Lipid-rich extract from Mexican avocado (Persea americana var. drymifolia) induces apoptosis and modulates the inflammatory response in Caco-2 human colon cancer cells

Phytochemistry, Anti-cancer, and Anti-diabetic Properties of Plant-Based Foods from Mexican Agrobiodiversity: A Review

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and cancer are significant contributors to morbidity and mortality worldwide. Recent studies have increasingly highlighted the potential of phytochemicals found in plants and plant-based foods for preventing and treating these chronic diseases. Mexico's agrobiodiversity provides a valuable resource for phytochemistry. This review presents an examination of essential phytochemicals found in plants and foods within Mexican agrobiodiversity that have shown promising anti-cancer and anti-diabetic properties, including their roles as antioxidants, insulin sensitizers, and enzyme inhibitors. Notable compounds identified include flavonoids (such as quercetin and catechins), phenolic acids (chlorogenic, gallic, and caffeic acids), methylxanthines (like theobromine), xanthones (such as mangiferin), capsaicinoids (capsaicin), organosulfur compounds (like alliin), and various lipids (avocatins). Although these phytochemicals have shown promise in laboratory and animal studies, there is a significant scarcity of clinical trial data involving humans, underscoring an important area for future research.

The Pulp, Peel, Seed, and Food Products of Persea americana as Sources of Bioactive Phytochemicals with Cardioprotective Properties: A Review

Botanically speaking, avocado (Persea americana) is a fruit. It consists of a single large seed surrounded by a creamy, smooth-textured edible mesocarp or pulp covered by a thick, bumpy skin. Avocado is a nutrient-dense fruit, containing a range of bioactive compounds which have been independently associated with cardiovascular health. These compounds have been obtained from the pulp, peel, and seed. This narrative review summarizes the current understanding of the cardioprotective potential of avocado fruit, especially the pulp and seed, and its food products, and examines the biological mechanism behind it.

Delivery of Avocado Seed Extract Using Novel Charge-Switchable Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles with Galactose Surface Modified to Target Sorafenib-Resistant Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

Sorafenib-resistant (SR) hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a current serious problem in liver cancer treatment. Numerous phytochemicals derived from plants exhibit anticancer activity but have never been tested against drug-resistant cells.

Methods

Avocado seed extract (APE) isolated by maceration was analysed for its phytochemical composition and anticancer activity. Novel design charge-switchable pH-responsive nanocarriers of aminated mesoporous silica nanoparticles with conjugated galactose (GMSN) were synthesised for delivering APE and their physicochemical properties were characterized. The drug loading efficiency (%LE) and entrapment efficiency (%EE) were evaluated. Anticancer activity of APE loaded GMSN was measured against HCC (HepG2, Huh-7) and SR-HCC (SR-HepG2).

Results

Anticancer activity of APE against non-resistant HepG2 (IC50 50.9 ± 0.83 μg mL-1), Huh-7 (IC50 42.41 ± 1.88 μg mL-1), and SR-HepG2 (IC50 62.58 ± 2.29 μg mL-1) cells was confirmed. The APE loaded GMSN had a diameter of 131.41 ± 14.41 nm with 41.08 ± 2.09%LE and 44.96 ± 2.26%EE. Galactose functionalization (55%) did not perturb the original mesoporous structure. The GMSN imparted positive surface charges, 10.3 ± 0.61mV at acidic medium pH 5.5 along with rapid release of APE 45% in 2 h. The GMSN boosted cellular uptake by HepG2 and SR-HepG2 cells, whereas the amine functionalized facilitated their endosomal escape. Their anticancer activity was demonstrated in non-resistant HCC and SR-HCC cells with IC50 values at 30.73 ± 3.14 (HepG2), 21.86 ± 0.83 (Huh-7), 35.64 ± 1.34 (SR-HepG2) μg mL-1, respectively, in comparison to the control and non-encapsulated APE.

Conclusion

APE loaded GMSN is highly effective against both non-resistant HCC and SR-HCC and warrants further in vivo investigation.

