1
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Evolution of protease activation and specificity via alpha-2-macroglobulin-mediated covalent capture. Nat Commun 2023; 14:768. [PMID: 36765057 PMCID: PMC9918453 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36099-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Tailoring of the activity and specificity of proteases is critical for their utility across industrial, medical and research purposes. However, engineering or evolving protease catalysts is challenging and often labour intensive. Here, we describe a generic method to accelerate this process based on yeast display. We introduce the protease selection system A2Mcap that covalently captures protease catalysts by repurposed alpha-2-macroglobulin (A2Ms). To demonstrate the utility of A2Mcap for protease engineering we exemplify the directed activity and specificity evolution of six serine proteases. This resulted in a variant of Staphylococcus aureus serin-protease-like (Spl) protease SplB, an enzyme used for recombinant protein processing, that no longer requires activation by N-terminal signal peptide removal. SCHEMA-based domain shuffling was used to map the specificity determining regions of Spl proteases, leading to a chimeric scaffold that supports specificity switching via subdomain exchange. The ability of A2Mcap to overcome key challenges en route to tailor-made proteases suggests easier access to such reagents in the future.
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2
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Francis D, Bhairaddy A, Joy A, Hari GV, Francis A. Secretory proteins in the orchestration of microbial virulence: The curious case of Staphylococcus aureus. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2023; 133:271-350. [PMID: 36707204 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2022.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Microbial virulence showcases an excellent model for adaptive changes that enable an organism to survive and proliferate in a hostile environment and exploit host resources to its own benefit. In Staphylococcus aureus, an opportunistic pathogen of the human host, known for the diversity of the disease conditions it inflicts and the rapid evolution of antibiotic resistance, virulence is a consequence of having a highly plastic genome that is amenable to quick reprogramming and the ability to express a diverse arsenal of virulence factors. Virulence factors that are secreted to the host milieu effectively manipulate the host conditions to favor bacterial survival and growth. They assist in colonization, nutrient acquisition, immune evasion, and systemic spread. The structural and functional characteristics of the secreted virulence proteins have been shaped to assist S. aureus in thriving and disseminating effectively within the host environment and exploiting the host resources to its best benefit. With the aim of highlighting the importance of secreted virulence proteins in bacterial virulence, the present chapter provides a comprehensive account of the role of the major secreted proteins of S. aureus in orchestrating its virulence in the human host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dileep Francis
- Department of Life Sciences, Kristu Jayanti College, Autonomous, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India.
| | - Anusha Bhairaddy
- Department of Life Sciences, Kristu Jayanti College, Autonomous, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Atheene Joy
- Department of Life Sciences, Kristu Jayanti College, Autonomous, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | | | - Ashik Francis
- Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Trivandrum, Kerala, India
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3
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Zhou Q, Si Z, Wang K, Li K, Hong W, Zhang Y, Li P. Enzyme-triggered smart antimicrobial drug release systems against bacterial infections. J Control Release 2022; 352:507-526. [PMID: 36341932 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.10.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The rapid emergence and spread of drug-resistant bacteria, as one of the most pressing public health threats, are declining our arsenal of available antimicrobial drugs. Advanced antimicrobial drug delivery systems that can achieve precise and controlled release of antimicrobial agents in the microenvironment of bacterial infections will retard the development of antimicrobial resistance. A variety of extracellular enzymes are secreted by bacteria to destroy physical integrity of tissue during their invasion of host body, which can be utilized as stimuli to trigger "on-demand" release of antimicrobials. In the past decade, such bacterial enzyme responsive drug release systems have been intensively studied but few review has been released. Herein, we systematically summarize the recent progress of smart antimicrobial drug delivery systems triggered by bacteria secreted enzymes such as lipase, hyaluronidase, protease and antibiotic degrading enzymes. The perspectives and existing key issues of this field will also be discussed to fuel the innovative research and translational application in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhou
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Zhangyong Si
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637459, Singapore
| | - Kun Wang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Kunpeng Li
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Weilin Hong
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Yuezhou Zhang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an 710072, China.
| | - Peng Li
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University, 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an 710072, China.
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4
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Eze CC, Ezeokonkwo AM, Ugwu ID, Eze UF, Onyeyilim EL, Attah IS, Okonkwo IV. Azole-pyrimidine Hybrid Anticancer Agents: A Review of Molecular Structure, Structure Activity Relationship and Molecular Docking. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 2022; 22:2822-2851. [PMID: 35306990 DOI: 10.2174/1871520622666220318090147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cancer has emerged as one of the leading causes of deaths globally partly due to the steady rise in anticancer drug resistance. Pyrimidine and pyrimidine-fused heterocycles are some of the privileged scaffolds in medicine, as they possess diverse biological properties. Pyrimidines containing azole nucleus possesses inestimable anticancer potency and has enormous potential to conduct the regulation of cellular pathways for selective anticancer activity. The present review outlines the molecular structure of pyrimidine-fused azoles with significant anticancer activity. The structure activity relationship and molecular docking studies have also been discussed. The current review is the first complete compilation of significant literature on the proposed topic from 2016 to 2020. The information contained in this review offers a useful insight to chemists in the design of new and potent anticancer azole-pyrimidine analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chinweike Cosmas Eze
- Natural Science Unit, School of General Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, 410001, Nigeria
| | | | - Izuchukwu David Ugwu
- Department of Pure & Industrial Chemistry, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, 410001, Nigeria
| | - Uchenna Florence Eze
- Department of Pure & Industrial Chemistry, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, 410001, Nigeria
| | - Ebuka Leonard Onyeyilim
- Department of Pure & Industrial Chemistry, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, 410001, Nigeria
| | - Izuchi Solomon Attah
- Department of Pure & Industrial Chemistry, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, 410001, Nigeria
| | - Ifeoma Vivian Okonkwo
- Department of Science Laboratory Technology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, 410001, Nigeria
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5
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Wang Z, Liu X, Duan Y, Huang Y. Infection microenvironment-related antibacterial nanotherapeutic strategies. Biomaterials 2021; 280:121249. [PMID: 34801252 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.121249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance is one of the biggest challenges in public health. There is an urgent need to discover novel agents against the occurrence of multidrug-resistant bacteria, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant enterococci. The drug-resistant pathogens are able to grow and persist in infected sites, including biofilms, phagosomes, or phagolysosomes, which are more difficult to eradicate than planktonic ones and also foster the development of drug resistance. For years, various nano-antibacterial agents have been developed in the forms of antibiotic nanocarriers. Inorganic nanoparticles with intrinsic antibacterial activity and inert nanoparticles assisted by external stimuli, including heat, photon, magnetism, or sound, have also been discovered. Many of these strategies are designed to target the unique microenvironment of bacterial infections, which have shown potent antibacterial effects in vitro and in vivo. This review summarizes ongoing efforts on antibacterial nanotherapeutic strategies related to bacterial infection microenvironments, including targeted antibacterial therapy and responsive antibiotic delivery systems. Several grand challenges and future directions for the development and translation of effective nano-antibacterial agents are also discussed. The development of innovative nano-antibacterial agents could provide powerful weapons against drug-resistant bacteria in systemic or local bacterial infections in the foreseeable future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Wang
- Xiangya International Academy of Translational Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410013, China
| | - Xingyun Liu
- Xiangya International Academy of Translational Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410013, China
| | - Yanwen Duan
- Xiangya International Academy of Translational Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410013, China; Hunan Engineering Research Center of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Natural Product Drug Discover, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, China; National Engineering Research Center of Combinatorial Biosynthesis for Drug Discovery, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, China.
| | - Yong Huang
- Xiangya International Academy of Translational Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410013, China; National Engineering Research Center of Combinatorial Biosynthesis for Drug Discovery, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, China.
