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Vanuopadath M, Rajan K, Alangode A, Nair SS, Nair BG. The Need for Next-Generation Antivenom for Snakebite Envenomation in India. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:510. [PMID: 37624267 PMCID: PMC10467155 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15080510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The limitations posed by currently available antivenoms have emphasized the need for alternative treatments to counteract snakebite envenomation. Even though exact epidemiological data are lacking, reports have indicated that most global snakebite deaths are reported in India. Among the many problems associated with snakebite envenomation, issues related to the availability of safer and more efficient antivenoms are of primary concern. Since India has the highest number of global snakebite deaths, efforts should be made to reduce the burden associated with snakebite envenoming. Alternative methods, including aptamers, camel antivenoms, phage display techniques for generating high-affinity antibodies and antibody fragments, small-molecule inhibitors, and natural products, are currently being investigated for their effectiveness. These alternative methods have shown promise in vitro, but their in vivo effectiveness should also be evaluated. In this review, the issues associated with Indian polyvalent antivenoms in neutralizing venom components from geographically distant species are discussed in detail. In a nutshell, this review gives an overview of the current drawbacks of using animal-derived antivenoms and several alternative strategies that are currently being widely explored.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Bipin Gopalakrishnan Nair
- School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690 525, Kerala, India; (M.V.); (K.R.); (A.A.); (S.S.N.)
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Soopairin S, Patikorn C, Taychakhoonavudh S. Antivenom preclinical efficacy testing against Asian snakes and their availability in Asia: A systematic review. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0288723. [PMID: 37467278 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cross-neutralizing strategy has been applied to improve access to antivenoms, a key to reducing mortality and disability of snakebite envenoming. However, preclinical studies have been conducted to identify antivenoms' cross-neutralizing ability when clinical studies may not be considered ethical. Therefore, this study aimed to identify and summarize scattered evidence regarding the preclinical efficacy of antivenoms against Asian snakes. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPLE FINDINGS In this systematic review, we searched for articles published until May 30, 2022, in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase. Preclinical studies that reported the available antivenoms' neutralizing ability against Asian snake lethality were included. Quality assessment was performed using the Systematic Review Centre for Laboratory animal Experimentation's risk of bias tool and the adapted the Animal Research Reporting In Vivo Experiments guidelines. The availability of effective antivenoms against Asian snakes was analyzed by comparing data from included studies with snakebite-information and data platforms developed by the World Health Organization. Fifty-two studies were included. Most studies assessed the antivenom efficacy against snakes from Southeast Asia (58%), followed by South Asia (35%) and East Asia (19%). Twenty-two (49%) medically important snakes had antivenom(s) with confirmed neutralizing ability. Situation analyses of the availability of effective antivenoms in Asia demonstrated that locally produced antivenoms did not cover all medically important snakes in each country. Among countries without local antivenom production, preclinical studies were conducted only in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia. Risk of bias assessment was limited in some domains because of unreported data. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Cross-neutralizing of antivenoms against some medically important snakes in Asia was confirmed. This strategy may improve access to geographically effective antivenoms and bypass investment in novel antivenom development, especially in countries without local antivenom production. A database should be developed to aid the development of a snakebite-information system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sutinee Soopairin
- Department of Social and Administrative Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Chanthawat Patikorn
- Department of Social and Administrative Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Suthira Taychakhoonavudh
- Department of Social and Administrative Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
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3
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Liu CC, Chou YS, Wu CJ, Hsieh CH, Hsiao YC, Chu LJ, Ouyang CH, Lin CC, Liaw GW, Chen CK. Detection of cytotoxins by sandwich-ELISA for discrimination of cobra envenomation and indication of necrotic severity. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 242:124969. [PMID: 37210050 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Snake envenoming is both a healthcare and socioeconomic problem for developing countries and underserved communities. In Taiwan, clinical management of Naja atra envenomation is a major challenge, since cobra venom-induced symptoms are usually confused with hemorrhagic snakebites and current antivenom treatments do not effectively prevent venom-induced necrosis for which early surgical debridement should be administered. Identification and validation of biomarkers of cobra envenomation is critical for progress in setting a realistic goal for snakebite management in Taiwan. Previously, cytotoxin (CTX) was determined as one of potential biomarker candidates; however, its ability to discriminate cobra envenoming remains to be verified, especially in clinical practice. In this study, we selected a monoclonal single-chain variable fragment (scFv) and a polyclonal antibody to develop a sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for CTX detection, which successfully recognized CTX from N. atra venom over that from other snake species. Using this specific assay, the CTX concentration in envenoming mice was shown to remain consistent in about 150 ng/mL during the 2-hour post-injection period. The measured concentration was highly correlated with the size of local necrosis in mouse dorsal skin, which the correlation coefficient is about 0.988. Furthermore, our ELISA method displayed 100 % of specificity and sensitivity in discriminating cobra envenoming among snakebite victims through CTX detection and the level of CTX in victim plasma was ranged from 5.8 to 253.9 ng/mL. Additionally, patients developed tissue necrosis at plasma CTX concentrations higher than 150 ng/mL. Thus, CTX not only serves as a verified biomarker for discrimination of cobra envenoming but also a potential indicator of severity of local necrosis. In this context, detection of CTX may facilitate reliable identification of envenoming species and improve snakebite management in Taiwan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Chun Liu
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Shao Chou
- Department of Emergency Medicine, En Chu Kong Hospital, New Taipei City 23741, Taiwan
| | - Cho-Ju Wu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Hsien Hsieh
- Department of Emergency Medicine, En Chu Kong Hospital, New Taipei City 23741, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11042, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Chin Hsiao
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Lichieh Julie Chu
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Hsiang Ouyang
- Department of Trauma and Emergency Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan; College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Chuan Lin
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan
| | - Geng-Wang Liaw
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Yeezen General Hospital, Taoyuan 32645, Taiwan.
| | - Chun-Kuei Chen
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan; College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan.