Annonaceae acetogenins: A potential treatment for gynecological and breast cancer

Breast and gynecological cancers are major health concerns due to their increasing incidence rates, and in some cases, their low survival probability. In recent years, multiple compounds of natural origin have been analyzed as alternative treatments for this disease. For instance, Acetogenins are plant secondary metabolites from the Annonaceae family, and its potential anticancer activity has been reported against a wide range of cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo. Several studies have demonstrated promising results of Acetogenins' antitumor capacity, given their selective activity of cellular inhibition at low concentrations. This review outlines the origin, structure, and antineoplastic activities in vitro and in vivo of Acetogenins from Annonaceae against breast cancer and gynecological cancers reported to date. Here, we also provide a systematic summary of the activity and possible mechanisms of action of Acetogenins against these types of cancer and provide references for developing future therapies based on Acetogenins and nanotechnologies.

Ameliorative effect of aqueous avocado seed extract against chromium-induced oxidative stress and cellular damage in rabbit kidney

The accumulation of chromium in renal tissues promotes the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to oxidative stress, genomic and cellular harm, and ultimately necrotic and apoptotic cell death induced by free radicals. Hence, the utilization of antioxidant phytochemicals becomes crucial for cellular defense against oxidative damage. This study endeavors to explore the potential protective effects of an aqueous avocado seed extract (ASE) on rabbit kidneys exposed to chromium-induced damage. Fifteen adult rabbits were distributed into three groups: Group 1 was kept as the control. The second and third groups received a daily dose of K2Cr2O7 (5 mg/kg) intraperitoneally for 2 weeks. While the third group was given an oral dose of ASE (400 mg/kg). In rabbits administered with Cr (VI), kidney homogenates showed a marked increase in Malondialdehyde (MDA) (69.3 ± 4.1 nmol/g) along with a decrease in glutathione (59 ± 5.8 nmol/mg) content and the activity superoxide dismutase (SOD) (0.5 ± 0.05 U/mg protein), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) (16.7 ± 1.1 μmol/mg protein), and catalase (CAT) (73.8 ± 3.9 U/g protein) compared to the levels in control group. Also, the gene expression data for the enzymes SOD, GPx, and CAT dropped dramatically in kidney tissue following Cr (VI) injection. Additionally, Bowman's capsule and glomerulus showed degenerative alterations in the kidney's histopathology and immunohistochemistry. ASE treatment when administered along with Cr (VI) enhanced the activity and gene expression of antioxidant enzymes and improved histopathological conditions. The findings of this study unequivocally show that avocado seed extract, which is rich in phenolic derivatives, is a potent nephroprotective agent that inhibits nephrotoxicity induced by Cr (VI) in rabbits.

Looking into the lipid profile of avocado and byproducts: Using lipidomics to explore value-added compounds

Consumer priorities in healthy diets and lifestyle boosted the demand for nutritious and functional foods as well as plant-based ingredients. Avocado has become a food trend due to its nutritional and functional values, which in turn is increasing its consumption and production worldwide. Avocado edible portion has a high content of lipids, with the pulp and its oil being rich in monounsaturated fatty acids and essential omega - 3 and omega - 6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). These fatty acids are mainly esterified in triacylglycerides, the major lipids in pulp, but also in minor components such as polar lipids (phospholipids and glycolipids). Polar lipids of avocado have been overlooked despite being recently highlighted with functional properties as well. The growth in the industry of avocado products is generating an increased amount of their byproducts, such as seed and peels (nonedible portions), still undervalued. The few studies on avocado byproducts pointed out that they also contain interesting lipids, with seeds particularly rich in polar lipids bearing PUFA, and thus can be reused as a source of add-value phytochemical. Mass spectrometry-based lipidomics approaches appear as an essential tool to unveil the complex lipid signature of avocado and its byproducts, contributing to the recognition of value-added lipids and opening new avenues for their use in novel biotechnological applications. The present review provides an up-to-date overview of the lipid signature from avocado pulp, peel, seed, and its oils.