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The protease SplB of Staphylococcus aureus targets host complement components and inhibits complement-mediated bacterial opsonophagocytosis. J Bacteriol 2021; 204:e0018421. [PMID: 34633872 PMCID: PMC8765433 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00184-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is an opportunistic pathogen that can cause life-threatening infections, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. The high-level virulence of S. aureus largely relies on its diverse and variable collection of virulence factors and immune evasion proteins, including the six serine protease-like proteins SplA to SplF. Spl proteins are expressed by most clinical isolates of S. aureus, but little is known about the molecular mechanisms by which these proteins modify the host’s immune response for the benefit of the bacteria. Here, we identify SplB as a protease that inactivates central human complement proteins, i.e., C3, C4, and the activation fragments C3b and C4b, by preferentially cleaving their α-chains. SplB maintained its proteolytic activity in human serum, degrading C3 and C4. SplB further cleaved the components of the terminal complement pathway, C5, C6, C7, C8, and C9. In contrast, the important soluble human complement regulators factor H and C4b-binding protein (C4BP), as well as C1q, were left intact. Thereby, SplB reduced C3b-mediated opsonophagocytosis by human neutrophils as well as C5b-9 deposition on the bacterial surface. In conclusion, we identified the first physiological substrates of the S. aureus extracellular protease SplB. This enzyme inhibits all three complement pathways and blocks opsonophagocytosis. Thus, SplB can be considered a novel staphylococcal complement evasion protein. IMPORTANCE The success of bacterial pathogens in immunocompetent humans depends on the control and inactivation of host immunity. S. aureus, like many other pathogens, efficiently blocks host complement attack early in infection. Aiming to understand the role of the S. aureus-encoded orphan proteases of the Spl operon, we asked whether these proteins play a role in immune escape. We found that SplB inhibits all three complement activation pathways as well as the lytic terminal complement pathway. This blocks the opsonophagocytosis of the bacteria by neutrophils. We also clarified the molecular mechanisms: SplB cleaves the human complement proteins C3, C4, C5, C6, C7, C8, and C9 as well as factor B but not the complement inhibitors factor H and C4BP. Thus, we identify the first physiological substrates of the extracellular protease SplB of S. aureus and characterize SplB as a novel staphylococcal complement evasion protein.
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Structural Determinants of Substrate Specificity of SplF Protease from Staphylococcus aureus. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22042220. [PMID: 33672341 PMCID: PMC7926377 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22042220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that six proteases encoded in the spl operon of a dangerous human pathogen, Staphylococcus aureus, may play a role in virulence. Interestingly, SplA, B, D, and E have complementary substrate specificities while SplF remains to be characterized in this regard. Here, we describe the prerequisites of a heterologous expression system for active SplF protease and characterize the enzyme in terms of substrate specificity and its structural determinants. Substrate specificity of SplF is comprehensively profiled using combinatorial libraries of peptide substrates demonstrating strict preference for long aliphatic sidechains at the P1 subsite and significant selectivity for aromatic residues at P3. The crystal structure of SplF was provided at 1.7 Å resolution to define the structural basis of substrate specificity of SplF. The obtained results were compared and contrasted with the characteristics of other Spl proteases determined to date to conclude that the spl operon encodes a unique extracellular proteolytic system.
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Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus controls the progression of infection through the coordinated production of extracellular proteases, which selectively modulate virulence determinant stability. This is evidenced by our previous finding that a protease-null strain has a hypervirulent phenotype in a murine model of sepsis, resulting from the unchecked accumulation of virulence factors. Here, we dissect the individual roles of these proteases by constructing and assessing the pathogenic potential of a combinatorial protease mutant library. When strains were constructed bearing increasing numbers of secreted proteases, we observed a variable impact on infectious capacity, where some exhibited hypervirulence, while others phenocopied the wild-type. The common thread for hypervirulent strains was that each lacked both aureolysin and staphopain A. Upon assessment, we found that the combined loss of these two enzymes alone was necessary and sufficient to engender hypervirulence. Using proteomics, we identified a number of important secreted factors, including SPIN, LukA, Sbi, SEK, and PSMα4, as well as an uncharacterized chitinase-related protein (SAUSA300_0964), to be overrepresented in both the aur scpA and the protease-null mutants. When assessing the virulence of aur scpA SAUSA300_0964 and aur scpA lukA mutants, we found that hypervirulence was completely eliminated, whereas aur scpA spn and aur scpA sek strains elicited aggressive infections akin to the protease double mutant. Collectively, our findings shed light on the influence of extracellular proteases in controlling the infectious process and identifies SAUSA300_0964 as an important new component of the S. aureus virulence factor arsenal.IMPORTANCE A key feature of the pathogenic success of S. aureus is the myriad virulence factors encoded within its genome. These are subject to multifactorial control, ensuring their timely production only within an intended infectious niche. A key node in this network of control is the secreted proteases of S. aureus, who specifically and selectively modulate virulence factor stability. In our previous work we demonstrated that deletion of all 10 secreted proteases results in hypervirulence, since virulence factors exist unchecked, leading to overly aggressive infections. Here, using a combinatorial collection of protease mutants, we reveal that deletion of aureolysin and staphopain A is necessary and sufficient to elicit hypervirulence. Using proteomic techniques, we identify the collection of virulence factors that accumulate in hypervirulent protease mutants, and demonstrate that a well-known toxin (LukA) and an entirely novel secreted element (SAUSA300_0964) are the leading contributors to deadly infections observed in protease-lacking strains.