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4
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Gopal G, Muralidar S, Prakash D, Kamalakkannan A, Indhuprakash ST, Thirumalai D, Ambi SV. The concept of Big Four: Road map from snakebite epidemiology to antivenom efficacy. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 242:124771. [PMID: 37169043 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Snake envenomation is a life-threatening disease caused by the injection of venom toxins from the venomous snake bite. Snakebite is often defined as the occupational or domestic hazard mostly affecting the rural population. India experiences a high number of envenoming cases and fatality due to the nation's diversity in inhabiting venomous snakes. The Indian Big Four snakes namely Russell's viper (Daboia russelii), spectacled cobra (Naja naja), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), and saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus) are responsible for majority of the snake envenoming cases and death. The demographic characteristics including occupation, stringent snake habitat management, poor healthcare facilities and ignorance of the rural victims are the primary influencers of high mortality. Biogeographic venom variation greatly influences the clinical pathologies of snake envenomation. The current antivenoms against the Big Four snakes are found to be less immunogenic against the venom toxins emphasizing the necessity of alternative approaches for antivenom generation. This review summarizes the burden of snake envenomation in India by the Big Four snakes including the geographic distribution of snake species and biogeographic venom variation. We have provided comprehensive information on snake venom proteomics that has aided the better understanding of venom induced pathological features, summarized the impact of current polyvalent antivenom therapy highlighting the need for potential antivenom treatment for the effective management of snakebites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayathri Gopal
- Biopharmaceutical Research Lab, Anusandhan Kendra-1, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India; School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Shibi Muralidar
- Biopharmaceutical Research Lab, Anusandhan Kendra-1, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India; School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Diwahar Prakash
- Biopharmaceutical Research Lab, Anusandhan Kendra-1, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India; School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Abishek Kamalakkannan
- Biopharmaceutical Research Lab, Anusandhan Kendra-1, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India; School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Srichandrasekar Thuthikkadu Indhuprakash
- Biopharmaceutical Research Lab, Anusandhan Kendra-1, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India; School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Diraviyam Thirumalai
- Biopharmaceutical Research Lab, Anusandhan Kendra-1, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India; School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Senthil Visaga Ambi
- Biopharmaceutical Research Lab, Anusandhan Kendra-1, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India; School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India.
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5
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Lim ASS, Tan KY, Quraishi NH, Farooque S, Khoso ZA, Ratanabanangkoon K, Tan CH. Proteomic Analysis, Immuno-Specificity and Neutralization Efficacy of Pakistani Viper Antivenom (PVAV), a Bivalent Anti-Viperid Antivenom Produced in Pakistan. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15040265. [PMID: 37104203 PMCID: PMC10145215 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15040265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease prevalent in South Asia. In Pakistan, antivenoms are commonly imported from India despite the controversy over their effectiveness. To solve the problem, the locals have developed the Pakistani Viper Antivenom (PVAV), raised against Sochurek’s Saw-scaled Viper (Echis carinatus sochureki) and Russell’s Viper (Daboia russelii) of Pakistani origin. This study is set to evaluate the composition purity, immuno-specificity and neutralization efficacy of PVAV. Chromatographic and electrophoretic profiling coupled with proteomic mass spectrometry analysis showed PVAV containing high-purity immunoglobulin G with minimum impurities, notably the absence of serum albumin. PVAV is highly immuno-specific toward the venoms of the two vipers and Echis carinatus multisquamatus, which are indigenous to Pakistan. Its immunoreactivity, however, reduces toward the venoms of other Echis carinatus subspecies and D. russelii from South India as well as Sri Lanka. Meanwhile, its non-specific binding activities for the venoms of Hump-nosed Pit Vipers, Indian Cobras and kraits were extremely low. In the neutralization study, PVAV effectively mitigated the hemotoxic and lethal effects of the Pakistani viper venoms, tested in vitro and in vivo. Together, the findings suggest the potential utility of PVAV as a new domestic antivenom for the treatment of viperid envenoming in Pakistan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy Shing Seng Lim
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Naeem H. Quraishi
- Snake Antivenom/Antirabies Serology Laboratory, Department of Community Medicine & Public Health Sciences, People’s University of Medical and Health Sciences for Women, Nawabshah 67450, Pakistan
| | - Saud Farooque
- Snake Antivenom/Antirabies Serology Laboratory, Department of Community Medicine & Public Health Sciences, People’s University of Medical and Health Sciences for Women, Nawabshah 67450, Pakistan
| | - Zahoor Ahmed Khoso
- Snake Antivenom/Antirabies Serology Laboratory, Department of Community Medicine & Public Health Sciences, People’s University of Medical and Health Sciences for Women, Nawabshah 67450, Pakistan
| | - Kavi Ratanabanangkoon
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 73170, Thailand
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
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Alam MJ, Maruf M, Iqbal MA, Hasan M, Sohan MS, Shariar MR, Haidar IKA, Chowdhury MAW, Ghose A, Hoque KMF, Reza MA. Evaluation of the properties of Bungarus caeruleus venom and checking the efficacy of antivenom used in Bangladesh for its bite treatment. Toxicon X 2023; 17:100149. [PMID: 36654657 PMCID: PMC9841277 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2023.100149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
As a disaster-prone country with unique geographical features, snake biting is a major public health concern in Bangladesh. The primary reasons of mortality from snakebite include late presentation to the hospital, low efficacy of antivenom, and a lack of adequate management facilities. Because snake venom characteristics vary depending on geographical location, antivenom should be manufactured from snakes native to the region in which it would be administered. Bungarus caeruleus is a highly venomous snake contributing to the major snakebite issue in Bangladesh. Therefore, the neutralization efficacy of the antivenom against B. caeruleus venom was evaluated in the current study along with the characterization of venom. For biological characterization of venom, RP-HPLC and SDS-PAGE profiling, hemolytic activity, hemorrhagic activity, phospholipases A2 (PLA2) activity, edema inducing activity and histopathological observations were carried out following standard protocol. LD50 of the venom was calculated along with neutralization potency of Incepta antivenom through probit analysis. Results showed that venom possesses phospholipase A2 activity, hemolytic activity and edema inducing activity while hemorrhagic activity was absent in the skin of envenomed mice. Histopathological alterations including necrosis, congestion and infiltrations were observed in envenomed mice organs after hematoxylin and eosin staining. Neutralization study showed that Incepta polyvalent antivenom could neutralize (potency 0.53 mg/ml) the lethal effect in in vitro study on mice. Further investigation on snakebite epidemiology and clinical observations of the envenomed patients will help in combating the snakebite problem more efficiently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Jahangir Alam
- Molecular Biology and Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, 6205, Bangladesh
| | - Md.Mahmudul.Hasan Maruf
- Molecular Biology and Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, 6205, Bangladesh
| | - Md Asif Iqbal
- Molecular Biology and Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, 6205, Bangladesh
| | - Mahedi Hasan
- Molecular Biology and Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, 6205, Bangladesh
| | - Md Sohanur.Rahman Sohan
- Molecular Biology and Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, 6205, Bangladesh
| | - Md Ragib Shariar
- Molecular Biology and Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, 6205, Bangladesh
| | - Ibrahim Khalil Al Haidar
- Venom Research Centre, Chittagong Medical College, Chattogram, 4203, Bangladesh,Department of Zoology, University of Chittagong, Chattogram, 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammad Abdul Wahed Chowdhury
- Venom Research Centre, Chittagong Medical College, Chattogram, 4203, Bangladesh,Department of Zoology, University of Chittagong, Chattogram, 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Aniruddha Ghose
- Venom Research Centre, Chittagong Medical College, Chattogram, 4203, Bangladesh,Department of Medicine, Chittagong Medical College, Chattogram, 4203, Bangladesh
| | - Kazi Md Faisal Hoque
- Molecular Biology and Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, 6205, Bangladesh
| | - Md Abu Reza
- Molecular Biology and Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, 6205, Bangladesh,Corresponding author.