Hawthorn Proanthocyanidin Extract Inhibits Colorectal Carcinoma Metastasis by Targeting the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Process and Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway

Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) is a major global health concern, with cancer metastasis being the main cause of patient mortality, and current CRC treatments are challenged by drug resistance. Although natural compounds, especially in foods like hawthorn proanthocyanidin extract (HPOE), have good anticancer activity, their effects on CRC metastasis remain unknown. Therefore, our objective was to investigate the impact and potential mechanisms of HPOE on the movement and infiltration of cells in the HCT116 CRC cells. Firstly, scratch-healing experiments confirmed the anti-migratory and anti-invasive capabilities of HPOE. Then, network pharmacology identified 16 possible targets, including MMP-9. Subsequently, RT-qPCR and Western blotting experiments confirmed that HPOE downregulated epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related factors (N-cadherin and MMP-9) and inhibited Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation. Finally, these results were experimentally validated using the Wnt pathway activator Licl and inhibitor XAV939. It was confirmed that HPOE had a certain inhibitory effect on the activation of the Wnt signaling pathway caused by the activator Licl and could enhance the inhibitory effect of the inhibitor XAV939. Our findings provide a basis for developing functional foods or dietary supplements, especially positioning HPOE as a functional food raw material for adjuvant treatment of CRC, given its ability to inhibit metastasis through the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.

Avocado (Persea americana Mill) and its phytoconstituents: potential for cancer prevention and intervention

Dietary compounds, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, and spices, have been shown to exhibit anticancer properties due to their high concentrations of vitamins, minerals, fiber, and secondary metabolites, known as phytochemicals. Although emerging studies suggest that avocado (Persea americana Mill) displays antineoplastic properties in addition to numerous other health benefits, current literature lacks an updated comprehensive systematic review dedicated to the anticancer effects of avocado. This review aims to explore the cancer-preventive effects of avocados and the underlying molecular mechanisms. The in vitro studies suggest the various avocado-derived products and phytochemicals induced cytotoxicity, reduced cell viability, and inhibited cell proliferation. The in vivo studies revealed reduction in tumor number, size, and volume as well. The clinical studies demonstrated that avocado leaf extract increased free oxygen radical formation in larynx carcinoma tissue. Various avocado products and phytochemicals from the avocado fruit, including avocatin-B, persin, and PaDef defensin, may serve as viable cancer prevention and treatment options based on current literature. Despite many favorable outcomes, past research has been limited in scope, and more extensive and mechanism-based in vivo and randomized clinical studies should be performed before avocado-derived bioactive phytochemicals can be developed as cancer preventive agents.

Metabolite profiling identifies chemical markers associated with the cytotoxic properties of roasted fermented avocado seeds

Studies have demonstrated avocado seeds are a good source of bioactive compounds. This study investigated the effects of roasting on the metabolites and anticancer activities of fermented avocado seeds. All three anti-cancer activities of fermented avocado seeds were higher at lower roasting temperature and time. The best inhibition effect was found against Hep G2 followed by the MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines. Untargeted metabolite profiling using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry resulted in identification of 208 metabolites. In total, 41 metabolites identified had VIP values more than 1 using PLS-R that were related to anticancer activities. All amino acids and most sugars were higher at lower roasting temperature and positively correlated to anticancer activity. The roasting conditions for optimal antioxidant and anticancer activities were determined to be 121 °C for 9 min. Findings showed that fermented avocado seed powder has the potential to become a functional food ingredient with beneficial bioctive properties.

A Proposed Association between Improving Energy Metabolism of HepG2 Cells by Plant Extracts and Increasing Their Sensitivity to Doxorubicin

