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Xu Z, Zheng B, Yang Y, Yang Y, Jiang G, Tian Y. Effects of biodegradable (PBAT/PLA) and conventional (LDPE) mulch film residues on bacterial communities and metabolic functions in different agricultural soils. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 472:134425. [PMID: 38691998 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Soil health is a crucial aspect of sustainable agriculture and food production, necessitating attention to the ecological risks associated with substantial amounts of mulch film residues. Biodegradable mulch films (BDMs) carry the same risk of mulch film residues formation as low-density polyethylene (LDPE) mulch films during actual use. More information is needed to elucidate the specific impacts of mulch film residues on the soil environment. Integrated 16S rRNA gene sequencing and non-targeted metabolomics, this study revealed the response patterns of bacterial communities, metabolites, and metabolic functions in the soil from three different agricultural regions to the presence of mulch film residues. LDPE mulch film residues negatively impacted the bacterial communities in the soils of Heilongjiang (HLJ) and Yunnan (YN) and had a lesser impact on the metabolic spectrum in the soils of HLJ, YN, and Xinjiang (XJ). BDM residues had a greater negative impact on all three soils in terms of both the bacterial communities and metabolites. The impact of BDM treatment on the soils of HLJ, YN, and XJ increased sequentially in that order. It is recommended that, when promoting the use of biodegradable mulch films, a fuller assessment should be made, accounting for local soil properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Xu
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, PR China; Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, Chengdu 610065, PR China
| | - Bijun Zheng
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, PR China; Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, Chengdu 610065, PR China
| | - Yichen Yang
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, PR China; Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, Chengdu 610065, PR China
| | - Yi Yang
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, PR China; Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, Chengdu 610065, PR China
| | - Guangyang Jiang
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, PR China; Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, Chengdu 610065, PR China
| | - Yongqiang Tian
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, PR China; Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, Chengdu 610065, PR China.
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2
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Fan L, Ma J, Liu W, Shang C, Xie Y, Zhou X, Zhang M, Hou J, Feng Y. A study on the performance, structure, composition, and release behavior changes of polybutylene adipate terephthalic acid (PBAT) film during food contact. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 472:134603. [PMID: 38749243 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
Polybutylene adipate terephthalic acid (PBAT) is an emerging biodegradable material in food packaging. However, concerns have been raised regarding the potential hazards it could pose to food safety. In this study, the changes of PBAT films during food contact and the release of small molecules were inestigated by a multiscale approach. On a macro-scale, the surface roughness of the films increased with the reduction in the concentration of food simulants and the increase in contact temperatures, especially after immersion in acidic food environments. On a micro-scale, the crystallinity (Xc) and degradation indexes (DI) of the films increased by 5.7-61.2% and 7.8-48.6%, respectively, which led to a decrease in thermal stability. On a scale approaching the molecular level, 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol (2,4-DTBP) was detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) with the highest migration content, and the release behavior of 2,4-DTBP was further investigated by migration kinetics. In addition, terephthalic acid (TPA), a hydrolysis product of PBAT, was detected in acidic food environments by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The results of this study could provide practical guidance and assistance to promote sustainable development in the field of food packaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linwang Fan
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hainan University, 58 Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, Hainan Province, China
| | - Jiaxin Ma
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University, 58 Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, Hainan Province, China
| | - Wenyan Liu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Hainan University, 58 Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, Hainan Province, China
| | - Chaonan Shang
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University, 58 Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, Hainan Province, China
| | - Yanli Xie
- Analytical & Testing Center, Hainan University, 58 Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, Hainan Province, China
| | - Xueqing Zhou
- Analytical & Testing Center, Hainan University, 58 Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, Hainan Province, China
| | - Mingnan Zhang
- Analytical & Testing Center, Hainan University, 58 Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, Hainan Province, China
| | - Jinjian Hou
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University, 58 Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, Hainan Province, China
| | - Yuhong Feng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hainan University, 58 Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, Hainan Province, China.