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Tan CH, Wong KY, Huang LK, Tan KY, Tan NH, Wu WG. Snake Venomics and Antivenomics of Cape Cobra ( Naja nivea) from South Africa: Insights into Venom Toxicity and Cross-Neutralization Activity. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120860. [PMID: 36548757 PMCID: PMC9783313 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Naja nivea (Cape Cobra) is endemic to southern Africa. Envenoming by N. nivea is neurotoxic, resulting in fatal paralysis. Its venom composition, however, has not been studied in depth, and specific antivenoms against it remain limited in supply. Applying a protein decomplexation approach, this study unveiled the venom proteome of N. nivea from South Africa. The major components in the venom are cytotoxins/cardiotoxins (~75.6% of total venom proteins) and alpha-neurotoxins (~7.4%), which belong to the three-finger toxin family. Intriguingly, phospholipase A2 (PLA2) was undetected-this is a unique venom phenotype increasingly recognized in the African cobras of the Uraeus subgenus. The work further showed that VINS African Polyvalent Antivenom (VAPAV) exhibited cross-reactivity toward the venom and immunorecognized its toxin fractions. In mice, VAPAV was moderately efficacious in cross-neutralizing the venom lethality with a potency of 0.51 mg/mL (amount of venom completely neutralized per milliliter of antivenom). In the challenge-rescue model, VAPAV prevented death in 75% of experimentally envenomed mice, with slow recovery from neurotoxicity up to 24 h. The finding suggests the potential para-specific utility of VAPAV for N. nivea envenoming, although a higher dose or repeated administration of the antivenom may be required to fully reverse the neurotoxic effect of the venom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
- Correspondence: or
| | - Kin Ying Wong
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
| | - Li-Kun Huang
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Wen-Guey Wu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
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Bibliometric Analysis of Literature in Snake Venom-Related Research Worldwide (1933–2022). Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12162058. [PMID: 36009648 PMCID: PMC9405337 DOI: 10.3390/ani12162058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Around the world, snake envenomation poses a serious health risk. Proteins with pharmacological effects are present in snake venom. Recent studies elaborate snake venom and its potential application, including as a cancer drug and antibacterial substances. Our study aimed to analyze the global profile of the literature in snake venom research from documents indexed in the Scopus database between 1933 and 2022. In total, 2999 documents were published with Brazil showing the highest productivity. Antivenom, proteomics, and transcriptomics are emerging as hot topics on a global scale. The present study offers a distinctive overview of snake venom research conducted worldwide. Abstract Snake envenomation is a severe economic and health concern affecting countries worldwide. Snake venom carries a wide variety of small peptides and proteins with various immunological and pharmacological properties. A few key research areas related to snake venom, including its applications in treating cancer and eradicating antibiotic-resistant bacteria, have been gaining significant attention in recent years. The goal of the current study was to analyze the global profile of literature in snake venom research. This study presents a bibliometric review of snake venom-related research documents indexed in the Scopus database between 1933 and 2022. The overall number of documents published on a global scale was 2999, with an average annual production of 34 documents. Brazil produced the highest number of documents (n = 729), followed by the United States (n = 548), Australia (n = 240), and Costa Rica (n = 235). Since 1963, the number of publications has been steadily increasing globally. At a worldwide level, antivenom, proteomics, and transcriptomics are growing hot issues for research in this field. The current research provides a unique overview of snake venom research at global level from 1933 through 2022, and it may be beneficial in guiding future research.
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Tan KY, Shamsuddin NN, Tan CH. Sharp-nosed Pit Viper (Deinagkistrodon acutus) from Taiwan and China: A comparative study on venom toxicity and neutralization by two specific antivenoms across the Strait. Acta Trop 2022; 232:106495. [PMID: 35504314 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
In East Asia, the Sharp-nosed Pit Viper (Deinagkistrodon acutus) is a medically important venomous snake in Taiwan and China, two geographical areas long separated by the Taiwan Strait. Yet, snake venom variation is little known between specimens found across the Strait. This study thus investigated the intra-species variation of D. acutus venoms from Taiwan (Da-Taiwan) and China (Da-China) in their profiles of gel electrophoresis, toxicity, immunoreactivity and neutralization effect by antivenom. Da-China venom exhibited higher procoagulant, hemorrhagic and lethal activities than Da-Taiwan venom, presumably attributed to the higher abundance of moderate-to-high molecular weight toxins (procoagulants and hemorrhagins) in the venom. The mono-specific antivenoms produced in Taiwan (DaMAV-Taiwan) and China (DaMAV-China) were immunoreactive toward both venoms, and were able to neutralize the venom toxicity to different extents. DaMAV-Taiwan was more efficacious in neutralizing the venom procoagulant and lethal effects, while DaMAV-China was more potent against hemorrhagic effect. The discrepancy in efficacy between the two antivenoms could be due to varying proportions of neutralizing antibodies in the respective products, influenced by techniques of antibody raising and purification. Further study is warranted to elucidate variation in the proteome and antigenicity of D. acutus venom between snakes from Taiwan and China.
