Interest of mate ( Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.) as a new natural functional food to preserve human cardiovascular health – A review

Polyphenols in edible plant leaves: an overview of their occurrence and health properties

Edible plant leaves (EPLs) constitute a major renewable functional plant biomass available all year round, providing an essential source of polyphenols in the global diet. Polyphenols form a large family of antioxidant molecules. They protect against the harmful effects of free radicals, strengthen immunity and stimulate the body's natural defenses thanks to their antibacterial and antiviral functions. This study refers to phenolic compounds from 50 edible plant leaves divided into four categories: green leafy vegetables, underutilized leafy vegetables, leafy spices and leafy drinks. It provides data on the identification, occurrence and pharmacological functions of polyphenols contained in EPLs, and provides a better understanding of trends and gaps in their consumption and study. Certain EPLs, such as moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.), tea (Camellia sinensis L.) and several leafy spices of the Lamiaceae family, reveal important characteristics and therapeutic potential. The polyphenol composition of EPLs makes them functional plants that offer relevant solutions in the fight against obesity, the management of food insecurity and the prevention of chronic diseases.

An investigation of the genotoxic potential of a well-characterized yerba mate extract

Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) is historically used as a beverage and its extracts are considered traditional medicine in South America. Extract use has been expanding to North American and European markets and the currently available genetic toxicology literature indicate discrepancies in genotoxicity findings for yerba mate. As botanical extract use expands, assumption in safety should be made with caution assuring a good understanding of the test material characterization. Authoritative agencies suggest a two-step paradigm to investigate genotoxicity, and this was implemented to evaluate the safety of yerba mate hydroxycinnamic acid extract. Four OECD compliant assays were employed: bacterial reverse mutation, in vitro micronucleus and a parallel in vivo micronucleus, and comet assay. No evidence of mutagenicity was observed in the in vitro Ames assay, but the results of an in vitro micronucleus study were inconclusive. However, oral gavage treatment of rats for the in vivo micronucleus and comet assays demonstrated negative findings. The results from this battery of tests, supports that this yerba mate hydroxycinnamic acid extract is not anticipated to pose genotoxicity concerns. A high-level comparison of results to other available genotoxicity literature on yerba mate is presented with emphasis on the importance of identity when drawing conclusions on botanicals.

Leaves, Infusion, and Grounds-A Three-Stage Assessment of Element Content in Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) Based on the Dynamic Extraction and Mineralization of Residues

The more yerba mate infusions that are consumed, the larger the amount of grounds generated. What is more, both the infusion and the residues after brewing remain rich elements. Therefore, a strategy for the three-stage assessment of the element content was presented. A new brewing method was based on dynamic extraction, ensuring both the ease of preparing the infusion and recovering the grounds. In turn, microwave-assisted acid mineralization was used to decompose the leaves and twigs of yerba mate before and after brewing. In total, 30 products were analyzed by ICP OES in three fractions each, i.e., dry yerba mate, infusion, and grounds, to determine up to 25 elements. The elemental composition was considered in terms of the country of origin, type, or composition of yerba mate. The extraction percentages obtained with dynamic extraction were comparable to previously used ultrasound-assisted extraction, as well as data from the literature. The three-stage strategy is a novel approach in yerba mate studies, and it may be a model procedure for the laboratory preparation of yerba mate grounds (waste that can be re-used, e.g., a natural fertilizer).

Consumption of herbal infusions/decoctions and tea in Greece: a Planeterranean perspective on the results of Hydria survey

BACKGROUND

The consumption of various herbal infusions was and is common in the traditional Mediterranean diet, and apparently are used in many other regions of the world outside of the Mediterranean region. The present study aimed to investigate the consumption of herbal infusions/decoctions and tea in a nationally representative sample of Greece, considering also their Planetary use.

METHODS

3951 adult participants of the HYDRIA Survey (2013-2014) were included from the 13 regions of Greece. The diet of participants was assessed by two 24-h dietary recalls (24-HDR) and the Food Propensity Questionnaire (FPQ). All food items were analyzed through the HYDRIA Food Composition Tables. Information on socio-demographics, lifestyle, and health characteristics during the baseline was also provided.

RESULTS

26.9% of herbal infusions and decoctions consumers are ≥ 75 years old, pensioners with a low level of education, and residents of urban areas. However, 22.2% of tea consumers belong to the 18-34-year age group, being employed with an intermediate level of education and living in an urban area. Elderly men and women use more herbal infusions/decoctions (55.4%; 40.6%) compared to tea (41.8%; 25.2%). According to FPQ, 7.1% of men and 9.7% of women use herbal infusions and decoctions four times or more per week, while 7.1 and 10.9% of men and women, respectively, consume tea at the same frequency. Green tea, mountain tea (Sideritis spp.), and black tea are reported most frequently. In addition, mountain tea (61.2%), black tea (60.3%), mixed herbal infusions/decoctions (58.4%), and sage (59.4%) are consumed mostly at breakfast, while chamomile was reported mainly at dinner or during the night (42.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the FPQ results, the moderate and high consumption of herbal infusions/decoctions and tea is low in Greece, especially among adults (18-64 years). Thus, our results indicate the existence of a generation gap to the attachment to the traditional Med Diet and the consumption of herbal infusions. The present study could encourage future research to focus on herbal infusions and decoctions consumption by other populations for cross-cultural comparison, as well as on emphasizing the value of consuming locally available herbs in a Planeterranean perspective.

Phytochemical and functional characterization of fermented Yerba mate using Rhizopus oligosporus

Solid-state fermentation (SSF) was used to enhance the bioactive compounds and biological properties of food materials, such as buckwheat, turmeric, and ginseng. This study was investigated the effects of SSF for up to 10 days using Rhizopus oligosporus on Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis St. Hilaire). The total phenolic content of Yerba mate rose to 20% after 1 day fermentation. The saponin contents of Yerba mate rose to 38% after 7 day fermentation. Furthermore, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and caffeine levels were increased up to 27.74% by fermentation, as determined by UPLC-MS analysis. ORAC and FRAP assays showed that the antioxidant activities of Yerba mate were enhanced 1.9- and 1.14-fold after 1 day fermentation. In addition, its inhibitory activities against yeast α-glucosidase and nitric oxide release in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells were higher than in the unfermented Yerba mate. Moreover, taste sensory analysis using an electronic tongue sensory system showed that the flavor of Yerba mate after 1 day fermentation was similar to that of the unfermented Yerba mate. These results suggested that solid fermentation using R. oligosporus is conducive to producing Yerba mate with enhanced biological properties.

Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) Processing and Extraction: Retention of Bioactive Compounds

Ilex paraguariensis is a native tree from South America known for the presence of bioactive compounds, and its processed leaves are consumed as hot and cold infusions. After harvest (step 1), the leaves are subjected to flame blanching to inactive the enzymes (step 2), followed by drying and milling (step 3). The impacts of I. paraguariensis processing on leaf composition were investigated by extracting the major compounds (chlorogenic and isochlorogenic acids (3-CQA, 4-CQA, 5-CQA, 3,4-DQA, 3,5-DQA and 4,5-DQA), p-coumaric acid, caffeine and rutin) using different ratios of ethanol and water as extraction solvent (EW 25:75, 50:50, and 75:25 (w/w)). The solvent ratio of EW 50:50 was more effective in extracting the chlorogenic acids isomers, with retention of chlorogenic acids of 3463, 9485, and 9516 µg mL- 1 for steps 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Rutin and p-coumaric acid exhibited similar behavior with the increment of processing steps; however, p-coumaric acid was only detected in steps 2 and 3 for the solvent ratios EW 50:50 and 25:50. The caffeine extraction from I. paraguariensis varied from 936 to 1170 µg mL- 1 for all processing steps, with emphasis on its concentration extracted in step 1. The evolution of processing steps led to a higher retention of phenolic compounds from I. paraguariensis, which was not observed when using different solvent ratios, and the solvent ratio EW 50:50 was more effective for the extraction of chlorogenic acids. The successful extraction of chlorogenic acids from I. paraguariensis in this study proved to be a promising alternative for the use of yerba mate beyond the cuia cup.

Solubility of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, and Pb and Its Correlation with Total Polyphenols and Soluble Melanoidins in Hot Infusions of Green and Roasted Mate

The total and soluble contents of three potentially toxic elements (PTEs) (Cd, Cr, and Pb) and two essential elements (Cu and Ni) in commercial green and roasted mate (Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil.) and their hot infusions were accessed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Total polyphenolic (TP) contents in the infusions were accessed by Folin-Ciocalteu method, and the presence of soluble melanoidins (SM) was evaluated by measuring absorbances at 420 nm. The soluble element contents in hot infusions of green mate were present in the following increasing order: Pb < Cd < Cr < Cu, and Ni. For hot infusions of roasted mate, the increasing order was: Cu < Pb < Cd < Cr < Ni. Except for Cr, hot infusions of roasted mate supply lower contents of the soluble PTEs than hot infusions of green mate. Cadmium was the only of evaluated trace element found in hot infusions of green and roasted mate as well as in some of their mate samples above the maximum allowed contents established by Brazilian legislation. Despite this, polyphenol and melanoidin contents in green and roasted mate infusions may reduce Cd bioavailability. The soluble trace elements that correlated directly with total polyphenols in hot infusions of green or roasted mate are indirectly correlated with the presence of soluble melanoidins. Moreover, this is the first study to evaluate the correlations of soluble forms of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, and Pb with the presence of SM and TP contents in hot infusions of green and roasted mate.

Influence of Brewing Method on the Content of Selected Elements in Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguarensis) Infusions

In this paper, the effect of the extraction method on the concentrations of selected elements in yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) infusions is presented. Seven pure yerba mate samples (without additives) were selected, representing various types and countries of origin. An extensive sample preparation procedure was proposed: ultrasound-assisted extraction using two types of extractants (deionized and tap water) at two different temperatures (room and 80 °C). In parallel, the above extractants and temperatures were carried out for all samples by the classical brewing method (without ultrasound). In addition, microwave-assisted acid mineralization was carried out to determine the total content. All the proposed procedures were thoroughly investigated with certified reference material (tea leaves, INCT-TL-1). For the total content of all the determined elements, acceptable recoveries (80-116%) were obtained. All digests and extracts were analyzed by simultaneous ICP OES. For the first time, it was assessed how tap water extraction affects the percentage of extracted element concentrations.

Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.) for new therapeutic and nutraceutical interventions: A review of patents issued in the last 20 years (2000-2020)

It has been estimated that more than 70% of all drugs approved worldwide between 1981 and 2006 for human health are derived from or structurally similar to natural compounds. The identification of biological matrices containing bioactive compounds with therapeutic and nutraceutical potential is necessary to supply the global market demands. Researches have indicated that the consumption of dry and aqueous extracts of Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil. is safe, providing that plant biomass does not be exposed to smoke over the drying process, avoiding contamination (e.g., ) with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, and can might help avoiding many diseases, with important potential applications in the pharma and nutraceutical industries. A survey was carried out covering the main therapeutic and nutraceutical studies performed on I. paraguariensis extracts and their relationship with the global patents granted in the last 20 years for the products using this specie in their composition. In the PubMed database, by searching for the term "Ilex paraguariensis," an output with 497 scientific publications was found. Each paper was analyzed individually and 26 publications encompassing exclusively therapeutical and nutraceutical approaches of that plant species were selected. For the patent screening regarding Ilex-derived products, the survey considered three patent databases: European Patent Office (EPO) (Espacenet), World Intellectual Property Organization, WIPO), and National Institute of Industrial Property (NIIP-Brazil). The criterion chosen to select the patents in the databases was the inclusion of the terms "Ilex paraguariensis" and "yerba mate" in the title and/or in the abstract, considering the patents issued from 2000 to 2020. Additionally, only patents with therapeutic and nutraceutical potential were considered on the survey. The screening and selection of the documents were performed independently by two researchers and the information cross-checked at the end. This review contributes to show the state of the art over the last 20 years on the knowledge about the therapeutical and nutraceutical usages of the yerba mate, associated to a certain number of issued patents. The patent survey afforded 62 relevant documents covering products based on Ilex paraguariensis biomass. Considering the number of patents issued, most of them are related to the pharmaceutical area (30), followed by food supplements and beverages (17), cosmetics (10) and, finally, nutraceuticals (5). A detailed analysis of the patents issued showed that most are related to pharmaceutical grade products, generally, marketed as oral and injectable compositions for treatments of obesity, insulin resistance, hyperlipemia and diabetes mellitus, arteriosclerosis, neurological diseases, and SARS-Cov-2, for example. In this work, a curious fact is that there are few patents for food, cosmetics, and nutraceuticals products containing yerba mate. Therefore, it seems to be relevant to take into account the potential of that species as source of bioactive compounds for the development of new products not only intended to the pharma sector. In this sense, 26 reports were identified showing possibilities and trendiness in developing new yerba mate based products, such as packaging, biopesticides, antiseptics, and food supply, expanding the possibilities of technological applications of this plant species.

What is the role of phenolic compounds of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) in gut microbiota?