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3
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Nizzetto L, Binda G, Hurley R, Baann C, Selonen S, Velmala S, van Gestel CAM. Comments to "Degli-Innocenti, F. The pathology of hype, hyperbole and publication bias is creating an unwarranted concern towards biodegradable mulch films" [J. Hazard. Mater. 463 (2024) 132923]. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 471:133690. [PMID: 38336580 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Some narratives present biodegradable plastic use for soil mulching practices in agriculture as "environmentally friendly" and "sustainable" alternatives to conventional plastics. To verify these narratives, environmental research recently started focusing on their potential impact on soil health, highlighting some concerns. The paper by Degli-Innocenti criticizes this unfolding knowledge arguing that it is affected by communication hypes, alarmistic writing and a focus on exposure scenarios purposedly crafted to yield negative effects. The quest of scientists for increased impact - the paper concludes - is the driver of such behavior. As scholars devoted to the safeguarding of scientific integrity, we set to verify whether this serious claim is grounded in evidence. Through a bibliometric analysis (using number of paper reads, citations and mentions on social media to measure the impact of publications) we found that: i) the papers pointed out by Degli-Innocenti as examples of biased works do not score higher than the median of similar publications; ii) the methodology used to support the conclusion is non-scientific; and iii) the paper does not fulfil the requirements concerning disclosure of conflicts of interests. We conclude that this paper represents a non-scientific opinion, potentially biased by a conflict of interest. We ask the paper to be clearly tagged as such, after the necessary corrections on the ethic section have been made. That being said, the paper does offer some useful insights for the definition of exposure scenarios in risk assessment. We comment and elaborate on these proposed models, hoping that this can help to advance the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Nizzetto
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Økernveien 94, 0579 Oslo, Norway; Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment, Masaryk University, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Gilberto Binda
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Økernveien 94, 0579 Oslo, Norway; DISAT Department of Science and High Technology, University of Insubria, Via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy
| | - Rachel Hurley
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Økernveien 94, 0579 Oslo, Norway
| | - Cecilie Baann
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Økernveien 94, 0579 Oslo, Norway
| | - Salla Selonen
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Mustialankatu 3, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Sannakajsa Velmala
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Cornelis A M van Gestel
- Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment (A-LIFE), Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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4
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Qi R, Jones DL, Tang Y, Gao F, Li J, Chi Y, Yan C. Regulatory path for soil microbial communities depends on the type and dose of microplastics. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 473:134702. [PMID: 38788589 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
To reveal the feedbacks and regulating mechanisms of microplastic types and doses on microbial community, a microcosm experiment was carried out with two non-degradable microplastics [polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)] and four biodegradable microplastics [poly(butylene succinate) (PBS), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), poly(butyleneadipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), and polypropylene carbonate (PPC)] at different levels (1 %, 7 %, and 28 %). As a result, the content of total carbon (TC), soil organic carbon (SOC), and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) (expect MBC in PBS soil) increased with increasing doses of microplastics, and increased at the lowest PE dose rate. Biodegradable microplastics created a more active ecological niche while enriching more pathogens than non-degradable microplastics. Structural equation modeling indicated that microbial diversities were in a type-dependent assembly, whereas microbial compositions were more profoundly affected by the microplastic doses, ultimately. The standardized total effect coefficient of microplastic types on bacterial and fungal diversities was - 0.429 and - 0.282, and that of doses on bacterial and fungal compositions was 0.487 and 0.336, respectively. Both microplastic types and doses significantly impacted pH, electrical conductivity, total nitrogen, TC, SOC, and MBC, subsequently inhibiting microbial diversities and stimulating microbial compositions with particular pathways. The results provide a comprehensive understanding for evaluating the potential risk of microplastics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruimin Qi
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Soil and Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China; Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Residual Pollution in Agricultural Film, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Davey L Jones
- School of Environmental and Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK; SoilsWest, Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia
| | - Yuanyuan Tang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Soil and Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Fengxiang Gao
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry CAS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Jiawei Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Soil and Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Yihan Chi
