer favorable outcomes.

Conversational Self-Focus in Adolescent Friendships: Observational Assessment of an Interpersonal Process and Relations with Internalizing Symptoms and Friendship Quality

Although youth with internalizing symptoms experience friendship difficulties, surprisingly little is known about their problematic interpersonal behaviors. The current observational study identifies a new construct, conversational self-focus, defined as the tendency to direct the focus of conversations to the self and away from others. Results indicated that youth with internalizing symptoms were especially likely to engage in self-focus when discussing problems with friends and that doing so was related to their friends perceiving the relationship as lower in quality, particularly helping. Content analyses further indicated that self-focused youth talked about themselves in ways that were distracting from their friends' problems and that they changed the subject abruptly. Last, conversational self-focus was not redundant with related constructs of rumination and self-disclosure. This research highlights the importance of intervention efforts aimed at teaching self-focused youth ways to cope with distress that are more effective and will not damage their friendships.

Peer relationships and diabetes: retrospective and ecological momentary assessment approaches

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association of positive and negative aspects of friendship to psychological well-being, self-care behavior, and blood glucose control and to determine whether these relations were moderated by gender.

DESIGN

Adolescents with Type 1 diabetes (n = 76) completed baseline measures of friendship quality, depressive symptoms, and self-care. A measure of metabolic control was obtained from medical records. Adolescents also tested blood glucose periodically over the course of 4 days and completed ecological momentary assessments of interpersonal interactions and mood using PDAs.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

For between-groups analyses, primary outcomes were depressive symptoms, self-care behavior, and metabolic control. For within-groups analyses, primary outcomes were mood and blood glucose.

RESULTS

Results showed baseline reports of peer conflict but not support were associated with outcomes, particularly among girls. Conflict was more strongly related to poor metabolic control for girls than boys. Momentary interaction enjoyment and interaction upset were associated with mood, but were unrelated to blood glucose. Aggregate indices of enjoyable interactions were associated with fewer depressive symptoms and better self-care-especially among girls.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the positive and negative aspects of peer relationships are related to the psychological well-being and physical health of adolescents with diabetes.

The Timing of Middle-Childhood Peer Rejection and Friendship: Linking Early Behavior to Early-Adolescent Adjustment

This study used a sample of 551 children surveyed yearly from ages 6 to 13 to examine the longitudinal associations among early behavior, middle-childhood peer rejection and friendedness, and early-adolescent depressive symptoms, loneliness, and delinquency. The study tested a sequential mediation hypothesis in which (a) behavior problems in the early school years are associated with middle-childhood peer rejection and (b) rejection, in turn, leads to lower friendedness and subsequently higher adolescent internalizing--but not externalizing--problems. Results supported this sequential mediation model for internalizing outcomes and revealed an additional path from early disruptiveness to loneliness via peer rejection alone. No evidence of sequential mediation was observed for delinquency.

Adolescents' attachment orientation influences ambulatory blood pressure responses to everyday social interactions

OBJECTIVES

Adult attachment theory provides a useful framework for understanding how early developmental experiences affect social processes, associated physiological stress responses, and ultimately, health across the lifespan. The current study examined the effects of attachment orientation on physiological responses to naturalistic social interactions in adolescents.

METHODS

Two-hundred five black (49%) and white high school students (14-16 years; 50% boys) completed a measure of anxious and avoidant attachment, and underwent 1.5 days of ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate (AmBP and AmHR) monitoring while they tracked social experiences.

RESULTS

As predicted, individuals with higher avoidant attachment reported fewer interactions with friends (t [299] = -3.18, p < .01) and more anxious adolescents experienced less pleasant interactions both during (t [299] = -3.59, p < .01) and outside of school hours (t [298] = -3.59, p < .01). Individuals who were higher in anxious attachment showed augmented ambulatory diastolic and systolic blood pressure (AmDBP, AmSBP; both p < .05) in conjunction with current or recent interactions with friends. More avoidant adolescents exhibited augmented AmDBP responses to social conflict (p < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings suggest that adolescent attachment orientation may shape later physical health through influences on the nature of, and physiological responses to, social interactions in everyday life.