Diet actively influences gut microbiota and body homeostasis. The predominance of beneficial species results in symbiosis, while dysbiosis is characterized by an imbalance between microbial communities. Food plays a key role in this dynamic and in promoting the health of individuals. Ilex paraguariensis, also known as yerba mate, is a traditional plant from Latin America that has a complex matrix of bioactive substances, including methylxanthines, triterpenes, saponins, and phenolics. The consumption of yerba mate is associated with antioxidant, cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-obesity effects. However, to the best of our knowledge, there have been no studies on yerba mate as a modulating agent of intestinal microbiota. Phenolics are the major compounds in yerba mate and have been reported to act in modulating the microbiome. In this review, we explore the activity of yerba mate as a possible stimulant of gut microbiota and present its main phenolics and their biological effects. We also propose different mechanisms of action of these phenolics and possible doses for their effectiveness.

Application of Hot Water Extraction Techniques and the Principal Component Analysis to Study the Influence of Cultivation of Commercial Yerba Mate Samples on Their Mineral Profiles

Consumption of organic food has grown much around the world in the last 20 years. Change in the profile of consumers who have increasingly sought a healthy diet is the major contributor to this phenomenon. In scientific literature, some studies have already shown the nutritional superiority of organic food in the individual evaluation of metabolites. However, few studies have assessed interaction among metabolites, especially the one between minerals and the food matrix. This information may have great relevance in determining the extractability of minerals, especially in food consumed through infusion, such as yerba mate, since this interaction can directly influence their solubility. Thus, this study aimed to use hot water extraction techniques (infusion and decoction) and the principal component analysis (PCA) to evaluate the differences between organic and conventional cultivation systems in absorption and availability of Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and Zn in yerba mate leaves and stems. The PCA showed that cultivation influences total mineral contents found in both leaves and stems. Results of extractability only showed differences in conventional leaf samples, from which all minerals under study were better extracted. Results point out a different interaction between minerals and the matrix, depending on the cultivation, and to the stronger interaction between the matrix and minerals in organic samples, a fact which leads to low availability of minerals for consumption.

Multigenomic modifications in human circulating immune cells in response to consumption of polyphenol rich extract of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.) are suggestive of cardiometabolic protective effects

Mate is a traditional drink obtained from the leaves of yerba mate and rich in a diversity of plant bioactive compounds including polyphenols, particularly chlorogenic acids. Studies, even though limited, suggest that consumption of mate is associated with health effects, including prevention of cardiometabolic disorders. Molecular mechanisms underlying the potential health properties are still largely unknown, especially in humans. The aim of this study was to investigate nutrigenomic effects of mate consumption and identify regulatory networks potentially mediating cardiometabolic health benefits. Healthy middle-aged men at risk for cardiovascular disease consumed a standardized mate extract or placebo for 4 weeks. Global gene expression, including protein coding and non-coding RNAs profiles were determined using microarrays. Biological function analyses were performed using integrated bioinformatic tools. Comparison of global gene expression profiles showed significant change following mate consumption with 2635 significantly differentially expressed genes, among which 6 are miRNAs and 244 are lncRNAs. Functional analyses showed that these genes are involved in regulation of cell interactions and motility, inflammation or cell signaling. Transcription factors, such as MEF2A, MYB or HNF1A, could have their activity modulated by mate consumption either by direct interaction with polyphenol metabolites or by interactions of metabolites with cell signaling proteins, like p38 or ERK1/2, that could modulate transcription factor activity and regulate expression of genes observed. Correlation analysis suggests that expression profile is inversely associated with gene expression profiles of patients with cardiometabolic disorders. Therefore, mate consumption may exert cardiometabolic protective effects by modulating gene expression towards a protective profile.

Ursane-type triterpene oligoglycosides with anti-hepatosteatosis and anti-hyperlipidemic activity from the leaves of Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil

The methanol extract from the leaves of Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil. (Aquifoliaceae), popularly known as mate, maté, or yerba maté, inhibits the intracellular triglyceride accumulation in HepG2 cells and suppresses the plasma triglyceride elevation in olive oil-treated mice. Three new triterpene saponins, termed mateosides I (1), II (2), and III (3), were isolated from the extract along with 29 known compounds. The structures of 1-3 were elucidated based on chemical and spectroscopic evidence. Among the isolates, principal saponin constituents, 2 and matesaponins 1 (7) and 2 (9), potently inhibited the triglyceride accumulation in HepG2 cells simultaneously treated with oleic acid and high glucose. In vivo assay of the methanol extract of I. paraguariensis revealed that 7 and 9 showed anti-hyperlipidemic activities in olive oil-treated mice. These results suggested that the saponin constituents of I. paraguariensis could be valuable bioactive marker for the anti-obesogenic activity.

Multi-elemental Analysis and Health Risk Assessment of Commercial Yerba Mate from Brazil

Consumption of yerba mate occurs mostly in the form of hot infusion (chimarrão). Water solubility of elements found in commercialized yerba mate is needed to establish nutritional value and risks associated with potentially toxic elements. In this study, yerba mate products marketed in three Brazilian states (Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul) for chimarrão were analyzed. Total (dry product) and hot water-soluble concentrations of Al, As, B, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cs, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, P, Pb, Rb, S, Se, Sr, Ti, V, and Zn were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS). Total concentrations of the ten top elements followed the order of K>Ca>Mg>Mn>P>S>Al>Fe>Ba>Zn. The most soluble elements were B, Cs, Ni, Rb, and K, with values greater than 80%. The lowest water-soluble elements were V, Fe, and Ti (values <10%), followed by Ba, Cd, Al, As, Sr, Ca, and Pb with solubility between 10 and 20%. Although total Cd levels in yerba mate products were often above those permitted by South America legislation, estimated daily consumption intake indicated no risk associated with the chimarrão beverage. Manganese was the micronutrient with the highest total and soluble levels in yerba mate, which surpassed recommended daily intake values when considering a consumption amount of 50 g day^-1 of yerba mate as chimarrão. The consumption of yerba mate is safe and contributes to intake of nutrients. The Cd and Pb reference values of yerba mate products sold in South America should be revised.

Polyphenol content, color and acceptability of carrot pickles added with yerba mate powder extract

Abstract Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis Saint Hilaire) processing generates large amounts of powder that are not added to the final product. This powder has a similar composition to commercial yerba mate and it can be used to extract bioactive compounds. The work aims to prepare carrot pickles added with yerba mate powder extract to improve the Total Phenol Content (TPC) of the final product. The TPC and the color of the pickles were studied in the carrots and the liquid brine for a total of 120 days, by testing two storage temperatures (25 and 45 °C). The TPC was determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu method, and color parameters L*, a*, and b* were measured using a colorimeter. In addition, a sensory acceptability analysis was performed at the end of storage. Pickled carrots without extract addition showed significant losses of polyphenols during storage. The addition of increasing amounts of yerba mate powder extract significantly improved this parameter, thus achieving TPCs even higher than those of fresh carrots. The pasteurization, the addition of extract, and storage caused variations in the color of both fractions of the pickle, especially in the formulations with a higher proportion of yerba mate. However, the color changes were more important in the liquid brine, while in the carrots the variations were minimal. Sensory acceptability tests showed that the addition of extract did not influence the flavor of the pickles but caused changes in color acceptability. However, the product was accepted by consumers. The results showed that yerba mate powder extract can be added in small amounts into other foods for improving their TPC while causing minor modifications in color and sensory acceptability.