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Soil and Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Changrong Yan
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Residual Pollution in Agricultural Film, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100081, China; Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
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5
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Jiao Y, Zhang G, Ai X, Wang X. Comparison of the Effects of LDPE and PBAT Film Residues on Soil Microbial Ecology. Curr Microbiol 2024; 81:185. [PMID: 38771339 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-024-03722-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
The plastic film is extensively applied with limited recycling, leading to the long-run residue accumulation in soil, which offers a distinctive habitat for microorganisms, and creates a plastisphere. In this study, traditional low-density polyethylene (LDPE) plastic film and biodegradable polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT) plastic film materials were selected to test their effects on soil microbial ecology. Based on high-throughput sequencing, compared to the soil environment, the alpha-diversity of bacterial communities in plastisphere was lower, and the abundance of Actinobacteria increased. Plastic film residues, as bacterial habitats, exhibited greater heterogeneity and harbor unique bacterial communities. The communities were distinguished between plastisphere and soil environment by means of a random-forest (RF) machine-learning model. Prominent distinctions emerged among bacterial functions between soil environment and plastisphere, especially regarding organics degradation. The neutral model and null model indicated that the constitution of bacterial communities was dominated by random processes except in LDPE plastisphere. The bacterial co-occurrence network of the plastisphere exhibited higher complexity and modularity. This study contributes to our comprehending of characteristics of plastisphere bacterial communities in soil environment and the associated ecological risks of plastic film residues accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Jiao
- School of Water Conservancy and Transportation, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Institute of Underground Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Guangyi Zhang
- School of Water Conservancy and Transportation, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China.
- Institute of Underground Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China.
| | - Xiaoyang Ai
- School of Water Conservancy and Transportation, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Institute of Underground Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Xiaojing Wang
- School of Water Conservancy and Transportation, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Institute of Underground Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
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6
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Palansooriya KN, Zhou Y, An Z, Cai Y, Chang SX. Microplastics affect the ecological stoichiometry of plant, soil and microbes in a greenhouse vegetable system. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 924:171602. [PMID: 38461987 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2024] [Revised: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Microplastic (MP) pollution is a growing global issue due to its potential threat to ecosystem and human health. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) MP is the most common type of plastics polluting agricultural soils, negatively affecting soil-microbial-plant systems. However, the effects of LDPE MPs on the carbon (C): nitrogen (N): phosphorus (P) of soil-microbial-plant systems have not been well elucidated. Thus, we conducted a pot experiment with varying LDPE MP concentrations (w/w) (control without MPs; 0.2 % MPs (PE1); 5 % MPs (PE2); and 10 % MPs (PE3)) to study their effects on soil-microbial-plant C-N-P stoichiometry. Soil C:N ratio increased 2.3 and 3.4 times in PE2 and PE3, respectively. Soil C:P ratio increased 2.2 and 3.6 times in PE2 and PE3, respectively. Soil microbial C:N ratios decreased by 46.2 % in PE1, while C:P ratios decreased by 59.2, 38.6, and 67.9 % in PE1, PE2, and PE3, respectively. Soil microbial N:P ratio decreased in PE1 (17.2) and PE3 (59.1 %). MPs increased shoot C content and C:N ratios, particularly at the 5 % MP addition rate. MP addition altered dissolved organic C, N, and P concentrations, depending on the MP addition rate. Microbial community responses to MP exposure were complex, leading to variable effects on different microbial groups at different MP addition rates. Structural equation modeling showed that MP addition had a direct positive effect (β = 0.96) on soil C-N-P stoichiometry and a direct negative effect (β = -1.34) on microbial C-N-P stoichiometry. These findings demonstrate the complex interactions between MPs, soil microorganisms, and nutrient dynamics, highlighting the need for further research to better understand the ecological implications of MP pollution in terrestrial ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumuduni Niroshika Palansooriya
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutrality, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China; Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton T6G 2E3, Canada
| | - Ying Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutrality, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China
| | - Zhengfeng An
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton T6G 2E3, Canada
| | - Yanjiang Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutrality, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China.
| | - Scott X Chang
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutrality, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China; Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton T6G 2E3, Canada.