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9
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Xu Z, Zhang C, Wang X, Liu D. Release Strategies of Silver Ions from Materials for Bacterial Killing. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2021; 4:3985-3999. [DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c01485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwen Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Research Center for Analytical Sciences, and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biosensing and Molecular Recognition, College of Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Cai Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Research Center for Analytical Sciences, and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biosensing and Molecular Recognition, College of Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Xiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Research Center for Analytical Sciences, and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biosensing and Molecular Recognition, College of Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Dingbin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Research Center for Analytical Sciences, and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biosensing and Molecular Recognition, College of Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
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10
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Ramirez AM, Beenken KE, Byrum SD, Tackett AJ, Shaw LN, Gimza BD, Smeltzer MS. SarA plays a predominant role in controlling the production of extracellular proteases in the diverse clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus LAC and UAMS-1. Virulence 2020; 11:1738-1762. [PMID: 33258416 PMCID: PMC7738309 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2020.1855923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Using DNA affinity chromatography we demonstrate that the S. aureus regulatory proteins MgrA, Rot, SarA, and SarS bind DNA baits derived from the promoter regions associated with the genes encoding aureolysin, ScpAB, SspABC, and SplA-F. Three of four baits also bound SarR and SarZ, the exception in both cases being the ScpAB-associated bait. Using the USA300, methicillin-resistant strain LAC and the USA200, methicillin-sensitive strain UAMS-1, we generated mutations in the genes encoding each of these proteins alone and in combination with sarA and examined the impact on protease production, the accumulation of high molecular weight proteins, and biofilm formation. These studies confirmed that multiple regulatory loci are involved in limiting protease production to a degree that impacts all of these phenotypes, but also demonstrate that sarA plays a predominant role in this regard. Using sarA mutants unable to produce individual proteases alone and in combination with each other, we also demonstrate that the increased production of aureolysin and ScpA is particularly important in defining the biofilm-deficient phenotype of LAC and UAMS-1 sarA mutants, while aureolysin alone plays a key role in defining the reduced accumulation of alpha toxin and overall cytotoxicity as assessed using both osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aura M. Ramirez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Karen E. Beenken
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Stephanie D. Byrum
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, and Arkansas Children’s Research Institute, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Alan J. Tackett
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, and Arkansas Children’s Research Institute, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Lindsey N. Shaw
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Brittney D. Gimza
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Mark S. Smeltzer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
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Zhang Y, Hu K, Xing X, Zhang J, Zhang MR, Ma X, Shi R, Zhang L. Smart Titanium Coating Composed of Antibiotic Conjugated Peptides as an Infection-Responsive Antibacterial Agent. Macromol Biosci 2020; 21:e2000194. [PMID: 33052007 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202000194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Antibacterial coating is rapidly emerging as a pivotal strategy for mitigating spread of bacterial pathogens. However, many challenges still need to be overcome in order to develop a smart coating that can achieve on-demand antibacterial effects. In this study, a Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) sensitive peptide sequence is designed, and an antibiotic is then conjugated with this tailor-made peptide. The antibiotic-peptide conjugate is then linked to the surface of a titanium implant, where the peptide can be recognized and cleaved by an enzyme secreted by S. aureus. This allows for the release of antibiotics in the presence of S. aureus, thus achieving delivery of an antibacterial specifically when an infection occurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunfei Zhang
- Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, 100029, P. R. China
| | - Kuan Hu
- Department of Advanced Nuclear Medicine Sciences, National Institute of Quantum Sciences and Technologies, Chiba, 263-8555, Japan
| | - Xuan Xing
- Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, 100029, P. R. China
| | - Jingshuang Zhang
- Institute of Traumatology and Orthopaedics, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing, 100035, P. R. China
| | - Ming-Rong Zhang
- Department of Advanced Nuclear Medicine Sciences, National Institute of Quantum Sciences and Technologies, Chiba, 263-8555, Japan
| | - Xiaohui Ma
- Department of Vascular Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Beijing, 100853, P. R. China
| | - Rui Shi
- Institute of Traumatology and Orthopaedics, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing, 100035, P. R. China
| | - Liqun Zhang
- Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, 100029, P. R. China
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Larrea-Alvarez M, Purton S. Multigenic engineering of the chloroplast genome in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2020; 166:510-515. [PMID: 32250732 PMCID: PMC7376270 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The chloroplast of microalgae such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii represents an attractive chassis for light-driven production of novel recombinant proteins and metabolites. Methods for the introduction and expression of transgenes in the chloroplast genome (=plastome) of C. reinhardtii are well-established and over 100 different proteins have been successfully produced. However, in almost all reported cases the complexity of the genetic engineering is low, and typically involves introduction into the plastome of just a single transgene together with a selectable marker. In order to exploit fully the potential of the algal chassis it is necessary to establish methods for multigenic engineering in which many transgenes can be stably incorporated into the plastome. This would allow the synthesis of multi-subunit proteins and the introduction into the chloroplast of whole new metabolic pathways. In this short communication we report a proof-of-concept study involving both a combinatorial and serial approach, with the goal of synthesizing five different test proteins in the C. reinhardtii chloroplast. Analysis of the various transgenic lines confirmed the successful integration of the transgenes and accumulation of the gene products. However, the work also highlights an issue of genetic instability when using the same untranslated region for each of the transgenes. Our findings therefore help to define appropriate strategies for robust multigenic engineering of the algal chloroplast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Larrea-Alvarez
- Algal Research Group, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
- Present address: School of Biological Sciences and Engineering. Yachay-Tech University Hacienda San José, Urcuquí-Imbabura, Ecuador
| | - Saul Purton
- Algal Research Group, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
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Zuo YM, Yan X, Xue J, Guo LY, Fang WW, Sun TC, Li M, Zha Z, Yu Q, Wang Y, Zhang M, Lu Y, Cao B, He T. Enzyme-Responsive Ag Nanoparticle Assemblies in Targeting Antibacterial against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:4333-4342. [PMID: 31935068 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b22001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The abuse of antibiotics resulted in the emergence of antibiotics-resistant bacteria, which has raised a great social concern together with the impetus to develop effective antibacterial materials. Herein, the synthesis of biocompatible enzyme-responsive Ag nanoparticle assemblies (ANAs) and their application in the high-efficiency targeted antimicrobial treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) have been demonstrated. The ANAs could collapse and undergo stable/collapsed transition on approaching MRSA because of the serine protease-like B enzyme proteins (SplB)-triggered decomposition of the branched copolymers which have been employed as the macrotemplate in the synthesis of responsive ANAs. This transition contributed greatly to the high targeting affinity and efficiency of ANAs to MRSA. The minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration against MRSA were 2.0 and 32.0 μg mL-1, respectively. Skin wound healing experiments confirmed that the responsive ANAs could serve as an effective wound dressing to accelerate the healing of MRSA infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Ming Zuo
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , Anhui 230009 , China
| | - Xu Yan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , Anhui 230009 , China
| | - Jingzhe Xue
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , Anhui 230009 , China
| | - Lu-Yin Guo
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , Anhui 230009 , China
| | - Wei-Wei Fang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , Anhui 230009 , China
| | - Tian-Ci Sun
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , Anhui 230009 , China
| | - Min Li
- Department of General Surgery , Anhui No. 2 Provincial People's Hospital , Hefei , Anhui 230041 , China
| | - Zhengbao Zha
- School of Food and Biological Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , Anhui 230009 , China
| | - Qilin Yu
- College of Chemistry, State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry , Nankai University , Tianjin 300071 , China
| | - Yongzhong Wang
- School of Life Science , Anhui University , Hefei , Anhui 230601 , China
| | - Min Zhang
- School of Life Science , Anhui University , Hefei , Anhui 230601 , China