Is Our Natural Food Our Homeostasis? Array of a Thousand Effect-Directed Profiles of 68 Herbs and Spices

The beneficial effects of plant-rich diets and traditional medicines are increasingly recognized in the treatment of civilization diseases due to the abundance and diversity of bioactive substances therein. However, the important active portion of natural food or plant-based medicine is presently not under control. Hence, a paradigm shift from quality control based on marker compounds to effect-directed profiling is postulated. We investigated 68 powdered plant extracts (botanicals) which are added to food products in food industry. Among them are many plants that are used as traditional medicines, herbs and spices. A generic strategy was developed to evaluate the bioactivity profile of each botanical as completely as possible and to straightforwardly assign the most potent bioactive compounds. It is an 8-dimensional hyphenation of normal-phase high-performance thin-layer chromatography with multi-imaging by ultraviolet, visible and fluorescence light detection as well as effect-directed assay and heart-cut of the bioactive zone to orthogonal reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromato-graphy-photodiode array detection-heated electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. In the non-target, effect-directed screening via 16 different on-surface assays, we tentatively assigned more than 60 important bioactive compounds in the studied botanicals. These were antibacterials, estrogens, antiestrogens, androgens, and antiandrogens, as well as acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, α-amylase, α-glucosidase, β-glucosidase, β-glucuronidase, and tyrosinase inhibitors, which were on-surface heart-cut eluted from the bioautogram or enzyme inhibition autogram to the next dimension for further targeted characterization. This biological-physicochemical hyphenation is able to detect and control active mechanisms of traditional medicines or botanicals as well as the essentials of plant-based food. The array of 1,292 profiles (68 samples × 19 detections) showed the versatile bioactivity potential of natural food. It reveals how efficiently and powerful our natural food contributes to our homeostasis.

Elemental and Speciation Analyses of Different Brands of Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis)

In this work, a methodology for determination of As(III), As(V), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), Fe(II) and Fe(III) in fifty-eight samples (forty-nine products of thirteen brands from three countries) commercial yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) was performed. The hyphenated high performance liquid chromatography inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (HPLC-ICP OES) technique was used. Arsenic was determined below the quantification limit in 38 samples of yerba mate. As(III) was found at the level 0.09 and 0.08 mg kg⁻¹. The As(V) content was in the range: 0.21 to 0.28 mg kg⁻¹. The content of DMA was found the highest of the three arsenic species in the range: 0.21 to 0.47 mg kg⁻¹. The content of Fe(II) and Fe(III) was found in the range: 0.61 to 15.4 mg kg⁻¹ and 0.66 to 43.1 mg kg⁻¹, respectively and the dominance of Fe(III) was observed. Moreover, total and extractable content of 16 elements were determined. The results have been subjected to statistical analysis in order to establish relationships between samples of the same origin (country), kind (type) and composition (purity).

Chimarrão, terere and mate-tea in legitimate technology modes of preparation and consume: A comparative study of chemical composition, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-anxiety properties of the mostly consumed beverages of Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil. (Aquifoliaceae) is a medicinal plant widely used by South American populations for centuries and is popularly attributed to stimulating and detoxifying properties. Nowadays, their consume traditionally occurs through three different beverages: chimarrão, terere and mate-tea.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Although its composition and properties are well studied, literature lacks work comparing the potential of their extracts obtained by a legitimate preparation mode of their popular beverages. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to investigate changes in chemical composition, antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatory efficacy and anxiolytic effect from lyophilized aqueous extracts obtained simulating the legitimate popular preparation mode of chimarrão, terere and mate-tea.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this work, were investigated differences related to preparation technology and dry material used through chemical composition analysis, with the lyophilized aqueous extracts obtained simulating the chimarrão, terere and mate-tea preparation. The chemical composition analysis comprises the total soluble phenolics content, chemical profiles by HPLC-ESI-MS/MS, and quantitative component detection by HPLC-UV/DAD. Moreover, evaluations of comparative antioxidant activity of the extracts (DPPH and ORAC_FL assays), anti-inflammatory efficacy and anxiolytic effect were performed in vivo.

RESULTS

Our results showed that chimarrão extracts presented a richer composition in terms of phenolic compounds and purine alkaloids, and better antioxidant activity when compared to the other extracts. In pleurisy test, all products showed anti-inflammatory properties in the dose of 60 mg/kg. In the anxiolytic evaluation, although all extracts presented some effect, chimarrão and terere were better than mate-tea in general. No sign of toxicity was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support that the beverage made as chimarrão has the best composition and the most promising properties overall.

Yerba Mate-A Long but Current History

Bearing in mind the growing interest in Yerba Mate, a comprehensive study has been prepared containing the most important aspects and possibilities of its use. The introduction of the work contains the species characteristics of Yerba Mate, as well as information about the origin and places of cultivation. The next part focuses on the analysis of the composition, pointing to purine alkaloids, polyphenols, saponins, and minerals as groups of active compounds responsible for the clinical activity of Yerba Mate. The review of the results of preclinical and clinical studies indicates activity in relation to the stimulating effect, reducing weight by stimulating lipolysis, cardioprotective, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory effects. The information about the action of Yerba Mate is supplemented by the characteristics of its potential toxicity in terms of PAHs content (in particular benzo[α]pyrene) and preparation as a determinant of increased irritation. The current data on the effects of Yerba Mate and the wide safety margin of its use position this raw material as a valuable component of functional food. The growing frequency of consuming Yerba Mate, conditioned by the availability resulting from the globalization of the market and the information provided about it's the pro-health effects, will position Yerba Mate's popularity among wider population groups.

Antioxidant properties and phenolic composition of "Composed Yerba Mate"

Yerba mate contains bioactive compounds, and is widely consumed as a decoction beverage in several Southern American countries. At present, the consumption of mate with added herbal blends and flavors, called "composed yerba mate", has increased; however, no studies on the antioxidant characteristics of these products have been published. In this sense, the main objective was to assess the antioxidant characteristics of "composed yerba mate" compared to "traditional yerba mate", in the form it is traditionally consumed. Total polyphenols content ranged from 15 to 45 mg/g GAE in all decoctions analyzed. Seventeen phenolic compounds were identified and quantified by HPLC-DAD-MS/MS, mainly belonging to the caffeoylquinic acids group. The antioxidant capacity was measured using in vitro assays, Ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), and with Saccharomyces cerevisiae as the in vivo model organism. All decoctions displayed antioxidant activity and were capable of rescuing yeast cells between 10.68 and 18.38% from oxidative stress. Multiple regression analysis showed a high correlation between phenolic composition and activity of samples, where different compounds indicate a significant contribution to the observed activity. Significant differences were found in the content, profile and antioxidant activity of polyphenols when "traditional yerba mate" and "composed yerba mate" were compared. In some cases, the antioxidant capacity was similar or higher in composed yerba mate; while the rest displayed lower biological activity. Based on these findings, it would be possible to assume that the addition of herb mixtures modifies the antioxidant and biological properties of mate.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at (10.1007/s13197-020-04961-x).