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7
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Zhang Q, Chen J, Guo X, Lei H, Zou R, Huo E, Kong X, Liu W, Wang M, Ma Z, Li B. Mussel-inspired polydopamine-modified biochar microsphere for reinforcing polylactic acid composite films: Emphasizing the achievement of excellent thermal and mechanical properties. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 260:129567. [PMID: 38246462 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.129567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Having poor interfacial compatibility between biochar microsphere (BM) and polylactic acid (PLA) should be responsible for the unbalance of composite film strength and toughness. Elucidating the effect of polydopamine (PDA) on BM and BM/PLA composite films is the ultimate goal of this study based on the mussel bionic principle. It was found that the strong adhesion of PDA on the BM surface was achieved, which improved the surface roughness and thermal stability. Also, PDA modification can facilitate crystallization, increase thermal properties, improve interfacial compatibility, and enhance the tensile properties of BM/PLA composite films. Silane-based PDA modified BM/PLA composite film exhibited the best tensile strength, tensile modulus, and elongation at break with 77.95 MPa, 1.87 GPa, and 7.30%. These noteworthy findings, achieving a simultaneous improvement in PLA strength and toughness, hold promising implications for its sustainability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingfa Zhang
- School of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China; College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Jianlong Chen
- School of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Xinyuan Guo
- School of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Hanwu Lei
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University, Richland, WA 99354, USA
| | - Rongge Zou
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University, Richland, WA 99354, USA
| | - Erguang Huo
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano Heat Fluid Flow Technology and Energy Application, School of Physical Science and Technology, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Xiao Kong
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Weiwei Liu
- School of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Mingfeng Wang
- School of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Zhong Ma
- School of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Bin Li
- School of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
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8
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Han Y, Teng Y, Wang X, Wen D, Gao P, Yan D, Yang N. Biodegradable PBAT microplastics adversely affect pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.) growth and the rhizosphere ecology: Focusing on rhizosphere microbial community composition, element metabolic potential, and root exudates. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 912:169048. [PMID: 38061654 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Biodegradable plastics (BPs) have gained increased attention as a promising solution to plastics pollution problem. However, BPs often exhibited limited in situ biodegradation in the soil environment, so they may also release microplastics (MPs) into soils just like conventional non-degradable plastics. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the impacts of biodegradable MPs (BMPs) on soil ecosystem. Here, we explored the effects of biodegradable poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) MPs and conventional polyethylene (PE) MPs on soil-plant (pakchoi) system at three doses (0.02 %, 0.2 %, and 2 %, w/w). Results showed that PBAT MPs reduced plant growth in a dose-dependent pattern, while PE MPs exhibited no significant phytotoxicity. High-dose PBAT MPs negatively affected the rhizosphere soil nutrient availability, e.g., decreased available phosphorus and available potassium. Metagenomics analysis revealed that PBAT MPs caused more serious interference with the rhizosphere microbial community composition and function than PE MPs. In particular, compared with PE MPs, PBAT MPs induced greater changes in functional potential of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles, which may lead to alterations in soil biogeochemical processes and ecological functions. Moreover, untargeted metabolomics showed that PBAT MPs and PE MPs differentially affect plant root exudates. Mantel tests, correlation analysis, and partial least squares path model analysis showed that changes in plant growth and root exudates were significantly correlated with soil properties and rhizosphere microbiome driven by the MPs-rhizosphere interactions. This work improves our knowledge of how biodegradable and conventional non-degradable MPs affect plant growth and the rhizosphere ecology, highlighting that BMPs might pose greater threat to soil ecosystems than non-degradable MPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujuan Han
- Institute of Vegetables, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Ying Teng
- Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Xiao Wang
- Institute of Vegetables, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Dan Wen
- Institute of Vegetables, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Peixin Gao
- Institute of Plant Protection, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Dong Yan
- Institute of Vegetables, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Ning Yang
- Institute of Vegetables, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan 250100, China.