| | - Yang Lu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , Anhui 230009 , China
| | - Baoqiang Cao
- Department of General Surgery , Anhui No. 2 Provincial People's Hospital , Hefei , Anhui 230041 , China
| | - Tao He
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , Anhui 230009 , China
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14
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Abstract
The complex regulatory role of the proteases necessitates very tight coordination and control of their expression. While this process has been well studied, a major oversight has been the consideration of proteases as a single entity rather than as 10 enzymes produced from four different promoters. As such, in this study, we comprehensively characterized the regulation of each protease promoter, discovering vast differences in the way each protease operon is controlled. Additionally, we broaden the picture of protease regulation using a global screen to identify novel loci controlling protease activity, uncovering a cadre of new effectors of protease expression. The impact of these elements on the activity of proteases and known regulators was characterized by producing a comprehensive regulatory circuit that emphasizes the complexity of protease regulation in Staphylococcus aureus. A primary function of the extracellular proteases of Staphylococcus aureus is to control the progression of infection by selectively modulating the stability of virulence factors. Consequently, a regulatory network exists to titrate protease abundance/activity to influence the accumulation, or lack thereof, of individual virulence factors. Herein, we comprehensively map this system, exploring the regulation of the four protease loci by known and novel factors. In so doing, we determined that seven major elements (SarS, SarR, Rot, MgrA, CodY, SaeR, and SarA) form the primary network of control, with the latter three being the most powerful. We note that expression of aureolysin is largely repressed by these factors, while the spl operon is subject to the strongest upregulation of any protease loci, particularly by SarR and SaeR. Furthermore, when exploring scpA expression, we find it to be profoundly influenced in opposing fashions by SarA (repressor) and SarR (activator). We also present the screening of >100 regulator mutants of S. aureus, identifying 7 additional factors (ArgR2, AtlR, MntR, Rex, XdrA, Rbf, and SarU) that form a secondary circuit of protease control. Primarily, these elements serve as activators, although we reveal XdrA as a new repressor of protease expression. With the exception or ArgR2, each of the new effectors appears to work through the primary network of regulation to influence protease production. Collectively, we present a comprehensive regulatory circuit that emphasizes the complexity of protease regulation and suggest that its existence speaks to the importance of these enzymes to S. aureus physiology and pathogenic potential. IMPORTANCE The complex regulatory role of the proteases necessitates very tight coordination and control of their expression. While this process has been well studied, a major oversight has been the consideration of proteases as a single entity rather than as 10 enzymes produced from four different promoters. As such, in this study, we comprehensively characterized the regulation of each protease promoter, discovering vast differences in the way each protease operon is controlled. Additionally, we broaden the picture of protease regulation using a global screen to identify novel loci controlling protease activity, uncovering a cadre of new effectors of protease expression. The impact of these elements on the activity of proteases and known regulators was characterized by producing a comprehensive regulatory circuit that emphasizes the complexity of protease regulation in Staphylococcus aureus.
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Tam K, Torres VJ. Staphylococcus aureus Secreted Toxins and Extracellular Enzymes. Microbiol Spectr 2019; 7:10.1128/microbiolspec.GPP3-0039-2018. [PMID: 30873936 PMCID: PMC6422052 DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.gpp3-0039-2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a formidable pathogen capable of causing infections in different sites of the body in a variety of vertebrate animals, including humans and livestock. A major contribution to the success of S. aureus as a pathogen is the plethora of virulence factors that manipulate the host's innate and adaptive immune responses. Many of these immune modulating virulence factors are secreted toxins, cofactors for activating host zymogens, and exoenzymes. Secreted toxins such as pore-forming toxins and superantigens are highly inflammatory and can cause leukocyte cell death by cytolysis and clonal deletion, respectively. Coagulases and staphylokinases are cofactors that hijack the host's coagulation system. Exoenzymes, including nucleases and proteases, cleave and inactivate various immune defense and surveillance molecules, such as complement factors, antimicrobial peptides, and surface receptors that are important for leukocyte chemotaxis. Additionally, some of these secreted toxins and exoenzymes can cause disruption of endothelial and epithelial barriers through cell lysis and cleavage of junction proteins. A unique feature when examining the repertoire of S. aureus secreted virulence factors is the apparent functional redundancy exhibited by the majority of the toxins and exoenzymes. However, closer examination of each virulence factor revealed that each has unique properties that have important functional consequences. This chapter provides a brief overview of our current understanding of the major secreted virulence factors critical for S. aureus pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayan Tam
- Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, Alexandria Center for Life Science, New York, NY 10016
| | - Victor J Torres
- Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, Alexandria Center for Life Science, New York, NY 10016
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16
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Sana B, Chee SMQ, Wongsantichon J, Raghavan S, Robinson RC, Ghadessy FJ. Development and structural characterization of an engineered multi-copper oxidase reporter of protein-protein interactions. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:7002-7012. [PMID: 30770473 PMCID: PMC6497955 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.007141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2018] [Revised: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein–protein interactions (PPIs) are ubiquitous in almost all biological processes and are often corrupted in diseased states. A detailed understanding of PPIs is therefore key to understanding cellular physiology and can yield attractive therapeutic targets. Here, we describe the development and structural characterization of novel Escherichia coli CueO multi-copper oxidase variants engineered to recapitulate protein–protein interactions with commensurate modulation of their enzymatic activities. The fully integrated single-protein sensors were developed through modular grafting of ligand-specific peptides into a highly compliant and flexible methionine-rich loop of CueO. Sensitive detection of diverse ligand classes exemplified by antibodies, an E3 ligase, MDM2 proto-oncogene (MDM2), and protease (SplB from Staphylococcus aureus) was achieved in a simple mix and measure homogeneous format with visually observable colorimetric readouts. Therapeutic antagonism of MDM2 by small molecules and peptides in clinical development for treatment of cancer patients was assayed using the MDM2-binding CueO enzyme. Structural characterization of the free and MDM2-bound CueO variant provided functional insight into signal-transducing mechanisms of the engineered enzymes and highlighted the robustness of CueO as a stable and compliant scaffold for multiple applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barindra Sana
- From the p53 Laboratory, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, Singapore 138648, Singapore
| | - Sharon M Q Chee
- From the p53 Laboratory, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, Singapore 138648, Singapore
| | - Jantana Wongsantichon
- the Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand, and.,the Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, A*STAR, 61 Biopolis Drive, Singapore 138673, Singapore
| | - Sarada Raghavan
- From the p53 Laboratory, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, Singapore 138648, Singapore
| | - Robert C Robinson
- the Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, A*STAR, 61 Biopolis Drive, Singapore 138673, Singapore
| | - Farid J Ghadessy
- From the p53 Laboratory, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, Singapore 138648, Singapore,
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Singh V, Phukan UJ. Interaction of host and Staphylococcus aureus protease-system regulates virulence and pathogenicity. Med Microbiol Immunol 2018; 208:585-607. [PMID: 30483863 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-018-0573-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus causes various health care- and community-associated infections as well as certain chronic TH2 driven inflammatory diseases. It is a potent pathogen with serious virulence and associated high morbidity. Severe pathogenicity is accredited to the S. aureus secreted virulence factors such as proteases and host protease modulators. These virulence factors promote adhesion and invasion of bacteria through damage of tight junction barrier and keratinocytes. They inhibit activation and transmigration of various immune cells such as neutrophils (and neutrophil proteases) to evade opsono-phagocytosis and intracellular bacterial killing. Additionally, they protect the bacteria from extracellular killing by disrupting integrity of extracellular matrix. Platelet activation and agglutination is also impaired by these factors. They also block the classical as well as alternative pathways of complement activation and assist in spread of infection through blood and tissue. As these factors are exquisite factors of S. aureus mediated disease development, we have focused on review of diversification of various protease-system associated virulence factors, their structural building, diverse role in disease development and available therapeutic counter measures. This review summarises the role of protease-associated virulence factors during invasion and progression of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vigyasa Singh
- Molecular Bioprospection Department, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, P.O. CIMAP, Lucknow, 226015, India
| | - Ujjal Jyoti Phukan
- School of Life Science, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India.