Simultaneous extraction and separation of compounds from mate (Ilex paraguariensis) leaves by pressurized liquid extraction coupled with solid-phase extraction and in-line UV detection

•

pH and temperature are the main variables affecting recovery and separation.

•

The selection of the adsorbent is critical for the recovery of less polar compounds.

•

Excellent separation of compounds in different fractions was achieved.

•

The use of a UV–Vis detector allowed monitoring the process in real-time.

•

The developed method provided higher recoveries than conventional methods.

The in-line coupling of the pressurized liquid extraction with a solid-phase adsorbent and a UV–Vis detector for the simultaneous extraction and separation of bioactive compounds from yerba mate (PLE-SPE-UV) was carried out in two stages. In the first stage, water was used as a solvent, while in the second stage, ethanol was used. For the optimization of the method, different adsorbents (Sepra C18-E, Isolute C18-EC, and Strata-X C18), temperatures (40–80 °C), solvent flow-rate (1–3 mL/min), and pH (4.0 and 8.0) were evaluated. By using a UV–Vis detector on-line, it is possible to monitor the process in real-time. The developed method allowed obtaining similar or higher recoveries of all the compounds classes than other methods, such as ultrasound-assisted extraction, stirring, maceration, and pressurized liquid extraction alone, in addition to separating them into fractions. The developed method could be used as sample preparation for the analysis of different compounds classes from mate.

Differential DNA methylation and gene expression during development of reproductive and vegetative organs in Ilex species

Differential epigenetic (DNA cytosine methylation) and gene expression patterns were investigated in reproductive and vegetative organs from Ilex paraguariensis and I. dumosa, at distinct developmental stages. We aimed at contributing towards elucidating major molecular changes underlying the sexual differentiation processes which, in these dioecious species, are completely unknown. Simultaneously, as a first step towards the development of an early sexing system, we searched for promising molecular markers. This was assessed through Methylation Sensitive Amplified Polymorphism (MSAP) and Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism on cDNA (cDNA-AFLP) techniques, applying discriminant multivariate analyses, and bioinformatic characterization of differential fragments. A significant positive correlation was found between epigenetic and indirect 'genetic' information for both species, indicating influence of the genetic background on the epigenetic variation. Higher epigenetic than genetic diversities were estimated. Our outcomes showed up to 1.86 times more representation of mCG subepiloci than mCCG in all organs sampled. Along the maturing stages of floral buds, the frequency of mCG evidenced an incremental trend, whereas mCCG and unmethylated conditions showed opposite tendencies. Reproductive and vegetative samples tended to cluster apart based on epigenetic patterns; at gene expression level, organs exhibited clear-cut distinctive patterns, nonetheless profiles of young leaves and floral primordia resemble. Epigenetic and expression data allowed discrimination of I. dumosa´s samples according to the gender of the donor; more elusive patterns were observed for I. paraguariensis. In total, 102 differentially methylated and expressed fragments were characterized bioinformatically. Forty-three were annotated in various functional categories; four candidate markers were validated through qPCR, finding statistical differences among organs but not among sexes. The methylation condition of epilocus C13m33 appears as indicative of gender in both species. Thirty-three organ-specific and 34 gender-specific methylated markers were discriminated and deserve further research, particularly those expressed in leaves. Our study contributes concrete candidate markers with potential for practical application.

Production stages, microbiological risk and benefits on health of herbal teas

Plants have been used to prepare herbal infusions for centuries. Production of herbal tea consists of several steps, beginning with harvesting, cleaning form residues, drying, storage of herb in a suitable material, grinding, and blending. Te plants grow in different regions and climatic conditions, varying by their physical properties. They are consumed for different purposes and due to their chemical constituents. Many of them have therapeutic effects. Besides their various benefits and even antimicrobial effects, they also carry some microorganisms. Thus, the botanical characteristics and effects on the health of frequently consumed herbal teas and recommendations on their consumption with considered microbial risks are reviewed in this article.

Effects of different drying methods on the chemical, nutritional and colour of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) leaves

This work investigates the effect of different drying processes on chemical, nutritional and leaves colour characteristics for Ilex paraguariensis leaves. These processes were composed of typical drying techniques (roasting + rotary dryer and roasting + conveyor dryer), and cutting-edge techniques (microwave oven [MW], freeze-drying (FD) and oven dryer [OD]). The MW can be an alternative technique, this is because the content of phenolic compounds (77 mg/g), antioxidant capacity (DPPH and ABTS) (∼370 and ∼1040 μM TE/g), methylxanthines and caffeoylquinic acids (2–4 mg/g) were similar, and sometimes higher, to the conventional drying processes. Leaves dried with MW also exhibited satisfactory nutritional analysis for protein (16.4%), dietary fibre (52.3%), ash (6.4%), lipid (6.1%) and moisture (5.7%), implying that yerba mate is a potential source of fibre and protein. Furthermore, the MW preserved leaves green colour (high and low scores of b* and a*, respectively).

A Randomized Crossover Intervention Study on the Effect a Standardized Maté Extract (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.) in Men Predisposed to Cardiovascular Risk

(1) Background: Due to its richness in chlorogenic acids (CGAs), Maté (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.) could be of interest in the prevention of cardiometabolic diseases, however clinical evidence are lacking. This trial aimed to evaluate the impact of maté CGAs, consumed in a daily dose achievable through traditional maté beverages, on parameters related to cardiometabolic risk. (2) Design: Thirty-four male volunteers aged 45-65 years and with at most one criteria of metabolic syndrome, were recruited for a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, and crossover study. The volunteers were assigned to consume an encapsulated dry maté extract for four-weeks, providing 580 mg of caffeoyl quinic acid derivatives (CQAs) daily, or a placebo, with a two weeks washout between intervention periods. Anthropometric variables, blood pressure, plasma glucose, lipids, endothelial, and inflammatory biomarkers were measured in overnight-fasted subjects and after a glucose load. (3) Results: We found no significant effects of treatment on these parameters and the response to the glucose load was also similar between the two interventions. However, a significant decrease in fasting glucose was observed between day 0 and day 28 for the maté group only (-0.57 ± 0.11 mmol/L, p < 0.0002). In subjects with an intermediate to high Framingham risk score, consumption of maté extract induced a 10% increase of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-c from baseline. In a subgroup representative of the study population, significant decreases in the C-reactive protein (CRP) (-50%) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) (-19%) levels were observed. (4) Conclusions: These clinical observations suggest that maté, naturally rich in CGAs, could improve some cardiometabolic markers in subjects with a higher predisposition to metabolic syndrome, even if that remains to be confirmed in new trials specifically targeting this population.