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10
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Ong HL, Tan CH, Lee LP, Khor SM, Tan KY. An immunodetection assay developed using cobra cytotoxin-specific antibodies: Potential diagnostics for cobra envenoming. Toxicon 2022; 216:157-168. [PMID: 35868411 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Cobra (Naja spp.) envenoming is a life-threatening medical emergency, and a correct diagnosis is crucial to initiating timely and appropriate antivenom treatment. However, snakebite diagnostics remain unavailable in Southeast Asia. This study, therefore, developed an immunodetection assay with a potential diagnostic application for cobra envenoming. The cytotoxin of Naja kaouthia (Thai Monocled Cobra) (Nk-CTX) was purified from its venom to produce CTX-specific antibodies in rabbits and chickens. A double-antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was developed using the purified anti-Nk-CTX antibodies (immunoglobulin G and immunoglobulin Y), and its selectivity, specificity, and sensitivity for the venoms of five major cobra species in Southeast Asia (N. kaouthia, Naja sumatrana, Naja sputatrix, and Naja siamensis, Naja philippinensis) were studied. The results showed the immunoassay discriminates cobra venoms from other species commonly implicated in snakebites in Southeast Asia, i.e., the Malayan Krait, Many-banded Krait, King Cobra, Eastern Russell's Viper, Malayan Pit Viper and White-lipped Pit Viper. The immunoassay has a high sensitivity for the five cobra venoms, with detection limits (LoD) ranging from 0.6 to 2.6 ng/ml. Together, the findings suggest the potential diagnostic application of the cytotoxin immunoassay for cobra envenoming. The immunoassay was found to exhibit high immunoreactivity toward ten Asiatic cobra venoms (absorbance>1.5), in contrast to African cobra venoms with low immunoreactivity (absorbance<0.9). Considering the varying CTX antigenicity between Asiatic and African cobras, the immunoassay for African cobras should utilize antibodies produced specifically from the cytotoxins of African cobra venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Ling Ong
- Protein and Interactomics Lab, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Lab, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Louisa Pernee Lee
- Venom Research and Toxicology Lab, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Sook Mei Khor
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Lab, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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11
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On characterizing the Red-headed Krait (Bungarus flaviceps) venom: Decomplexation proteomics, immunoreactivity and toxicity cross-neutralization by hetero-specific antivenoms. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. PART D, GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2022; 43:101006. [PMID: 35717758 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2022.101006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The Red-headed Krait (Bungarus flaviceps) is a medically important venomous snake species in Southeast Asia, while there is no specific antivenom available for its envenoming. This study investigated the venom composition through a decomplexation proteomic approach, and examined the immunoreactivity as well as cross-neutralization efficacy of two hetero-specific krait antivenoms, Bungarus candidus Monovalent Antivenom (BcMAV) and Bungarus fasciatus Monovalent Antivenom (BfMAV), against the venom of B. flaviceps from Peninsular Malaysia. A total of 43 non-redundant proteoforms belonging to 10 toxin families were identified in the venom proteome, which is dominated by phospholipases A2 including beta-bungarotoxin lethal subunit (56.20 % of total venom proteins), Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitors (19.40 %), metalloproteinases (12.85 %) and three-finger toxins (7.73 %). The proteome varied in quantitative aspect from the earlier reported Indonesian (Sumatran) sample, suggesting geographical venom variation. BcMAV and BfMAV were immunoreactive toward the B. flaviceps venom, with BcMAV being more efficacious in immunological binding. Both antivenoms cross-neutralized the venom lethality with varying efficacy, where BcMAV was more potent than BfMAV by ~13 times (normalized potency: 38.04 mg/g vs. 2.73 mg/g, defined as the venom amount completely neutralized by one-gram antivenom protein), supporting the potential utility of BcMAV for para-specific neutralization against B. flaviceps venom.
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12
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Varespladib (LY315920) rescued mice from fatal neurotoxicity caused by venoms of five major Asiatic kraits (Bungarus spp.) in an experimental envenoming and rescue model. Acta Trop 2022; 227:106289. [PMID: 34929179 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2021.106289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The venoms of Asiatic kraits (Bungarus spp.) contain various neurotoxic phospholipases A2 (beta-bungarotoxins) which can irreversibly damage motor nerve terminals, resulting in rapidly fatal suffocation by respiratory muscle paralysis or oral airway obstruction. Hence, there is a need of adjunct therapy at the pre-hospital stage to prevent or delay the onset of neurotoxicity, so that antivenom can be given within golden hour before the envenoming becomes antivenom-resistant. This study investigated the efficacy of varespladib, a small molecule PLA2 (phospholipase A2) inhibitor, given as a bolus subcutaneously upon the onset of krait venom-induced paralysis in a mouse experimental envenoming and rescue model, where the severity of neurotoxicity was scored and the survival rate was monitored over 24 h. Varespladib at 10 mg/kg effectively alleviated the neurotoxicity of Bungarus sindanus, Bungarus multicinctus and Bungarus fasciatus venoms, and rescued all mice from venom-induced lethality (100% survival). Varespladib at this dose, however, only partially reduced the neurotoxicity of Bungarus caeruleus and Bungarus candidus venoms, while all challenged mice were dead by 23 h (B. caeruleus) and 12 h (B. candidus). An increased dose of varespladib at 20 mg/kg markedly abated the venom neurotoxicity past 8 h of envenoming, and protected the mice from venom lethality (B. caeruleus: 75% survival; B. candidus: 100% survival). The finding is consistent with previous studies which demonstrated varespladib's inhibitory effect against some snake venoms. The findings suggest varespladib could be repurposed as an emergency drug for prevention or rescue (if given early enough) from the acute, neurotoxic envenoming syndromes caused by various major krait species in Asia.