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18
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Belyi Y, Rybolovlev I, Polyakov N, Chernikova A, Tabakova I, Gintsburg A. Staphylococcus Aureus Surface Protein G is An Immunodominant Protein and a Possible Target in An Anti-Biofilm Drug Development. Open Microbiol J 2018; 12:94-106. [PMID: 29785216 PMCID: PMC5944129 DOI: 10.2174/1874285801812010094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Revised: 04/08/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive bacterium that causes severe illnesses in the human population. The capacity of S. aureus strains to form biofilms on biotic and abiotic surfaces creates serious problems for treatment of hospital infections and has stimulated efforts to develop new means of specific protection or immunotherapy. Material and Methods We found that rabbit serum raised against crude concentrated S. aureus liquid culture significantly decreased the development of staphylococcal biofilm in vitro. To discover the corresponding staphylococcal antigen, we used mass-spectrometry and molecular cloning and identified three major immunodominant proteins. They included α-haemolysin, serine proteinase SplB and S. aureus surface protein G, known as adhesin SasG. Results Although according to literature data, all these proteins represent virulence factors of S. aureus and play diverse and important roles in the pathogenesis of staphylococcal diseases, only SasG can be directly implicated into the biofilm formation because of its surface location on a staphylococcal cell. Indeed, rabbit serum directed against purified recombinant SasG, similar to serum against crude staphylococcal liquid culture, prevented the formation of a biofilm. Conclusion SasG can be considered as a target in an anti-biofilm drug development and a component of the vaccine or immunotherapeutic preparations directed against staphylococcal infections in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yury Belyi
- Gamaleya Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ivan Rybolovlev
- Gamaleya Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Moscow, Russia
| | - Nikita Polyakov
- Gamaleya Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Moscow, Russia.,Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Irina Tabakova
- Gamaleya Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Moscow, Russia
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20
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Murphy J, Ramezanpour M, Stach N, Dubin G, Psaltis AJ, Wormald PJ, Vreugde S. Staphylococcus Aureus V8 protease disrupts the integrity of the airway epithelial barrier and impairs IL-6 production in vitro. Laryngoscope 2017; 128:E8-E15. [PMID: 28994126 DOI: 10.1002/lary.26949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Revised: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) infection is known to contribute to the severity and recalcitrance of chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS), and its secreted products have been shown to alter the airway barrier. Extracellular proteases secreted by S. aureus are thought to be important in epithelial infection and immune evasion; however, their effect on airway mucosal barrier function is not known. METHODS To investigate the impact of extracellular proteases on airway epithelial integrity, the purified S. aureus proteases V8 protease, Staphopain A, Staphopain B, Exfoliative toxin A, and serine protease-like A-F were applied to human nasal epithelial cell air-liquid interface (HNEC-ALI) cultures. Transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), permeability (Papp) measurements, and immuno-localization of the tight junction proteins claudin-1 and ZO-1 were used to assess barrier integrity. Effects of the proteases on inflammation and cell viability were measured using interleukin-6 (IL-6) ELISA and a lactate dehydrogenase assay. RESULTS Application of V8 protease to HNEC-ALI cultures caused a significant concentration and time-dependent decrease in TEER (22.67%, P < 0.0001), a reciprocal Papp increase (20.14-fold, P < 0.05), and a discontinuous ZO-1 immuno-localization compared to control. IL-6 production was significantly reduced in V8 protease-treated cells (153.5 pg/mL, P = 0.0069) compared to control (548.3 pg/mL), whereas no difference in cell viability was observed. CONCLUSION S. aureus V8 protease causes dysfunction of mucosal barrier structure and function indicative of a leaky barrier. A reduction in IL-6 levels suggests that the mucosal immunity is impaired by this protease and thus has the potential to contribute to CRS recalcitrance. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE NA. Laryngoscope, 128:E8-E15, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae Murphy
- Department of Surgery-Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The University of Adelaide, Woodville South, SA, Australia
| | - Mahnaz Ramezanpour
- Department of Surgery-Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The University of Adelaide, Woodville South, SA, Australia
| | - Natalia Stach
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.,Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Dubin
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.,Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Alkis James Psaltis
- Department of Surgery-Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The University of Adelaide, Woodville South, SA, Australia
| | - Peter-John Wormald
- Department of Surgery-Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The University of Adelaide, Woodville South, SA, Australia
| | - Sarah Vreugde
- Department of Surgery-Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The University of Adelaide, Woodville South, SA, Australia
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Pietrocola G, Nobile G, Rindi S, Speziale P. Staphylococcus aureus Manipulates Innate Immunity through Own and Host-Expressed Proteases. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:166. [PMID: 28529927 PMCID: PMC5418230 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils, complement system and skin collectively represent the main elements of the innate immune system, the first line of defense of the host against many common microorganisms. Bacterial pathogens have evolved strategies to counteract all these defense activities. Specifically, Staphylococcus aureus, a major human pathogen, secretes a variety of immune evasion molecules including proteases, which cleave components of the innate immune system or disrupt the integrity of extracellular matrix and intercellular connections of tissues. Additionally, S. aureus secretes proteins that can activate host zymogens which, in turn, target specific defense components. Secreted proteins can also inhibit the anti-bacterial function of neutrophils or complement system proteases, potentiating S. aureus chances of survival. Here, we review the current understanding of these proteases and modulators of host proteases in the functioning of innate immunity and describe the importance of these mechanisms in the pathology of staphylococcal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giampiero Pietrocola
- Unit of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, University of PaviaPavia, Italy
| | - Giulia Nobile
- Unit of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, University of PaviaPavia, Italy
| | - Simonetta Rindi
- Unit of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, University of PaviaPavia, Italy
| | - Pietro Speziale
- Unit of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, University of PaviaPavia, Italy
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22