Yerba Mate Extract in Microfibrillated Cellulose and Corn Starch Films as a Potential Wound Healing Bandage

Microfibrillated cellulose films have been gathering considerable attention due to their high mechanical properties and cheap cost. Additionally, it is possible to include compounds within the fibrillated structure in order to confer desirable properties. Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil, yerba mate leaf extract has been reported to possess a high quantity of caffeoylquinic acids that may be beneficial for other applications instead of its conventional use as a hot beverage. Therefore, we investigate the effect of blending yerba mate extract during and after defibrillation of Eucalyptus sp. bleached kraft paper by ultrafine grinding. Blending the extract during defibrillation increased the mechanical and thermal properties, besides being able to use the whole extract. Afterwards, this material was also investigated with high content loadings of starch and glycerine. The results present that yerba mate extract increases film resistance, and the defibrillated cellulose is able to protect the bioactive compounds from the extract. Additionally, the films present antibacterial activity against two known pathogens S. aureus and E. coli, with high antioxidant activity and increased cell proliferation. This was attributed to the bioactive compounds that presented faster in vitro wound healing, suggesting that microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) films containing extract of yerba mate can be a potential alternative as wound healing bandages.

Elemental composition of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A.St.-Hil.) under low input systems of southern Brazil

Elemental composition of food can be used to determine nutritional potential as well as guiding legislation for establishing maximum acceptable limits (MAL) of metals in consumption products. This study aimed to determine the elemental background levels of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A.St.-Hil.) under varied geologic formations in southern Brazil. Mature leaves were randomly collected from four wild-grown plants at thirty native sites in three states and analyzed for 32 elements. Since yerba mate is not washed to obtain the final product, leaves were analyzed with and without washing to assess foliar deposition. Concentration values of As, Ag, Be, Cs, Cr, Li, Se, Tl, U, and V were near detection limits, indicating low potential as a source and/or toxicity to the consumer. Washing decreased concentrations of Fe, Ti, As, Mo, Li, V, and Pb, suggesting atmospheric contributions/dust deposition. Concentrations of Mn (very high), Zn (high), and Ni (high) demonstrated that leaves could be an important source of these elements. Soil parent material affected elemental composition with basalt providing higher concentrations of Mn, P, and Co while Rhyodacite provided higher concentrations of K and Na. All samples exhibited Pb values below the MAL of 0.6 mg kg^-1, but 23% of washed leaves and 20% of unwashed leaves had Cd concentrations close to or above the MAL value of 0.4 mg kg^-1. Study results indicated that Cd MAL values for yerba mate in southern Brazil should be reassessed.

Oral administration of Flavonifractor plautii attenuates inflammatory responses in obese adipose tissue

Adipose tissue inflammation enhances the symptoms of metabolic syndrome. Flavonifractor plautii, a bacterium present in human feces, has been reported to participate in the metabolism of catechin in the gut. The precise function of F. plautii remains unclear. We assessed the immunoregulatory function of F. plautii both in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, we showed that both viable and heat-killed F. plautii attenuated TNF-α transcript accumulation in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. For the in vivo experiment, male C57BL/6 were placed on a high-fat diet (HFD) for 11 weeks. During the final two weeks on the HFD, the animals were administered with F. plautii by once-daily oral gavage. The oral administration of F. plautii attenuated the increase in TNF-α transcription otherwise seen in the epididymal adipose tissue of HFD-fed obese mice (HFD + F. plautii). The composition of the microbial population (at the genus level) in the cecal contents of the HFD + F. plautii mice was altered considerably. In particular, the level of Sphingobium was decreased significantly, and that of Lachnospiraceae was increased significantly, in the HFD + F. plautii group. Obesity is closely associated with the development of inflammation in adipose tissue. F. plautii may be involved in inhibition of TNF-α expression in inflammatory environments. Our results demonstrated that F. plautii may be useful for alleviating the inflammatory responses of adipose tissue.

Chemical composition and health properties of coffee and coffee by-products

Coffee can be an ally in the fight against diseases such as type 2 diabetes, cancer, hepatic injury, cirrhosis, depression, suicidal behavior, and neurological and cardiovascular disorders. The properties of coffee also favor gastrointestinal tract and gut microbiota establishment. Coffee bioactive components include phenolic compounds (chlorogenic acids, cafestol and kahweol), alkaloids (caffeine and trigonelin), diterpenes (cafestol and kahweol) and other secondary metabolites. The image of coffee as a super functional food has helped to increase coffee consumption across the globe. This chapter addresses the main health promotion mechanisms associated with coffee consumption. Related topics on coffee production chain, world consumption and reuse of coffee by-products in the production of high-value-adding molecules with potential applications in the food industry are addressed and discussed.

Antioxidants-rich ice cream containing herbal extracts and fructooligossaccharides: manufacture, functional and sensory properties

This work aimed to optimize an aqueous extract rich in phenolic compounds and potential functional properties made of Ilex paraguariensis, Melissa officinalis, and Cymbopogon citratus. The lyophilized extract was used for the development of an ice cream. Total phenolics, FRAP, DPPH, Folin-Ciocalteu's reducing capacity, and total reducing capacity of different combinations of herbal extracts were tested and modeled using response surface methodology. Simultaneous optimisation was employed to maximize the bioactive compounds in the extract and the lyophilized optimum combination was added to ice cream. The lyophilized extract contained quercetin-3-rutinoside, hesperidin, isoquercetin, caffeic acid, and 5,7-dihydroxyflavone. The optimised extract, which showed antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and antioxidant activity using in vitro protocols, increased total phenolics and antioxidant activity in comparison to the control ice cream. The ice cream presented a sensory acceptance index of 83%. After 72 days of storage (-18 °C), total phenolics and antioxidant activity significantly decreased.

Effect of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.) addition on the functional and technological characteristics of fresh cheese

Milk components have the ability to interact with functional compounds, such as polyphenols. This may result in altered biological activity of the compounds, and changes in the technological properties of dairy products. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of the addition of yerba mate (YM) on the physico-chemical and sensory properties of fresh cheese (FC) during storage (21 days). Different concentrations of YM were used for FC production: 0.0% (control), 0.5% (FC5), 1.0% (FC10) and 2.0% (FC20); and the bioactive compound concentration, antioxidant activity, color, texture, structure and sensory acceptance were evaluated. YM conferred antioxidant activity to FC; and affected the color, texture and structure. Storage time influenced all evaluated parameters except for color. FCs with 0.5 and 1.0% YM were scored as having higher sensory acceptability than FC with 2.0% YM. However, all supplemented FCs were well accepted by consumers (scores above 6). The YM could represent a source of bioactive compounds to improve the biological activity of dairy products.