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13
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Attarde S, Iyer A, Khochare S, Shaligram U, Vikharankar M, Sunagar K. The Preclinical Evaluation of a Second-Generation Antivenom for Treating Snake Envenoming in India. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14030168. [PMID: 35324665 PMCID: PMC8950585 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake envenoming afflicts the Indian subcontinent with the highest rates of mortality (47,000) and morbidity globally. The only effective treatment for snakebites is the administration of antivenom, which is produced by the hyperimmunisation of equines. Commercial Indian antivenoms, however, have been shown to exhibit a poor preclinical performance in neutralising venom, as a result of inter- and intrapopulation snake venom variation. Additionally, their poor dose effectiveness necessitates the administration of larger volumes of antivenom for treatment, leading to several harmful side effects in snakebite victims, including serum sickness and fatal anaphylaxis. In this study, we employed chromatographic purification to enhance the dose efficacy of commercial Indian antivenoms. The efficacy of this ‘second-generation’ antivenom was comparatively evaluated against six other marketed antivenoms using a number of in vitro and in vivo preclinical assays, which revealed its superior venom recognition capability. Enhanced purity also resulted in significant improvements in dose effectiveness, as the ‘second-generation’ antivenom exhibited a 3 to 4.5 times increased venom neutralisation potential. Furthermore, preclinical assays revealed the increased effectiveness of the ‘second-generation’ antivenom in countering morbid effects inflicted by the ‘big four’ Indian snakes. Thus, we demonstrate the role of simpler purification steps in significantly enhancing the effectiveness of snakebite therapy in regions that are most affected by snakebites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saurabh Attarde
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India; (S.A.); (A.I.); (S.K.)
| | - Ashwin Iyer
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India; (S.A.); (A.I.); (S.K.)
| | - Suyog Khochare
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India; (S.A.); (A.I.); (S.K.)
| | - Umesh Shaligram
- Serum Institute of India Pvt. Ltd., 212/2, Hadapsar, Off Soli Poonawalla Road, Pune 411028, Maharashtra, India; (U.S.); (M.V.)
| | - Mayur Vikharankar
- Serum Institute of India Pvt. Ltd., 212/2, Hadapsar, Off Soli Poonawalla Road, Pune 411028, Maharashtra, India; (U.S.); (M.V.)
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India; (S.A.); (A.I.); (S.K.)
- Correspondence:
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14
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Palasuberniam P, Chan YW, Tan KY, Tan CH. Snake Venom Proteomics of Samar Cobra (Naja samarensis) from the Southern Philippines: Short Alpha-Neurotoxins as the Dominant Lethal Component Weakly Cross-Neutralized by the Philippine Cobra Antivenom. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:727756. [PMID: 35002690 PMCID: PMC8740184 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.727756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The Samar Cobra, Naja samarensis, is endemic to the southern Philippines and is a WHO-listed Category 1 venomous snake species of medical importance. Envenomation caused by N. samarensis results in neurotoxicity, while there is no species-specific antivenom available for its treatment. The composition and neutralization of N. samarensis venom remain largely unknown to date. This study thus aimed to investigate the venom proteome of N. samarensis for a comprehensive profiling of the venom composition, and to examine the immunorecognition as well as neutralization of its toxins by a hetero-specific antivenom. Applying C18 reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), three-finger toxins (3FTx) were shown to dominate the venom proteome by 90.48% of total venom proteins. Other proteins in the venom comprised snake venom metalloproteinases, phospholipases A2, cysteine-rich secretory proteins, venom nerve growth factors, L-amino acid oxidases and vespryn, which were present at much lower abundances. Among all, short-chain alpha-neurotoxins (SαNTX) were the most highly expressed toxin within 3FTx family, constituting 65.87% of the total venom proteins. The SαNTX is the sole neurotoxic component of the venom and has an intravenous median lethal dose (LD50) of 0.18 μg/g in mice. The high abundance and low LD50 support the potent lethal activity of N. samarensis venom. The hetero-specific antivenom, Philippine Cobra Antivenom (PCAV, raised against Naja philippinensis) were immunoreactive toward the venom and its protein fractions, including the principal SαNTX. In efficacy study, PCAV was able to cross-neutralize the lethality of SαNTX albeit the effect was weak with a low potency of 0.20 mg/ml (defined as the amount of toxin completely neutralized per milliliter of the antivenom). With a volume of 5 ml, each vial of PCAV may cross-neutralize approximately 1 mg of the toxin in vivo. The findings support the potential para-specific use of PCAV in treating envenomation caused by N. samarensis while underscoring the need to improve the potency of its neutralization activity, especially against the highly lethal alpha-neurotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praneetha Palasuberniam
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia
| | - Yi Wei Chan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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15
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Xiao G, Liu J, Peng L, Yang Y, Sun Z. Compositional and toxicological investigation of pooled venom from farm-raised Naja atra. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2022; 28:e20210040. [PMID: 35382111 PMCID: PMC8956250 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2021-0040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Naja atra is a venomous snake species medically relevant in
China. In the current study, we evaluated the composition and toxicological
profile of venom collected from farm-raised N. atra. Methods: Venom was collected from third-generation captive bred N.