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Going native: Complete removal of protein purification affinity tags by simple modification of existing tags and proteases. Protein Expr Purif 2017; 129:18-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2016.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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The Spl Serine Proteases Modulate Staphylococcus aureus Protein Production and Virulence in a Rabbit Model of Pneumonia. mSphere 2016; 1:mSphere00208-16. [PMID: 27747296 PMCID: PMC5061998 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00208-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a versatile human pathogen that produces an array of virulence factors, including several proteases. Of these, six proteases called the Spls are the least characterized. Previous evidence suggests that the Spls are expressed during human infection; however, their function is unknown. Our study shows that the Spls are required for S. aureus to cause disseminated lung damage during pneumonia. Further, we present the first example of a human protein cut by an Spl protease. Although the Spls were predicted not to cut staphylococcal proteins, we also show that an spl mutant has altered abundance of both secreted and surface-associated proteins. This work provides novel insight into the function of Spls during infection and their potential ability to degrade both staphylococcal and human proteins. The Spl proteases are a group of six serine proteases that are encoded on the νSaβ pathogenicity island and are unique to Staphylococcus aureus. Despite their interesting biochemistry, their biological substrates and functions in virulence have been difficult to elucidate. We found that an spl operon mutant of the community-associated methicillin-resistant S. aureus USA300 strain LAC induced localized lung damage in a rabbit model of pneumonia, characterized by bronchopneumonia observed histologically. Disease in the mutant-infected rabbits was restricted in distribution compared to that in wild-type USA300-infected rabbits. We also found that SplA is able to cleave the mucin 16 glycoprotein from the surface of the CalU-3 lung cell line, suggesting a possible mechanism for wild-type USA300 spreading pneumonia to both lungs. Investigation of the secreted and surface proteomes of wild-type USA300 and the spl mutant revealed multiple alterations in metabolic proteins and virulence factors. This study demonstrates that the Spls modulate S. aureus physiology and virulence, identifies a human target of SplA, and suggests potential S. aureus targets of the Spl proteases. IMPORTANCEStaphylococcus aureus is a versatile human pathogen that produces an array of virulence factors, including several proteases. Of these, six proteases called the Spls are the least characterized. Previous evidence suggests that the Spls are expressed during human infection; however, their function is unknown. Our study shows that the Spls are required for S. aureus to cause disseminated lung damage during pneumonia. Further, we present the first example of a human protein cut by an Spl protease. Although the Spls were predicted not to cut staphylococcal proteins, we also show that an spl mutant has altered abundance of both secreted and surface-associated proteins. This work provides novel insight into the function of Spls during infection and their potential ability to degrade both staphylococcal and human proteins.
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24
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Stentzel S, Teufelberger A, Nordengrün M, Kolata J, Schmidt F, van Crombruggen K, Michalik S, Kumpfmüller J, Tischer S, Schweder T, Hecker M, Engelmann S, Völker U, Krysko O, Bachert C, Bröker BM. Staphylococcal serine protease-like proteins are pacemakers of allergic airway reactions to Staphylococcus aureus. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2016; 139:492-500.e8. [PMID: 27315768 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.03.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2015] [Revised: 02/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A substantial subgroup of asthmatic patients have "nonallergic" or idiopathic asthma, which often takes a severe course and is difficult to treat. The cause might be allergic reactions to the gram-positive pathogen Staphylococcus aureus, a frequent colonizer of the upper airways. However, the driving allergens of S aureus have remained elusive. OBJECTIVE We sought to search for potentially allergenic S aureus proteins and characterize the immune response directed against them. METHODS S aureus extracellular proteins targeted by human serum IgG4 were identified by means of immunoblotting to screen for potential bacterial allergens. Candidate antigens were expressed as recombinant proteins and used to analyze the established cellular and humoral immune responses in healthy adults and asthmatic patients. The ability to induce a type 2 immune response in vivo was tested in a mouse asthma model. RESULTS We identified staphylococcal serine protease-like proteins (Spls) as dominant IgG4-binding S aureus proteins. SplA through SplF are extracellular proteases of unknown function expressed by S aureus in vivo. Spls elicited IgE antibody responses in most asthmatic patients. In healthy S aureus carriers and noncarriers, peripheral blood T cells elaborated TH2 cytokines after stimulation with Spls, as is typical for allergens. In contrast, TH1/TH17 cytokines, which dominated the response to S aureus α-hemolysin, were of low concentration or absent. In mice inhalation of SplD without adjuvant induced lung inflammation characterized by TH2 cytokines and eosinophil infiltration. CONCLUSION We identify Spls as triggering allergens released by S aureus, opening prospects for diagnosis and causal therapy of asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Stentzel
- Department of Immunology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | | | - Maria Nordengrün
- Department of Immunology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Julia Kolata
- Department of Immunology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany; Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Frank Schmidt
- Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany; Junior Group Applied Proteomics, ZIK FunGene, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | | | - Stephan Michalik
- Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany; Junior Group Applied Proteomics, ZIK FunGene, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Jana Kumpfmüller
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Institute of Pharmacy, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany; Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, HKI, Jena, Germany
| | - Sebastian Tischer
- Department of Immunology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Thomas Schweder
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Institute of Pharmacy, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael Hecker
- Institute for Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Susanne Engelmann
- Institute for Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany; Institute for Microbiology, University of Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany; Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Microbial Proteomics, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Uwe Völker
- Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Olga Krysko
- Upper Airways Research Laboratory, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Claus Bachert
- Upper Airways Research Laboratory, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium; Division of Ear, Nose, and Throat Diseases, Clintec, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Barbara M Bröker
- Department of Immunology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.