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9
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Li X, Wu J, Cheng X, Cai Z, Wang Z, Zhou J. Biodegradable microplastics reduce the effectiveness of biofertilizers by altering rhizospheric microecological functions. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 352:120071. [PMID: 38246103 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
The effectiveness of biofertilizers as a cost-effective crop yield enhancer can be compromised by residual soil pollutants. However, the impact of accumulated polyadipate/butylene terephthalate microplastics (PBAT-MPs) from biodegradable mulch films on biofertilizer application and the consequent growth of crop plants remains unclear. Here, the effects of different levels of PBAT-MPs in soil treated with Bacillus amyloliquefaciens biofertilizer were assessed in a four-week potted experiment. PBAT-MPs significantly decreased the growth-promoting effect of the biofertilizer on Brassica chinensis L., resulting in a notable reduction in both above- and belowground biomass (up to 52.91% and 57.53%, respectively), as well as nitrate and crude fiber contents (up to 12.18% and 13.64%, respectively). In the rhizosphere microenvironment, PBAT-MPs increased soil organic carbon by 2.63-fold and organic matter by 2.68-fold, while enhancing sucrase (from 67.55% to 108.89%) and cellulase (from 31.26% to 49.10%) activities. PBAT-MPs also altered the rhizospheric bacterial community composition/diversity, resulting in more complex microbial networks. With regard to microbial function, PBAT-MPs impacted carbon metabolic function by inhibiting the 3-hydroxypropionate/4-hydroxybutyrate fixation pathway and influencing chitin and lignin degradation processes. Overall, the rhizospheric microbial profiles (composition, function, and network interactions) were the main contributors to plant growth inhibition. This study provides a practical case and theoretical basis for rational use of biodegradable mulch films and indicates that the residue of biodegradable films needs pay attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyang Li
- Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055, PR China
| | - Jialing Wu
- Ecological Fertilizer Research Institute, Shenzhen Batian Ecological Engineering Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, PR China
| | - Xueyu Cheng
- Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055, PR China
| | - Zhonghua Cai
- Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055, PR China
| | - Zongkang Wang
- Ecological Fertilizer Research Institute, Shenzhen Batian Ecological Engineering Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, PR China.
| | - Jin Zhou
- Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055, PR China.
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10
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Ji H, Abdalkarim SYH, Chen X, Chen X, Lu W, Chen Z, Yu HY. Deep insights into biodegradability mechanism and growth cycle adaptability of polylactic acid/hyperbranched cellulose nanocrystal composite mulch. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 254:127866. [PMID: 37939769 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
The widespread use of petroleum-based plastic mulch in agriculture has accelerated white and microplastic pollution while posing a severe agroecological challenge due to its difficulty in decomposing in the natural environment. However, endowing mulch film with degradability and growth cycle adaptation remains elusive due to the inherent non-degradability of petroleum-based plastics severely hindering its applications. This work reports polylactic acids hyperbranched composite mulch (PCP) and measured biodegradation behavior under burial soil, seawater, and ultraviolet (UV) aging to understand the biodegradation kinetics and to increase their sustainability in the agriculture field. Due to high interfacial interactions between polymer and nanofiler, the resultant PCP mulch significantly enhances crystallization ability, hydrophilicity, and mechanical properties. PCP mulch can be scalable-manufactured to exhibit modulated degradation performance under varying degradation conditions and periods while concurrently enhancing crop growth (wheat). Thus, such mulch with excellent performance can reduce labor costs and the environmental impact of waste mulch disposal to replace traditional mulch for sustainable agricultural production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haibin Ji
- Key Laboratory of Intelligent Textile and Flexible Interconnection of Zhejiang Province, College of Textile Science and Engineering, International Institute of Silk, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Somia Yassin Hussain Abdalkarim