Increasing cancer cell sensitivity to chemotherapy by amending aberrant metabolism using plant extracts represents a promising strategy to lower chemotherapy doses while retaining the same therapeutic outcome. Here, we incubated HepG2 cells with four plant extracts that were selected based on an earlier assessment of their cytotoxicity, viz asparagus, green tea, rue, and avocado, separately, before treatment with doxorubicin. MTT assays elucidated a significant decrease in doxorubicin-IC₅₀ following HepG2 incubation with each extract, albeit to a variable extent. The investigated extract's ultra-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (UPLC/MS and GC/MS) revealed several constituents with anticancer activity. Biochemical investigation displayed several favorable effects, including the inhibition of hypoxia-inducible factor1α (HIF1α), c-Myc, pyruvate kinase-M2 (PKM2), lactate dehydrogenase-A (LDH-A), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), and glutaminase by asparagus and rue extracts. To less extent, HIF1α, c-Myc, PKM2, and LDH-A were partially inhibited by green tea extract, and HIF1α and glutaminase activity was inhibited by avocado oil. Undesirably, green tea extract increased glutaminase; avocado oil rose c-Myc, and both increased G6PD. In conclusion, our study confirms the potential cytotoxic effects of these plant extracts. It highlights a strong association between the ability of asparagus, green tea, rue, and avocado to sensitize HepG2 cells to doxorubicin and their power to amend cell metabolism, suggesting their use as add-on agents that might aid in clinically lowering the doxorubicin dose.

Recent Advances in Health Benefits of Bioactive Compounds from Food Wastes and By-Products: Biochemical Aspects

Bioactive compounds, including terpenoids, polyphenols, alkaloids and other nitrogen-containing constituents, exert various beneficial effects arising from their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These compounds can be found in vegetables, fruits, grains, spices and their derived foods and beverages such as tea, olive oil, fruit juices, wine, chocolate and beer. Agricultural production and the food supply chain are major sources of food wastes, which can become resources, as they are rich in bioactive compounds. The aim of this review is to highlight recent articles demonstrating the numerous potential uses of products and by-products of the agro-food supply chain, which can have various applications.

Avocado Seeds-Mediated Alleviation of Cyclosporine A-Induced Hepatotoxicity Involves the Inhibition of Oxidative Stress and Proapoptotic Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Previous studies reported disrupted hepatic function and structure following the administration of cyclosporine A (CsA) in humans and animals. Recently, we found that avocado seeds (AvS) ameliorated CsA-induced nephrotoxicity in rats. As a continuation, herein we checked whether AvS could also attenuate CsA-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Subcutaneous injection of CsA (5 mg/kg) for 7 days triggered hepatotoxicity in rats, as indicated by liver dysfunction, redox imbalance, and histopathological changes. Oral administration of 5% AvS powder for 4 weeks ameliorated CsA-induced hepatotoxicity, as evidenced by (1) decreased levels of liver damage parameters (alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and bilirubin), (2) resumed redox balance in the liver (reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) and increased superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx)), (3) downregulated hepatic expression of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-related genes (X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1), binding immunoglobulin protein (BIP), C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP)), and apoptosis-related genes (Bax and Casp3), (4) upregulated expression of the anti-apoptotic gene Bcl2, (5) reduced DNA damage, and (6) improved liver histology. These results highlight the ability of AvS to ameliorate CsA-induced hepatotoxicity via the inhibition of oxidative stress and proapoptotic ER stress.

Avocado seed discoveries: Chemical composition, biological properties, and industrial food applications

The processing industry discards avocado seeds, which increases production and ultimately pollutes the environment. It would be advantageous to handle these waste by-products both economically and environmentally. Avocado seeds are rich in polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, and other bioactive substances. The nutritional and phytochemical composition of avocado seeds has been well studied and discussed. Avocado-seed extracts also have many health-related bioactive properties, such as anti-hyperglycaemic, anticancer, anti-hypercholesterolemia, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-neurogenerative effects are clearly demonstrated how these properties can be used to formulate or fortify food. The health-promoting properties of avocado seeds have been studied. These properties are attributed to various phytochemicals, such as acetogenin, catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin B1, estragole, etc. Additionally, items made from valorized avocado seeds that people can consume have been explored. The best applications of valorized by-products have been created for the pharmaceutical, functional food, and nutraceutical sectors while considering quality and safety. More clinical testing and product development research are required to prove the effectiveness of avocado seeds.