Atividade biológica e quantificação de compostos bioativos em extrato de erva-mate e sua aplicação em hambúrguer de peixe

Resumo A erva-mate possui compostos biologicamente ativos com aplicação industrial. Cafeína, rutina e ácido clorogênico presentes neste produto possuem atividade antioxidante e o último ainda é antimicrobiano. Este estudo objetivou avaliar a atividade biológica do extrato de erva-mate e quantificar compostos bioativos, bem como aplicar o extrato em hambúrguer de peixe para determinar seu poder conservante. A atividade antioxidante foi avaliada por DPPH (2,2-difenil-1-picrihidrazila) e FRAP (poder de redução do ferro). Foram quantificados compostos fenólicos totais e flavonoides por espectrofotometria, e cafeína, rutina e ácido clorogênico, por cromatografia líquida de ultraeficiência. A atividade antimicrobiana foi determinada pela concentração inibitória mínima (CIM). Testaram-se associações de extrato com o conservante sintético butil-hidroxi-anisol (BHA). Hambúrgueres de peixe foram incorporados com extrato de erva-mate e foram feitas análises de composição centesimal, oxidação lipídica e microbiológica por 28 dias. O extrato apresentou para DPPH IC50 de 7,91 µg mL-1, FRAP de 4.922,67 µmol de Fe (II) g-1, 104,54 EAG g-1 de fenólicos totais, 23,11 EQ g-1 de flavonoides e 49,6, 34,5 e 23,1 mg g-1 de ácido clorogênico, cafeína e rutina, respectivamente. O extrato mostrou CIM de 10, 5 e 10 mg mL-1 contra Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus e Salmonella enterica, respectivamente. A combinação de extrato com BHA reduziu a quantidade de conservante sintético para a mesma atividade antioxidante e mostrou caráter aditivo para S. aureus. Os hambúrgueres de peixe com 1% de extrato ou com BHA exibiram diferença estatística na contagem de mesófilos em relação ao controle. Assim, observou-se que o extrato de erva-mate apresentou atividade biológica e o crescimento de mesófilos foi inibido nos hambúrgueres de peixe incorporados com BHA ou 1% de extrato, de forma que os compostos fenólicos quantificados seriam os prováveis agentes conservantes.

Bioactive triterpenoids from the caffeine-rich plants guayusa and maté

Unlike all other caffeinated plants, guayusa (Ilex guayusa Loes.) and maté (Ilex paraguariensis A. St. Hill) contain high amounts of pentacyclic triterpenoid acids and alcohols. A phytochemical investigation on these plants revealed a similar triterpenoid profile and a content of ursolic acid (0.7-1%) and amyrin esters (up to 0.5%), quite unusual for dietary plants. The major constituent of the amyrin complex from both plants is α-amyrin palmitate (2a), accompanied by lower amounts of its corresponding palmitoleate (2b) and by the corresponding constitutional isomers from the β-series (3a and 3b, respectively). Ursolic acid (1) was identified as the responsible for the activity of maté and guayusa extracts in the activation of TGR5, a nuclear receptor of relevance for the prevention and management of diabetes and metabolic syndrome because of its involvement in the regulation of energy expenditure and insulin sensitivity.

Impact of plant extracts upon human health: A review

With the increase in evidences directly linking diet and health, several foodstuffs, such as phenolic rich fruits and vegetables, have emerged as possessing potential health benefits. Plants, given their fiber and phenolic content (and their intrinsic biological potential), have long been considered as contributing to health promotion. Therefore, the present work aimed to review the existing evidences regarding the various potential benefits of plant extracts' and plant extract-based products' consumption, with emphasis on in vivo works and epidemiological studies whenever available. Overall, the information available supports that, while there are indications of the potential benefits of plant extracts' consumption, further human-based studies are still needed to establish a true cause-effect.

Health Benefits of Bioactive Compounds from the Genus Ilex, a Source of Traditional Caffeinated Beverages

Tea and coffee are caffeinated beverages commonly consumed around the world in daily life. Tea from Camellia sinensis is widely available and is a good source of caffeine and other bioactive compounds (e.g., polyphenols and carotenoids). Other tea-like beverages, such as those from the genus Ilex, the large-leaved Kudingcha (Ilex latifolia Thunb and Ilex kudingcha C.J. Tseng), Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil), Yaupon Holly (Ilex vomitoria), and Guayusa (Ilex guayusa Loes) are also traditional drinks, with lesser overall usage, but have attracted much recent attention and have been subjected to further study. This review summarizes the distribution, composition, and health benefits of caffeinated beverages from the genus Ilex. Plants of this genus mainly contain polyphenols and alkaloids, and show diverse health benefits, which, as well as supporting their further popularization as beverages, may also lead to potential applications in the pharmaceutical or nutraceutical industries.

Evaluation of Reproductive Toxicology of Aqueous Extract of Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.), a Traditional South American Beverage

Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.; Aquifoliaceae) is a popular tonic and stimulant beverage that is widely consumed in different South American countries. Estimates indicate the consumption of >1 L per day in southern Brazil and Uruguay. Despite its relatively high consumption, data on reproductive toxicity during critical periods of gestation remain unclear. Thus, we evaluated the effects of an aqueous extract of I. paraguariensis leaves ("chimarrão" [IPC]) at two critical periods of gestation in Wistar rats: preimplantation embryonic stage and fetal organogenesis. Pregnant Wistar rats were orally treated with IPC (3, 30, and 300 mg/kg) from days 1 to 7 or 8 to 21 of pregnancy. The respective control groups received vehicle. During treatment, clinical signs of maternal toxicity, maternal body weight, and food and water intake were monitored. The rats were killed on days 8 and 20 of pregnancy, and the following parameters were evaluated: weight of the maternal uterus, weight of the liver, weight of the kidneys, weight of the spleen, total embryo implantation, preimplantation loss, the mean of live fetuses, the percentage of dead fetuses, fetus weight, and fetal malformation. The aqueous extract of the leaves of I. paraguariensis L. did not present any deleterious effects on preimplantation embryos or the organogenesis of offspring from female Wistar rats. These safety data provide evidence that IPC may be safe for consumption during gestation.