- Key Laboratory of Intelligent Textile and Flexible Interconnection of Zhejiang Province, College of Textile Science and Engineering, International Institute of Silk, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Xiang Chen
- Key Laboratory of Intelligent Textile and Flexible Interconnection of Zhejiang Province, College of Textile Science and Engineering, International Institute of Silk, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Xuefei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Intelligent Textile and Flexible Interconnection of Zhejiang Province, College of Textile Science and Engineering, International Institute of Silk, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China; Zhejiang Sci-Tech University Shengzhou Innovation Research Institute, Shengzhou 312400, China
| | - Weidong Lu
- Hangzhou Xin Guang Plastics Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Zhiming Chen
- Zhejiang Hisun Biomaterials Co., Ltd., Taizhou 318000, China
| | - Hou-Yong Yu
- Key Laboratory of Intelligent Textile and Flexible Interconnection of Zhejiang Province, College of Textile Science and Engineering, International Institute of Silk, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China; State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Donghua. University, 2999 Renmin North Road, Songjiang District, Shanghai 201620, China.
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11
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Jia H, Zhao Y, Deng H, Yu H, Ge C, Li J. Integrated microbiome and multi-omics analysis reveal the molecular mechanisms of Eisenia fetida in response to biochar-derived dissolved and particulate matters. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 460:132422. [PMID: 37657322 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
At present, most ecotoxicological studies are still confined to focusing on the harmful effects of biochar itself on soil fauna. However, the potential ecotoxicity of different components separated from biochar to terrestrial invertebrates remains poorly understood. In this study, the dissolved matter (DM) and particulate matter (PM) were separated from biochar (BC) and then introduced into the soil-earthworm system to investigate the response mechanism of earthworms at the molecular level. The results showed that BC and DM exposure caused an increase in the abundance of Proteobacteria in the cast bacterial community, suggesting the dysbiosis of intestinal microbiota. It was also observed that the cast bacterial communities were more sensitive to DM exposure than PM exposure. Transcriptomic analysis showed that BC and DM exposure induced significant enrichment of functional pathways related to infectious and neuropathic diseases. Metabolomic profiling manifested that DM exposure caused metabolic dysfunction, antioxidant and detoxification abilities recession. Furthermore, significant differences in the responses of earthworms at transcriptomic and metabolic levels confirmed that DM exhibited greater ecotoxicity than PM. This study highlighted the significant contributions of dissolved matter to the ecotoxicity of biochar from the perspective of transcriptomic and metabolomic profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiting Jia
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Forestry Environmental Processes and Ecological Regulation of Hainan Province, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan University, Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Yuanyuan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Forestry Environmental Processes and Ecological Regulation of Hainan Province, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan University, Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Hui Deng
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Forestry Environmental Processes and Ecological Regulation of Hainan Province, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan University, Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, China.
| | - Huamei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Forestry Environmental Processes and Ecological Regulation of Hainan Province, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan University, Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Chengjun Ge
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Forestry Environmental Processes and Ecological Regulation of Hainan Province, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan University, Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, China.
| | - Jiatong Li
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Forestry Environmental Processes and Ecological Regulation of Hainan Province, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan University, Renmin Road, Haikou 570228, China.