Protective effects of Persea americana fruit and seed extracts against chemically induced liver cancer in rats by enhancing their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and apoptotic activities

This study aims to explore the chemopreventive mechanisms of hydroethanolic extracts from avocado (Persea Americana) in diethylnitrosamine (DEN)/2-acetylaminofluorene (2AAF)-induced hepatocarcinogenesis. Chemical induction of hepatocarcinogenesis was induced by intraperitoneal injection of DEN at 150 mg/kg body weight (b.w.) twice a week for a fortnight, followed by oral administration of 2AAF at 20 mg/kg b.w. four times a week for 3 weeks. Rats administered DEN/2AAF were orally treated with hydroethanolic extracts of avocado fruits and seeds at a dose of 50 mg/kg b.w. every other day for 20 weeks. Moreover, rats administered DEN/2AAF and treated with avocado extracts revealed a marked decrease in liver enzyme activities, total bilirubin levels, and elevated liver tumor markers, but revealed an increase in total protein and albumin levels. The hepatocytes with hyperchromatic and bile duct cystadenoma observed in the liver of rats administered DEN/2AAF were reduced due to treatment with avocado extracts. Furthermore, the treatments prevented the elevation of lipid peroxidation levels and ameliorated the lowered glutathione peroxidase, glutathione-S-transferase, superoxide dismutase activities, and glutathione content in the liver tissues. Also, antigen Ki-67, cyclooxygenase-2, and nuclear factor kappa-B expression levels were decreased, but of the suppressor proteins p53 and BAX levels were increased in the liver of rats administered DEN/2AAF and treated with avocado extracts. In conclusion, the current results demonstrated that avocado extracts could abate hepatocarcinogenesis in rats administered DEN/2AAF through activation of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and apoptotic properties.

In vitro cytotoxic potential of extracts from Aristolochia foetida Kunth against MCF-7 and bMECs cell lines

The aim of this study was to evaluate the cytotoxic potential of Aristolochia foetida Kunth. Stems and leaves of A. foetida Kunth (Aristolochiaceae) have never been investigated pharmacologically. Recent studies of species of the Aristolochiaceae family found significant cytotoxic activities. Hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts were analyzed by 1H NMR and GC-MS to know the metabolites in each extract. In GC-MS analysis, the main compounds were methyl hexadecanoate (3); hexadecanoic acid (4); 2-butoxyethyl dodecanoate (9); ethyl hexadecanoate (20); methyl octadeca-9,12,15-trienoate (28) and (9Z,12Z,15Z)-octadeca-9,12,15-trienoic acid (40). The results showed a significant reduction in cell viability of the MCF-7 (breast cancer) cell line caused by organic extracts in a dose-dependent manner. The cytotoxicity activity of the dichloromethane extract from the stems (DSE) showed IC50 values of 45.9 μg/mL and the dichloromethane extract of the leaves (DLE) showed IC50 values of 47.3 μg/mL. DSE and DLE had the highest cytotoxic potential in an in vitro study against the MCF-7 cell line and non-tumor cells obtained from the bovine mammary epithelial (bMECs). DSE and DLE induced a loss in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) and can cause cell death by apoptosis through the intrinsic pathway in the MCF-7 cell line. DSE and DLE are cytotoxic in cancer cells and cause late apoptosis. Higher concentrations of DSE and DLE are required to induce a cytotoxic effect in healthy mammary epithelial cells. This is the first report of the dichloromethane extract of A. foetida Kunth that induces late apoptosis in MCF-7 cancer cells and may be a candidate for pharmacological study against breast cancer.

Avocado-derived avocadyne is a potent inhibitor of fatty acid oxidation

Avocatin-B (Avo-B), an avocado-derived 1:1 mixture of the polyhydroxylated alcohols avocadyne (AYNE) and avocadene, eliminated leukemia cells by suppressing fatty acid oxidation (FAO) in vivo and in vitro while sparing healthy blood cells. In this study, we identified AYNE as the most potent FAO inhibitor within the Avo-B mixture capable of inducing cell death in leukemia cells lines (IC₅₀ : 3.10 ± 0.14 µM in TEX cells; 11.53 ± 3.32 µM in OCI-AML2) and patient-derived acute myeloid leukemia cells. When added individually, the two Avo-B constituents demonstrated antagonism (Combination Index values >1), highlighting the need for future studies to assess AYNE alone. Together, this work highlighted AYNE as the most potent FAO inhibitor within the Avo-B mixture. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This work identifies which of the two molecules in avocatin B (Avo-B), an avocado-derived mixture of two molecules with demonstrated human safety, utility against leukemia, insulin resistance and diabetes, is most useful. Therefore, it provides the basis for future clinical studies that will focus on testing and developing the most active Avo-B constituent.