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Pustelny K, Zdzalik M, Stach N, Stec-Niemczyk J, Cichon P, Czarna A, Popowicz G, Mak P, Drag M, Salvesen GS, Wladyka B, Potempa J, Dubin A, Dubin G. Staphylococcal SplB serine protease utilizes a novel molecular mechanism of activation. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:15544-53. [PMID: 24713703 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.507616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcal SplB protease belongs to the chymotrypsin family. Chymotrypsin zymogen is activated by proteolytic processing at the N terminus, resulting in significant structural rearrangement at the active site. Here, we demonstrate that the molecular mechanism of SplB protease activation differs significantly and we characterize the novel mechanism in detail. Using peptide and protein substrates we show that the native signal peptide, or any N-terminal extension, has an inhibitory effect on SplB. Only precise N-terminal processing releases the full proteolytic activity of the wild type analogously to chymotrypsin. However, comparison of the crystal structures of mature SplB and a zymogen mimic show no rearrangement at the active site whatsoever. Instead, only the formation of a unique hydrogen bond network, distant form the active site, by the new N-terminal glutamic acid of mature SplB is observed. The importance of this network and influence of particular hydrogen bond interactions at the N terminus on the catalytic process is demonstrated by evaluating the kinetics of a series of mutants. The results allow us to propose a consistent model where changes in the overall protein dynamics rather than structural rearrangement of the active site are involved in the activation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Pustelny
- From the Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30 387 Krakow, Poland, the Department of Cell Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30 387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Michal Zdzalik
- the Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30 387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Natalia Stach
- the Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30 387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Justyna Stec-Niemczyk
- From the Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30 387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Przemyslaw Cichon
- the Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30 387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Anna Czarna
- From the Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30 387 Krakow, Poland, the NMR Group, Max-Planck Institute for Biochemistry, 82 152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Grzegorz Popowicz
- the NMR Group, Max-Planck Institute for Biochemistry, 82 152 Martinsried, Germany, the Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Gesundheit und Umwelt, Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Pawel Mak
- From the Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30 387 Krakow, Poland, the Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, 30 387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Marcin Drag
- the Division of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Technology, 50 370 Wroclaw, Poland, the Program in Cell Death Research, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Guy S Salvesen
- the Program in Cell Death Research, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Benedykt Wladyka
- From the Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30 387 Krakow, Poland, the Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, 30 387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Jan Potempa
- the Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30 387 Krakow, Poland, the Center of Oral Health and Systemic Disease, School of Dentistry, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40202, and
| | - Adam Dubin
- From the Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30 387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Dubin
- the Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30 387 Krakow, Poland, the Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, 30 387 Krakow, Poland
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Zdzalik M, Kalinska M, Wysocka M, Stec-Niemczyk J, Cichon P, Stach N, Gruba N, Stennicke HR, Jabaiah A, Markiewicz M, Kedracka-Krok S, Wladyka B, Daugherty PS, Lesner A, Rolka K, Dubin A, Potempa J, Dubin G. Biochemical and structural characterization of SplD protease from Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76812. [PMID: 24130791 PMCID: PMC3793935 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 08/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a dangerous human pathogen. A number of the proteins secreted by this bacterium are implicated in its virulence, but many of the components of its secretome are poorly characterized. Strains of S. aureus can produce up to six homologous extracellular serine proteases grouped in a single spl operon. Although the SplA, SplB, and SplC proteases have been thoroughly characterized, the properties of the other three enzymes have not yet been investigated. Here, we describe the biochemical and structural characteristics of the SplD protease. The active enzyme was produced in an Escherichia coli recombinant system and purified to homogeneity. P1 substrate specificity was determined using a combinatorial library of synthetic peptide substrates showing exclusive preference for threonine, serine, leucine, isoleucine, alanine, and valine. To further determine the specificity of SplD, we used high-throughput synthetic peptide and cell surface protein display methods. The results not only confirmed SplD preference for a P1 residue, but also provided insight into the specificity of individual primed- and non-primed substrate-binding subsites. The analyses revealed a surprisingly narrow specificity of the protease, which recognized five consecutive residues (P4-P3-P2-P1-P1’) with a consensus motif of R-(Y/W)-(P/L)-(T/L/I/V)↓S. To understand the molecular basis of the strict substrate specificity, we crystallized the enzyme in two different conditions, and refined the structures at resolutions of 1.56 Å and 2.1 Å. Molecular modeling and mutagenesis studies allowed us to define a consensus model of substrate binding, and illustrated the molecular mechanism of protease specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Zdzalik
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Magdalena Kalinska
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | | | - Justyna Stec-Niemczyk
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Przemyslaw Cichon
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Natalia Stach
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Natalia Gruba
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | | | - Abeer Jabaiah
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, United States of America
| | - Michal Markiewicz
- Department of Computational Biophysics and Bioinformatics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Sylwia Kedracka-Krok
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Krakow, Poland
| | - Benedykt Wladyka
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Krakow, Poland
| | - Patrick S. Daugherty
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, United States of America
| | - Adam Lesner
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | | | - Adam Dubin
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Jan Potempa
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
- Center of Oral Health and Systemic Disease, School of Dentistry, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Grzegorz Dubin
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Krakow, Poland
- * E-mail:
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27
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Phosphonic analogues of glutamic acid as irreversible inhibitors of Staphylococcus aureus endoproteinase GluC: an efficient synthesis and inhibition of the human IgG degradation. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:1412-5. [PMID: 23357627 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.12.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 12/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Endoproteinase GluC (V8 protease) is one of many virulence factors released by the Staphylococcus aureus species in vivo. The V8 protease is able to hydrolyze some serpins and all classes of mammalian immunoglobulins. The application of specific and potent inhibitors of V8 protease may lead to the development of new antibacterial agents. Herein, we present the synthesis and the inhibitory properties of novel peptidyl derivatives of a phosphonic glutamic acid analogue. One of the compounds Boc-Phe-Leu-Glu(P)(OC(6)H(4))(2) displayed an apparent second-order inhibition rate value of 8540 M(-1)s(-1). The Boc-Phe-Leu-Glu(P)(OC(6)H(4))(2) compound with the highest inhibitory potency showed the ability to prevent V8-mediated human IgG proteolysis in vitro.