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12
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Uzamurera AG, Zhao ZY, Wang PY, Wei YX, Mo F, Zhou R, Wang WL, Ullah F, Khan A, Xiong XB, Li MY, Wesly K, Wang WY, Tao HY, Xiong YC. Thickness effects of polyethylene and biodegradable film residuals on soil properties and dryland maize productivity. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 329:138602. [PMID: 37028722 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Plastic film residuals are increasingly remaining in cultivated lands. However, it is a critical issue how residual plastic type and thickness affect soil properties and crop yield. To address this issue, in situ landfill was conducted using thick polyethylene (PEt1), thin polyethylene (PEt2), thick biodegradable (BIOt1), thin biodegradable (BIOt2) residues, and CK (control) with no residues landfill in a semiarid maize field. The findings demonstrated that the impact of various treatments on soil characteristics and maize yield varied considerably. Soil water content decreased by 24.82% in PEt1 and 25.43% in PEt2, compared to BIOt1 and BIOt2, respectively. BIOt2 treatment increased soil bulk density by 1.31 g cm-3 and lowered soil porosity by 51.11%, respectively; it also elevated the silt/clay proportion by 49.42% relative to CK. In contrast, microaggregate composition in PEt2 was higher (43.02%). Moreover, BIOt2 lowered soil nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) content. Compared with other treatments, BIOt2 resulted in significantly higher soil total nitrogen (STN) and lower SOC/STN. Finally, BIOt2 exhibited the lowest water use efficiency (WUE) (20.57 kg ha-1 mm-1) and yield (6896 kg ha-1) among all the treatments. Therefore, BIO film residues exhibited detrimental impacts on soil quality and maize productivity compared to PE film ones. Considering film thickness, thin residual films more evidently influenced soil quality and maize productivity than thick film ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimee Grace Uzamurera
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Ze-Ying Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Peng-Yang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Yong-Xian Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Fei Mo
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, PR China
| | - Rui Zhou
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, PR China
| | - Wen-Li Wang
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, PR China
| | - Fazal Ullah
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Aziz Khan
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Xiao-Bin Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Meng-Ying Li
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Kiprotich Wesly
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Wen-Ying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Formation Mechanism and Comprehensive Utilization of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in Qinghai Province, Qinghai Normal University, Xining, 810008, PR China
| | - Hong-Yan Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China.
| | - You-Cai Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China.
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13
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Wang Y, Liu L, Cao S, Yu J, Li X, Su Y, Li G, Gao H, Zhao Z. Spatio-temporal variation of soil microplastics as emerging pollutant after long-term application of plastic mulching and organic compost in apple orchards. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 328:121571. [PMID: 37028788 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) pollution in agroecosystems have aroused great alarm and widespread concern. However, the spatial distribution and temporal variation characteristics of MPs in apple orchards with long-term plastic mulching and organic compost input are still poorly understood. This study investigated MPs accumulation characteristics and vertical distribution after applying plastic mulch and organic compost in apple orchards for 3 (AO-3), 9 (AO-9), 17 (AO-17), and 26 (AO-26) years on the Loess Plateau. The clear tillage (no plastic mulching and organic composts) area was used as a control (CK). At a soil depth of 0-40 cm, AO-3, AO-9, AO-17, and AO-26 treatments increased the abundances of MPs, and the black fibers and fragments of rayon and polypropylene were dominant. In the 0-20 cm soil layer, the abundances of MPs increased with the treatment time; the abundance was 4333 pieces kg-1 after 26 years of treatment, gradually decreasing with soil depth. In different treatments and soil layers, the percentages of MPs <1000 μm were dominant (>50%). The AO-17 and AO-26 treatments significantly increased the MPs with the size of 0-500 μm at 0-40 cm and the abundances of pellets in 0-60 cm soil. In conclusion, the long-term (≥17 years) application of plastic mulching and organic composts increased the abundances of small particles at 0-40 cm, and plastic mulching contributed the most to MPs, while organic composts increased the complexity and diversity of MPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanji Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China; College of Horticultur, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | - Li Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China; College of Horticultur, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | - Shan Cao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | - Jing Yu
- College of Horticultur, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | - Xiangyu Li
- College of Horticultur, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | - Yating Su
- College of Horticultur, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | - Gaochao Li
- College of Horticultur, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | - Hua Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China; College of Horticultur, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | - Zhengyang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China; College of Horticultur, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China.