atra on a snake farm in Hunan Province, China. The venom was
analyzed using sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and
nano-liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization tandem mass
spectrometry. In addition, hemolytic activity, median lethal dose, serum
biochemical and histopathological parameters were accessed. Results: N. atra venom proteome was dominated by phospholipase
A2 (46.5%) and three-finger toxins (41.4 %), and a set of
common low relative abundance proteins, including cysteine-rich secretory
proteins (4.7%), NGF-beta (2.4%), snake venom metalloproteinase (1.5%),
glutathione peroxidase (0.6%), vespryn (0.3%), and 5ʹ-nucleotidases (0.2%)
were also found. Furthermore, the venom exhibited direct hemolytic activity,
neurotoxicity, myotoxicity, and high lethal potency in mice, with a
subcutaneous median lethal dose of 1.02 mg/kg. Histopathological analysis
and serum biochemical tests revealed that venom caused acute hepatic,
pulmonary and renal injury in mice. Conclusion: This study revealed the composition and toxicity of venom collected from
farm-raised N. atra, thereby providing a reference for the
analysis of venom samples collected from captive-born venomous snakes in the
future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Xiao
- Hunan Agricultural University, China; Hunan Agricultural University, China
| | - Junqi Liu
- Hunan Agricultural University, China; Hunan Institute of Animal and Veterinary Science, China
| | - Lingfeng Peng
- Hunan Agricultural University, China; Hunan Agricultural University, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Hunan Agricultural University, China
| | - Zhiliang Sun
- Hunan Agricultural University, China; Hunan Agricultural University, China
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16
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Wei Y, Liu T, Zheng B, Song Y, Wang S, Zheng M, Xu Y, Chi Y, Zhao M, Duan JA, Han S, Liu R. A strategy for the enrichment and characterization of disulfide bond-contained proteins from Chinese cobra (Naja atra) venom. J Sep Sci 2021; 45:812-823. [PMID: 34898000 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202100620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
A new strategy combined gold-coated magnetic nanocomposites assisted enrichment with mass spectrometry was developed for the characterization of disulfide bond-contained proteins from Chinese cobra (Naja atra) venom. In this work, core-shell nanocomposites were synthesized by the seed-mediated growth method and used for the enrichment of snake venom proteins containing disulfide bonds. A total of 3545 tryptic digested peptides derived from 96 venom proteins in Naja atra venom were identified. The venom proteins comprised 14 toxin families including three-finger toxins, phospholipase A2 , snake venom metalloproteinase, cobra venom factor, and so forth. Extra 16 venom proteins were detected exclusively in the nanocomposites set, among which 11 venom proteins were from the three-finger toxins family. In the present study, the proposed simple and efficient protocol replaced the tedious and laborious technologies commonly used for pre-separating crude snake venom, suggesting widely implementation in low-abundance or trace disulfide bond-contained proteins or peptides characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanqing Wei
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China.,Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Research and Development in Marine Bio-resource Pharmaceutics, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China
| | - Ting Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China
| | - Binru Zheng
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China
| | - Yilin Song
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China
| | - Shengsong Wang
- Anhui Qimen Institute of Snakebite, Huangshan, 245000, P. R. China
| | - Mojuan Zheng
- Anhui Qimen Institute of Snakebite, Huangshan, 245000, P. R. China
| | - Yanling Xu
- Anhui Qimen Institute of Snakebite, Huangshan, 245000, P. R. China
| | - Yumei Chi
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China
| | - Ming Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China.,Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China
| | - Jin-Ao Duan
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China.,Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China
| | - Shuying Han
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China
| | - Rui Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China.,Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Research and Development in Marine Bio-resource Pharmaceutics, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, P. R. China
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17
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Malhotra A, Wüster W, Owens JB, Hodges CW, Jesudasan A, Ch G, Kartik A, Christopher P, Louies J, Naik H, Santra V, Kuttalam SR, Attre S, Sasa M, Bravo-Vega C, Murray KA. Promoting co-existence between humans and venomous snakes through increasing the herpetological knowledge base. Toxicon X 2021; 12:100081. [PMID: 34522881 PMCID: PMC8426276 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2021.100081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite incidence at least partly depends on the biology of the snakes involved. However, studies of snake biology have been largely neglected in favour of anthropic factors, with the exception of taxonomy, which has been recognised for some decades to affect the design of antivenoms. Despite this, within-species venom variation and the unpredictability of the correlation with antivenom cross-reactivity has continued to be problematic. Meanwhile, other aspects of snake biology, including behaviour, spatial ecology and activity patterns, distribution, and population demography, which can contribute to snakebite mitigation and prevention, remain underfunded and understudied. Here, we review the literature relevant to these aspects of snakebite and illustrate how demographic, spatial, and behavioural studies can improve our understanding of why snakebites occur and provide evidence for prevention strategies. We identify the large gaps that remain to be filled and urge that, in the future, data and relevant metadata be shared openly via public data repositories so that studies can be properly replicated and data used in future meta-analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Malhotra
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution @ Bangor, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, 3rd floor ECW, Deiniol Road, Bangor, LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution @ Bangor, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, 3rd floor ECW, Deiniol Road, Bangor, LL57 2UW, UK
| | - John Benjamin Owens
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution @ Bangor, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, 3rd floor ECW, Deiniol Road, Bangor, LL57 2UW, UK
- Captive & Field Herpetology Ltd, Wales, 13 Hirfron, Holyhead, Llaingoch, Anglesey, LL65 1YU, UK
| | - Cameron Wesley Hodges
- School of Biology, Institute of Science, Suranaree University of Technology, Muang Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand
| | - Allwin Jesudasan
- Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Centre for Herpetology, Post bag No.4, Vadanamelli Village, East Coast Road, Mamallapuram, 603 104, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Gnaneswar Ch
- Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Centre for Herpetology, Post bag No.4, Vadanamelli Village, East Coast Road, Mamallapuram, 603 104, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ajay Kartik
- Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Centre for Herpetology, Post bag No.4, Vadanamelli Village, East Coast Road, Mamallapuram, 603 104, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Peter Christopher
- Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Centre for Herpetology, Post bag No.4, Vadanamelli Village, East Coast Road, Mamallapuram, 603 104, Tamil Nadu, India
| | | | - Hiral Naik
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. P. O. Wits, 2050, Gauteng, South Africa
- Save the Snakes, R527, Blyderus, Hoedspruit, 1380, South Africa
| | - Vishal Santra
- Captive & Field Herpetology Ltd, Wales, 13 Hirfron, Holyhead, Llaingoch, Anglesey, LL65 1YU, UK
- Society for Nature Conservation, Research and Community Engagement (CONCERN), Nalikul, Hooghly, West Bengal 712407, India
| | - Sourish Rajagopalan Kuttalam
- Society for Nature Conservation, Research and Community Engagement (CONCERN), Nalikul, Hooghly, West Bengal 712407, India
| | - Shaleen Attre
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, School of Anthropology and Conservation, Marlowe Building, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, CT2 7NR, UK