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28
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Zdzalik M, Karim AY, Wolski K, Buda P, Wojcik K, Brueggemann S, Wojciechowski P, Eick S, Calander AM, Jonsson IM, Kubica M, Polakowska K, Miedzobrodzki J, Wladyka B, Potempa J, Dubin G. Prevalence of genes encoding extracellular proteases inStaphylococcus aureus— important targets triggering immune responsein vivo. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 66:220-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.2012.01005.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2011] [Revised: 06/21/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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29
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Ewa B, Maciej W, Marcin S, Grzegorz D, Michał Z, Jan P, Józef O. The development of first Staphylococcus aureus SplB protease inhibitors: Phosphonic analogues of glutamine. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:5574-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Revised: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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30
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Laarman AJ, Mijnheer G, Mootz JM, van Rooijen WJM, Ruyken M, Malone CL, Heezius EC, Ward R, Milligan G, van Strijp JAG, de Haas CJC, Horswill AR, van Kessel KPM, Rooijakkers SHM. Staphylococcus aureus Staphopain A inhibits CXCR2-dependent neutrophil activation and chemotaxis. EMBO J 2012; 31:3607-19. [PMID: 22850671 PMCID: PMC3433787 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2012.212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2012] [Accepted: 07/11/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil activation and recruitment to the site of infection are critical for host immunity. In humans, the cysteine protease Staphopain A of the pathogen S. aureus blocks this process by cleaving the chemokine receptor CXCR2. The CXC chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2) on neutrophils, which recognizes chemokines produced at the site of infection, plays an important role in antimicrobial host defenses such as neutrophil activation and chemotaxis. Staphylococcus aureus is a successful human pathogen secreting a number of proteolytic enzymes, but their influence on the host immune system is not well understood. Here, we identify the cysteine protease Staphopain A as a chemokine receptor blocker. Neutrophils treated with Staphopain A are unresponsive to activation by all unique CXCR2 chemokines due to cleavage of the N-terminal domain, which can be neutralized by specific protease inhibitors. Moreover, Staphopain A inhibits neutrophil migration towards CXCR2 chemokines. By comparing a methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strain with an isogenic Staphopain A mutant, we demonstrate that Staphopain A is the only secreted protease with activity towards CXCR2. Although the inability to cleave murine CXCR2 limits in-vivo studies, our data indicate that Staphopain A is an important immunomodulatory protein that blocks neutrophil recruitment by specific cleavage of the N-terminal domain of human CXCR2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J Laarman
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Jabaiah A, Daugherty PS. Directed evolution of protease beacons that enable sensitive detection of endogenous MT1-MMP activity in tumor cell lines. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 18:392-401. [PMID: 21439484 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2010.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2010] [Revised: 11/24/2010] [Accepted: 12/10/2010] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Directed evolution was applied to identify peptide substrates with enhanced hydrolysis rates by MT1-MMP suitable for protease beacon development. Screening of a random pentapeptide library, using two-color CLiPS, yielded several substrates identical to motifs in distinct collagens that shared the consensus sequence P-x-G↓L. To identify substrates with enhanced cleavage rates, a second-generation decapeptide library incorporating the consensus was screened under stringent conditions, which resulted in a MxPLG↓(M)/(L)M(G)/(A)R consensus motif. These substrates are hydrolyzed by human-MT1-MMP up to six times faster than reported peptide substrates and are stable in plasma. Finally, incubation of soluble protease beacons incorporating the optimized substrates, but not previous substrates, enabled direct detection of endogenous MT1-MMP activity of human-fibrosarcoma (HT-1080) cells. Extended substrate libraries coupled with CLiPS should be useful to generate more effective activity probes for a variety of proteolytic enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abeer Jabaiah
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
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Boulware KT, Jabaiah A, Daugherty PS. Evolutionary optimization of peptide substrates for proteases that exhibit rapid hydrolysis kinetics. Biotechnol Bioeng 2010; 106:339-46. [PMID: 20148412 DOI: 10.1002/bit.22693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Protease cleavage site recognition motifs can be identified using protease substrate discovery methodologies, but typically exhibit non-optimal specificity and activity. To enable evolutionary optimization of substrate cleavage kinetics, a two-color cellular library of peptide substrates (CLiPS) methodology was developed. Two-color CLiPS was applied to identify peptide substrates for the tobacco etch virus (TEV) protease from a random pentapeptide library, which were then optimized by screening of a focused, extended substrate library. Quantitative library screening yielded seven amino acid substrates exhibiting rapid hydrolysis by TEV protease and high sequence similarity to the native seven-amino-acid substrate, with a strong consensus of EXLYPhiQG. Comparison of hydrolysis rates for a family of closely related substrates indicates that the native seven-residue TEV substrate co-evolved with TEV protease to facilitate highly efficient hydrolysis. Consensus motifs revealed by screening enabled database identification of a family of related, putative viral protease substrates. More generally, our results suggest that substrate evolution using CLiPS may be useful for optimizing substrate selectivity and activity to enable the design of more effective protease activity probes, molecular imaging agents, and prodrugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin T Boulware
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California-Santa Barbara, 93106, USA
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Structural and functional characterization of SplA, an exclusively specific protease of Staphylococcus aureus. Biochem J 2009; 419:555-64. [PMID: 19175361 DOI: 10.1042/bj20081351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a dangerous human pathogen whose antibiotic resistance is steadily increasing and no efficient vaccine is as yet available. This serious threat drives extensive studies on staphylococcal physiology and pathogenicity pathways, especially virulence factors. Spl (serine protease-like) proteins encoded by an operon containing up to six genes are a good example of poorly characterized secreted proteins probably involved in virulence. In the present study, we describe an efficient heterologous expression system for SplA and detailed biochemical and structural characterization of the recombinant SplA protease. The enzyme shares a significant sequence homology to V8 protease and epidermolytic toxins which are well documented staphylococcal virulence factors. SplA has a very narrow substrate specificity apparently imposed by the precise recognition of three amino acid residues positioned N-terminal to the hydrolysed peptide bond. To explain determinants of this extended specificity we resolve the crystal structure of SplA and define the consensus model of substrate binding. Furthermore we demonstrate that artificial N-terminal elongation of mature SplA mimicking a naturally present signal peptide abolishes enzymatic activity. The probable physiological role of the process is discussed. Of interest, even though precise N-terminal trimming is a common regulatory mechanism among S1 family enzymes, the crystal structure of SplA reveals novel significantly different mechanistic details.
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34
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Tsang LH, Cassat JE, Shaw LN, Beenken KE, Smeltzer MS. Factors contributing to the biofilm-deficient phenotype of Staphylococcus aureus sarA mutants. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3361. [PMID: 18846215 PMCID: PMC2556392 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2008] [Accepted: 09/16/2008] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutation of sarA in Staphylococcus aureus results in a reduced capacity to form a biofilm, but the mechanistic basis for this remains unknown. Previous transcriptional profiling experiments identified a number of genes that are differentially expressed both in a biofilm and in a sarA mutant. This included genes involved in acid tolerance and the production of nucleolytic and proteolytic exoenzymes. Based on this we generated mutations in alsSD, nuc and sspA in the S. aureus clinical isolate UAMS-1 and its isogenic sarA mutant and assessed the impact on biofilm formation. Because expression of alsSD was increased in a biofilm but decreased in a sarA mutant, we also generated a plasmid construct that allowed expression of alsSD in a sarA mutant. Mutation of alsSD limited biofilm formation, but not to the degree observed with the corresponding sarA mutant, and restoration of alsSD expression did not restore the ability to form a biofilm. In contrast, concomitant mutation of sarA and nuc significantly enhanced biofilm formation by comparison to the sarA mutant. Although mutation of sspA had no significant impact on the ability of a sarA mutant to form a biofilm, a combination of protease inhibitors (E-64, 1-10-phenanthroline, and dichloroisocoumarin) that was shown to inhibit the production of multiple extracellular proteases without inhibiting growth was also shown to enhance the ability of a sarA mutant to form a biofilm. This effect was evident only when all three inhibitors were used concurrently. This suggests that the reduced capacity of a sarA mutant to form a biofilm involves extracellular proteases of all three classes (serine, cysteine and metalloproteases). Inclusion of protease inhibitors also enhanced biofilm formation in a sarA/nuc mutant, with the combined effect of mutating nuc and adding protease inhibitors resulting in a level of biofilm formation with the sarA mutant that approached that of the UAMS-1 parent strain. These results demonstrate that the inability of a sarA mutant to repress production of extracellular nuclease and multiple proteases have independent but cumulative effects that make a significant contribution to the biofilm-deficient phenotype of an S. aureus sarA mutant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura H. Tsang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - James E. Cassat
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - Lindsey N. Shaw
- Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Karen E. Beenken
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - Mark S. Smeltzer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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