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14
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Li C, Li Z, Cui Q, Hassan A, Zhang K, Lu X, Zhang Y. Effect of different additions of low-density polyethylene and microplastics polyadipate/butylene terephthalate on soil bacterial community structure. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:55649-55661. [PMID: 36897451 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-26159-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The stress produced from biodegradable plastics on soil ecosystem is a rising global concern. However, effects of such microplastics (MPs) on soil ecology are still debatable. In this study, the biodegradable microplastic PBAT (polyadipate/butylene terephthalate) was used as the target object, compared with the traditional microplastic LDPE (low-density polyethylene). A pot experiment and was high-throughput sequencing analysis used to determine the effect of different additions of MPs on soil bacterial community structure and the correlation between soil bacterial community structure and chemical properties was investigated. Compared with LDPE, the results showed that EC, TN, TP, NH4+-N, and NO3--N changed obviously with the increasing of PBAT addition (p < 0.05), but pH changed little and the community richness was significantly higher in soils with low PBAT addition than that with higher PBAT addition. PBAT is beneficial to soil nitrogen fixation, but it will significantly reduce the soil P content and affect the nitrification and denitrification reaction. It suggested that addition of PBAT MPs and its addition amount result in changes in soil fertility, community abundance, and structure and composition of bacterial communities in soil samples, while the presence of PBAT MPs might affect soil carbon-nitrogen cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengtao Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, 710021, China.
| | - Zhenhui Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, 710021, China
| | - Qian Cui
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, 710021, China
| | - Areeb Hassan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, 710021, China
| | - Kai Zhang
- Macao Environmental Research Institute, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China
| | - Xueqiang Lu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, 710021, China
- College of Resources and Environment, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
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15
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Mansoor Z, Tchuenbou-Magaia F, Kowalczuk M, Adamus G, Manning G, Parati M, Radecka I, Khan H. Polymers Use as Mulch Films in Agriculture-A Review of History, Problems and Current Trends. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14235062. [PMID: 36501456 PMCID: PMC9740682 DOI: 10.3390/polym14235062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The application of mulch films for preserving soil moisture and preventing weed growth has been a part of agricultural practice for decades. Different materials have been used as mulch films, but polyethylene plastic has been considered most effective due to its excellent mechanical strength, low cost and ability to act as a barrier for sunlight and water. However, its use carries a risk of plastic pollution and health hazards, hence new laws have been passed to replace it completely with other materials over the next few years. Research to find out about new biodegradable polymers for this purpose has gained impetus in the past few years, driven by regulations and the United Nations Organization's Sustainable Development Goals. The primary requisite for these polymers is biodegradability under natural climatic conditions without the production of any toxic residual compounds. Therefore, biodegradable polymers developed from fossil fuels, microorganisms, animals and plants are viable options for using as mulching material. However, the solution is not as simple since each polymer has different mechanical properties and a compromise has to be made in terms of strength, cost and biodegradability of the polymer for its use as mulch film. This review discusses the history of mulching materials, the gradual evolution in the choice of materials, the process of biodegradation of mulch films, the regulations passed regarding material to be used, types of polymers that can be explored as potential mulch films and the future prospects in the area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zinnia Mansoor
- School of Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
- Department of Biotechnology, Virtual University of Pakistan, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
| | - Fideline Tchuenbou-Magaia
- Division of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, Computing and Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
| | - Marek Kowalczuk
- Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, Polish Academy of Sciences, M. Curie-Sklodowskiej 34, 41-819 Zabrze, Poland
| | - Grazyna Adamus
- Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, Polish Academy of Sciences, M. Curie-Sklodowskiej 34, 41-819 Zabrze, Poland
| | - Georgina Manning
- School of Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
| | - Mattia Parati
- School of Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
| | - Iza Radecka
- School of Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
- Correspondence: (I.R.); (H.K.)
| | - Habib Khan
- School of Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
- Correspondence: (I.R.); (H.K.)
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