Plant growth, nutrients and potentially toxic elements in leaves of yerba mate clones in response to phosphorus in acid soils

Native to subtropical region of South America, yerba mate is responsive to P under some conditions, but the degree of influence of genetic and soil on the growth and composition of the leaf is unknown. The aim of study was to evaluate plant growth, nutrients and potentially toxic elements in leaves of yerba mate clones in response to P application in acid soils. In greenhouse condition, two yerba mate clone seedlings were grown (210 days) in pots, each clone in a completely randomized design in factorial scheme (with and without P; four acid soils). The elemental composition of leaves and the growth of plants were determined. Phosphorus promoted plant growth, but this was not accompanied by increased P in leaf tissue in all conditions tested. The P effect on the elemental composition varied: decrease/null (N, K, Mg, Mn, Cu, Ni, B, Mo, Al, Cd); increase/null (C/N, C, Ca, Fe, V); increase/decrease/null (Zn, Ba, Pb) and; null (Cr). The soils affect the elemental composition of the leaves, especially Mn, with accumulation greater than 1000 mg kg-1. The Ba, Pb, Al and Zn in the leaves varied among clones. Yerba mate response to P was affected by edaphic and plant factors.

NMR-based approach reveals seasonal metabolic changes in mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.)

Ilex paraguariensis (mate) is a species native to South America and is widely consumed in countries such Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Brazil. Mate consumption is associated with several phytotherapeutic functions, in addition to its cultural and regional importance. However, the harvest period can affect the properties of the mate, due to variations in the constituent proportions, as a consequence of seasonal changes. In this work, we employed nuclear magnetic resonance and chemometrics to evaluate the chemical variations in leaf extracts of I. paraguariensis over the four seasons of the year. We found significant changes in the levels of glucose, myo-inositol, caffeine, theobromine, and fatty acids. These changes can be related to resource allocation for the flowering period, or to responses to environmental stresses, such as temperature.

Daily Intake of Chlorogenic Acids from Consumption of Maté (Ilex paraguariensis A.St.-Hil.) Traditional Beverages

The main objective of this study was to investigate the daily intake of chlorogenic acids (CGAs) and methylxanthines by consumers of maté traditional beverages (MTBs), terere and chimarrão (Ilex paraguariensis A.St.-Hill). In the studied population (450 citizens from Toledo, PR, Brazil), 63% consume the chimarrão and 37% terere, with weighted mean daily intakes estimated at 648-2160 and 244-746 mL, respectively. For every 100 mL of beverage consumed, the average amount of total phenol compounds extracted was 673.6 mg for chimarrão and 1184.9 mg for terere. Regarding CGAs composition, caffeoylquinic acids (CQAs) constitute about 38.4% for chimarrão and 55.3% for terere, and dicaffeoylquinic acids (diCQAs) represent 61.6 and 44.7% of the extracted compounds, respectively. The daily intake of phenolic compounds by MTB consumers was estimated for chimarrão (512.5-1708.5 mg/day) and terere (583.0-1779.7 mg/day). These results allow us to conclude that MTBs are important dietary sources of CGAs, mainly CQAs and di-CQAs.

Mechanisms underlying antiatherosclerotic properties of an enriched fraction obtained from Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil

BACKGROUND

Ilex paraguariensis A. St. Hil. var. paraguariensis (Aquifoliaceae) popularly known as 'mate' is an important species native to South America. Despite numerous studies showing significant antioxidant and lipid lowering properties, the antiatherosclerotic mechanisms of this species remain unknown.

PURPOSE

To evaluate the possible antiatherosclerotic effects of a butanolic fraction (n-BFIP) obtained from I. paraguariensis and to investigate the molecular mechanisms involved in this activity.

METHODS

First, n-BFIP was obtained from the hydroalcoholic extract and a detailed phytochemical investigation about its main secondary metabolites was performed. Then, during 8 experimental weeks, rabbits received diet supplemented with 1% cholesterol (CRD). After 4 weeks of CDR, animals were redistributed into five groups (n = 6) and treated (p.o.) with n-BFIP (10, 30 and 100 mg/kg), simvastatin (5 mg/kg), or vehicle (filtered water, 1 ml/kg) once daily for 4 weeks. An additional group was fed with cholesterol-free diet and treated with vehicle. At the end of 8 weeks, serum samples were obtained for the measurement of serum lipids, lipid and protein oxidation and indirect nitric oxide levels. In addition, serum IL-1β, IL-6, sICAM-1, sVCAM-1, and intracellular cGMP levels in rabbit aortic rings were measured. Samples from the aortic arch and thoracic segment were collected for histopathological analysis.

RESULTS

CRD induced oxidative and nitrosative stress and increased serum lipids, IL-1β, IL-6, sICAM-1, and sVCAM-1 levels. In addition, structural changes in the intima layers of different arterial branches were also found. Although it did not change serum lipids, n-BFIP reverted oxidative and nitrosative stress and reduced IL-1β, IL-6, sICAM-1, and sVCAM-1 levels, besides to increasing intracellular levels of cGMP in vitro. In addition, the formation of atherosclerotic plaques was reduced to values close to those of animals fed with cholesterol-free diet.

CONCLUSIONS

A 4-week n-FBIP treatment reduces the progression of the atherosclerotic disease in New Zealand rabbits. These effects are associated with an attenuation of oxidative and nitrosative stress, affecting IL-1β, IL-6, sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1 levels.

Effects of in vitro digestion and in vitro colonic fermentation on stability and functional properties of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St. Hil.) beverages

Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) is a plant that grows naturally in South America. From its leaves and thin stems different kinds of beverages are prepared (chimarrão, tererê and tea mate), all of them rich in bioactive substances. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation on the stability of the polyphenols and on the antioxidant, antimicrobial and antitumoral activities of the yerba mate beverages. The phenolic chromatographic profile revealed that both the in vitro digestion and the colonic fermentation caused a pronounced decrease in 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid and 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid in the preparations. However, 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid, 4-O-caffeoylquinic acid and salvianolic acid I were only barely affected in all preparations. Despite the decrease in the phytochemicals content, yerba mate beverages maintain their functional properties such as antioxidant, antibacterial and antitumoral activities.

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) peel: A better source of antioxidants and a-glucosidase inhibitors than pulp, flake and seed, and phytochemical profile by HPLC-QTOF-MS/MS

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) peel is an underutilized by-product in both, the production and processing of jackfruit. This research compared the antioxidant and hypoglycemic potential of jackfruit peel with jackfruit pulp, flake and seed for the first time. The phytochemical profile of peel extract was characterized with HPLC-QTOF-MS/MS. Results revealed that peel extract exhibited the highest total phenolic and total flavonoid content, and the phenolics was 4.65, 4.12 and 4.95 times higher than that of pulp, flake and seed extract, respectively. The strongest DPPH and ABTS⁺ scavenging ability, α-glucosidase inhibition were also found in peel extract, and the α-glucosidase inhibition was about 11.8-fold of that of acarbose. The HPLC-QTOF-MS/MS analysis led to the tentative identification of 53 compounds, prenylflavonoids, hydroxycinnamic acids and glycosides are the predominant bioactive compounds. Above results reveal promising potential of jackfruit peel as a new source of natural antioxidants and hypoglycemic agents.