Avocado Seeds Relieve Oxidative Stress-Dependent Nephrotoxicity but Enhance Immunosuppression Induced by Cyclosporine in Rats

Cyclosporine A's (CsA) immunosuppressive effect makes it an ideal drug for organ transplantation. However, CsA's uses are restricted due to its side effects. We investigated the effects of avocado seed (AvS) powder on CsA-induced nephrotoxicity and immunosuppression in rats. The injection of CsA (5 mg/kg, subcutaneously, for 10 days) increased serum levels of creatinine, uric acid, and urea, and the renal levels of the malondialdehyde. It decreased creatinine clearance and the renal activity of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase) and Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase. The administration of CsA also significantly downregulated the renal expression of interferon-gamma, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 1 beta, monocyte chemotactic protein 1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1, and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 genes, and increased renal DNA damage. Histopathological examination confirmed the biochemical and molecular alterations that accompanied CsA nephrotoxicity. All CsA-induced deleterious effects, except immunosuppression, were ameliorated by feeding rats on a basal diet supplemented with 5% AvS powder for 4 weeks. Importantly, AvS also maximized CsA's immunosuppressive effect. These findings suggest a potential ameliorative effect of AvS on CsA-induced nephrotoxicity, and AvS enhances CsA's immunosuppressive effect. Therefore, AvS might be used in combination with CsA in transplantation treatment to relieve the CsA-induced nephrotoxicity.

Cytotoxicity of a Lipid-Rich Extract from Native Mexican Avocado Seed (Persea americana var. drymifolia) on Canine Osteosarcoma D-17 Cells and Synergistic Activity with Cytostatic Drugs

Osteosarcoma is the most common malignant bone tumor in both children and dogs. It is an aggressive and metastatic cancer with a poor prognosis for long-term survival. The search for new anti-cancer drugs with fewer side effects has become an essential goal for cancer chemotherapy; in this sense, the bioactive compounds from avocado have proved their efficacy as cytotoxic molecules. The objective of this study was to determine the cytotoxic and antiproliferative effect of a lipid-rich extract (LEAS) from Mexican native avocado seed (Persea americana var. drymifolia) on canine osteosarcoma D-17 cell line. Also, the combined activity with cytostatic drugs was evaluated. LEAS was cytotoxic to D-17 cells in a concentration-dependent manner with an IC₅₀ = 15.5 µg/mL. Besides, LEAS induced caspase-dependent cell apoptosis by the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. Moreover, LEAS induced a significant loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and increased superoxide anion production and mitochondrial ROS. Also, LEAS induced the arrest of the cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase. Finally, LEAS improved the cytotoxic activity of cisplatin, carboplatin, and in less extension, doxorubicin against the canine osteosarcoma cell line through a synergistic effect. In conclusion, avocado could be a potential source of bioactive molecules in the searching treatments for osteosarcoma.

Bioactive Molecules From Native Mexican Avocado Fruit (Persea americana var. drymifolia): A Review

Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is a tree native from central and eastern México that belongs to the Lauraceae family. Avocado has three botanical varieties known as Mexican (P. americana var. drymifolia), West Indian (P. americana var. americana), and Guatemalan (P. americana var. guatemalensis). It is an oil-rich fruit appreciated worldwide because of its nutritional value and the content of bioactive molecules. Several avocado molecules show attractive activities of interest in medicine. Avocado fatty acids have beneficial effects on cardiovascular disease risk factors. Besides, this fruit possesses a high content of carotenoids and phenolic compounds with possible antifungal, anti-cancer and antioxidant activities. Moreover, several metabolites have been reported with anti-inflammatory effects. Also, an unsaponifiable fraction of avocado in combination with soybean oil is used for the treatment of osteoarthritis. The Mexican variety is native from México and is characterized by the anise aroma in leaves and by small thin-skinned fruits of rich flavor and excellent quality. However, the study of the bioactive molecules of the fruit has not been addressed in detail. In this work, we achieved a literature review on the inflammatory, immunomodulatory and cytotoxic properties of long-chain fatty acids and derivatives from Mexican avocado seed. Also, the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of the oil extracted from the avocado seed are referred. Finally, the antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and cytotoxic activities of some antimicrobial peptides expressed in the fruit are reviewed.

The Effects of Avocado Waste and Its Functional Compounds in Animal Models on Dyslipidemia Parameters

Ischemic heart disease and stroke are two main causes of death that have prevailed for more than 15 years. Dyslipidemia and its parameters like hypercholesterolemia, hypertriglyceridemia, increase in low-density cholesterol, and a reduction of high-density cholesterol have been related with heart disease and risk of stroke. Approaches to improve the health and specifically reduce the risk of heart disease, such as medications and dietary interventions have been effective, but there are other potential sources of biological compounds that could have an effect due to their antioxidant properties. Avocado is a commonly consumed fruit especially its pulp, while the peel, seed, and leaf are usually discarded as waste. Some researchers have reported antioxidant, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, lipid-lowering, and hypoglycemic effects in these wastes. In this review article, we have summarized the current evidence on the effect of biological compounds from avocado waste on dyslipidemia parameters in preclinical models. Also, we have included the compound extracted and the extraction method from the selected articles.

Avocado fruit and by-products as potential sources of bioactive compounds

The increased demand for avocado, and therefore production and consumption, generate large quantities of by-products such as seeds, peel, and defatted pulp, which account for approximately 30% of fruit weight, and which are commonly discarded and wasted. The present review focuses on various compounds present in avocado fruit and its by-products, with particular interest to those that can be potentially used in different industrial forms, such as nutraceuticals, to add to or to formulate functional foods, among other uses. Main molecular families of bioactive compounds present in avocado include phenolic compounds (such as hydroxycinnamic acids, hydroxybenzoic acids, flavonoids and proanthocyanins), acetogenins, phytosterols, carotenoids and alkaloids. Types, contents, and possible functions of these bioactive compounds are described from a chemical, biological, and functional approach. The use of avocado and its by-products requires using processing methods that allow highest yield with the least amount of unusable residues, while also preserving the integrity of bioactive compounds of interest. Avocado cultivar, fruit development, ripening stage, and processing methods are some of the main factors that influence the type and amount of extractable molecules. The phytochemical diversity of avocado fruit and its by-products make them potential sources of nutraceutical compounds, from which functional foods can be obtained, as well as other applications in food, health, pigment, and material sectors, among others.

Bioactive metabolites of hass and reed avocados targeting methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin-like X via molecular modeling and cytotoxicity assessments

The aim of this study is to estimate the nutritive values, metabolites of Hass and Reed Avocado cultivars and evaluate their antimicrobial and anticancer activities. Hass was rich in water soluble vitamins, iron and calcium while, Reed contains more fat soluble vitamins. Benzaldehyde and butyl phenol derivatives were the major volatile components identified by solid phase extraction in Hass and Reed, respectively. Naringenin and rutin were the major compounds identified in Hass and Reed by HPLC analysis respectively. Hass showed a promising antimicrobial activity, especially, against Methicillin-Resistant S. aureus (MIC = 7.81 μg/mL). Two targets sites were selected to investigate the mechanism of action of Hass, Staphylococcal Enterotoxin-like X and Serine/threonine kinases Proteins (STK). Molecular docking demonstrated high binding affinity of naringenin towards Enterotoxin-like X. However, high levels of rutin in Reed might account for its cytotoxic activity against colorectal adenocarcinoma. Avocado extracts may be used for developing potential antibiotics.