| | - Mahmood Sasa
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Carlos Bravo-Vega
- Research Group in Mathematical and Computational Biology (BIOMAC), Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of the Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Kris A. Murray
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College London, UK
- MRC Unit The Gambia at London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Atlantic Boulevard, Fajara, Gambia
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18
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Cytotoxin antibody-based colourimetric sensor for field-level differential detection of elapid among big four snake venom. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009841. [PMID: 34634067 PMCID: PMC8530336 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Development of a rapid, on-site detection tool for snakebite is highly sought after, owing to its clinically and forensically relevant medicolegal significance. Polyvalent antivenom therapy in the management of such envenomation cases is finite due to its poor venom neutralization capabilities as well as diagnostic ramifications manifested as untoward immunological reactions. For precise molecular diagnosis of elapid venoms of the big four snakes, we have developed a lateral flow kit using a monoclonal antibody (AB1; IgG1 – κ chain; Kd: 31 nM) generated against recombinant cytotoxin-7 (rCTX-7; 7.7 kDa) protein of the elapid venom. The monoclonal antibody specifically detected the venoms of Naja naja (p < 0.0001) and Bungarus caeruleus (p<0.0001), without showing any immunoreactivity against the viperidae snakes in big four venomous snakes. The kit developed attained the limit of quantitation of 170 pg/μL and 2.1 ng/μL in spiked buffer samples and 28.7 ng/μL and 110 ng/μL in spiked serum samples for detection of N. naja and B. caeruleus venoms, respectively. This kit holds enormous potential in identification of elapid venom of the big four snakes for effective prognosis of an envenomation; as per the existing medical guidelines. Detection of the snake species responsible for the envenomation in a victim is crucial for clinical and forensic management of poisoning cases. Polyvalent antivenom therapy can seldom lead to immunological complications manifested in the form of symptoms ranging from serum sickness to myalgia. Use of monovalent antivenom therapy is being recommended for targeted venom neutralization in envenomed individuals with minimum side effects. Moreover, the development of field applicable venom detection devices is the need of the hour for enabling orderly detection of poisoning cases at the crime scene, besides testing for illegal trade of snake parts, including venom, protected under the Wildlife Act. The monovalent antivenom therapy and the field level detection of venom conducive to adequate crime scene management is limited by the tools available for species or family-specific identification of the venom under question. For differential detection of the Elapids of the big four snakes from the Viperidae, we have developed a monoclonal antibody-based lateral flow assay kit using recombinant Cytotoxin– 7 protein. The limit of quantitation for the detection of venoms of N. naja and B. caeruleus was ascertained to be 170 pg/μL and 2.1 ng/ μL in spiked buffer samples and 28.7 ng/ μL and 110 ng/ μL in spiked serum samples, respectively. Thus, the kit can effectively detect the venoms of elapids of the big four snakes in both simple and complex matrices of the samples and can be adapted for its use in differential diagnosis.
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19
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Palasuberniam P, Tan KY, Tan CH. De novo venom gland transcriptomics of Calliophis bivirgata flaviceps: uncovering the complexity of toxins from the Malayan blue coral snake. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2021; 27:e20210024. [PMID: 34616441 PMCID: PMC8476087 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2021-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The Malayan blue coral snake, Calliophis bivirgata
flaviceps, is a medically important venomous snake in Southeast
Asia. However, the complexity and diversity of its venom genes remain little
explored. Methods: To address this, we applied high-throughput next-generation sequencing to
profile the venom gland cDNA libraries of C. bivirgata
flaviceps. The transcriptome was de novo
assembled, followed by gene annotation, multiple sequence alignment and
analyses of the transcripts. Results: A total of 74 non-redundant toxin-encoding genes from 16 protein families
were identified, with 31 full-length toxin transcripts. Three-finger toxins
(3FTx), primarily delta-neurotoxins and cardiotoxin-like/cytotoxin-like
proteins, were the most diverse and abundantly expressed. The major 3FTx
(Cb_FTX01 and Cb_FTX02) are highly similar to calliotoxin, a
delta-neurotoxin previously reported in the venom of C.
bivirgata. This study also revealed a conserved tyrosine
residue at position 4 of the cardiotoxin-like/cytotoxin-like protein genes
in the species. These variants, proposed as Y-type CTX-like proteins, are
similar to the H-type CTX from cobras. The substitution is conservative
though, preserving a less toxic form of elapid CTX-like protein, as
indicated by the lack of venom cytotoxicity in previous laboratory and
clinical findings. The ecological role of these toxins, however, remains
unclear. The study also uncovered unique transcripts that belong to
phospholipase A2 of Groups IA and IB, and snake venom
metalloproteinases of PIII subclass, which show sequence variations from
those of Asiatic elapids. Conclusion: The venom gland transcriptome of C. bivirgata flaviceps from
Malaysia was de novo assembled and annotated. The diversity
and expression profile of toxin genes provide insights into the biological
and medical importance of the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praneetha Palasuberniam
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University Malaysia Sabah, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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20
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Patra A, Kalita B, Khadilkar MV, Salvi NC, Shelke PV, Mukherjee AK. Assessment of quality and pre-clinical efficacy of a newly developed polyvalent antivenom against the medically important snakes of Sri Lanka. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18238. [PMID: 34521877 PMCID: PMC8440654 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97501-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake envenomation is a severe problem in Sri Lanka (SL) and Indian polyvalent antivenom (PAV) is mostly used for treating snakebite albeit due to geographical variation in venom composition, Indian PAV shows poor efficacy in neutralizing the lethality and toxicity of venom from the same species of snakes in SL. Therefore, the quality and in vivo venom neutralization potency of a country-specific PAV produced against the venom of the five most medically important snakes of SL (Daboia russelii, Echis carinatus, Hypnale hypnale, Naja naja, Bungarus caeruleus) was assessed. LC-MS/MS analysis of two batches of PAV showed the presence of 88.7-97.2% IgG and traces of other plasma proteins. The tested PAVs contained minor amounts of undigested IgG and F(ab')2 aggregates, showed complement activation, were devoid of IgE, endotoxin, and content of preservative was below the threshold level. Immunological cross-reactivity and in vitro neutralization of enzymatic activities, pharmacological properties demonstrated superior efficacy of SL PAV compared to Indian PAV against SL snake venoms. The in vivo neutralization study showed that the tested PAVs are potent to neutralize the lethality and venom-induced toxicity of SL snake venoms. Therefore, our study suggests that introduction of SL-specific PAV will improve snakebite management in SL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparup Patra
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, School of Science, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, 784028, India
| | - Bhargab Kalita
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, School of Science, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, 784028, India
| | - Milind V Khadilkar
- Premium Serums and Vaccines Pvt. Ltd, Narayangaon, Pune, Maharashtra, 410504, India
| | - Nitin C Salvi
- Premium Serums and Vaccines Pvt. Ltd, Narayangaon, Pune, Maharashtra, 410504, India
| | - Pravin V Shelke
- Premium Serums and Vaccines Pvt. Ltd, Narayangaon, Pune, Maharashtra, 410504, India
| | - Ashis K Mukherjee
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, School of Science, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, 784028, India.
- Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology, Vigyan Path, Garchuk, Paschim Boragaon, Guwahati, Assam, 781035, India.
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21
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Pintor AF, Ray N, Longbottom J, Bravo-Vega CA, Yousefi M, Murray KA, Ediriweera DS, Diggle PJ. Addressing the global snakebite crisis with geo-spatial analyses - Recent advances and future direction. Toxicon X 2021; 11:100076. [PMID: 34401744 PMCID: PMC8350508 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2021.100076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Venomous snakebite is a neglected tropical disease that annually leads to hundreds of thousands of deaths or long-term physical and mental ailments across the developing world. Insufficient data on spatial variation in snakebite risk, incidence, human vulnerability, and accessibility of medical treatment contribute substantially to ineffective on-ground management. There is an urgent need to collect data, fill knowledge gaps and address on-ground management problems. The use of novel, and transdisciplinary approaches that take advantage of recent advances in spatio-temporal models, 'big data', high performance computing, and fine-scale spatial information can add value to snakebite management by strategically improving our understanding and mitigation capacity of snakebite. We review the background and recent advances on the topic of snakebite related geospatial analyses and suggest avenues for priority research that will have practical on-ground applications for snakebite management and mitigation. These include streamlined, targeted data collection on snake distributions, snakebites, envenomings, venom composition, health infrastructure, and antivenom accessibility along with fine-scale models of spatio-temporal variation in snakebite risk and incidence, intraspecific venom variation, and environmental change modifying human exposure. These measures could improve and 'future-proof' antivenom production methods, antivenom distribution and stockpiling systems, and human-wildlife conflict management practices, while simultaneously feeding into research on venom evolution, snake taxonomy, ecology, biogeography, and conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna F.V. Pintor
- Division of Data, Analytics and Delivery for Impact (DDI), World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, Division of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, Australia
| | - Nicolas Ray
- GeoHealth Group, Institute of Global Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Joshua Longbottom
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics, Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Carlos A. Bravo-Vega
- Research Group in Mathematical and Computational Biology (BIOMAC), Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Masoud Yousefi
- School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Iran
| | - Kris A. Murray
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, UK
- MRC Unit the Gambia at London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Atlantic Blvd, Fajara, Gambia
| | - Dileepa S. Ediriweera
- Health Data Science Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Kelaniya, Ragama, Sri Lanka
| | - Peter J. Diggle
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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22
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Oh AMF, Tan KY, Tan NH, Tan CH. Proteomics and neutralization of Bungarus multicinctus (Many-banded Krait) venom: Intra-specific comparisons between specimens from China and Taiwan. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2021; 247:109063. [PMID: 33910092 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2021.109063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The Many-banded Krait (Bungarus multicinctus) is a medically important venomous snake in East Asia. This study investigated the venom proteomes of B. multicinctus from Guangdong, southern China (BM-China) and insular Taiwan (BM-Taiwan), and the neutralization activities of two antivenom products (produced separately in China and Taiwan) against the lethal effect of the venoms. The venom proteomes of both specimens contained similar toxin families, notwithstanding small variations in the subtypes and abundances of minor components. More than 90% of the total venom proteins belong to three-finger toxins (3FTx, including alpha-neurotoxins) and phospholipases A2 (PLA2, including beta-bungarotoxins), supporting their key involvement in the pathophysiology of krait envenomation which manifests as pre- and post-synaptic neurotoxicity. The venoms exhibited potent neurotoxic and lethal effects with extremely low i.v. LD50 of 0.027 μg/g (Bm-China) and 0.087 μg/g (Bm-Taiwan), respectively, in mice. Bungarus multicinctus monovalent antivenom (BMMAV) produced in China and Neuro bivalent antivenom (NBAV) produced in Taiwan were immunoreactive toward both venoms and their toxin fractions. The antivenoms neutralized the venom lethality variably, with BMMAV being more efficacious than NBAV by approximately two-fold. Findings suggest that the monovalent antivenom has a higher potency presumably due to its species-specificity toward the krait venom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angeline Mei Feng Oh
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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23
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Mukherjee AK, Mackessy SP. Prevention and improvement of clinical management of snakebite in Southern Asian countries: A proposed road map. Toxicon 2021; 200:140-152. [PMID: 34280412 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2021] [Revised: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
In the Southern Asian countries, snakebite takes a substantial toll in terms of human life, inflicts acute morbidity and long term disability both physical and psychological, and therefore represents a neglected socio-economic problem and severe health issue that requires immediate medical attention. The 'Big Four' venomous snakes, viz. Daboia russelii, Naja naja, Bungarus caeruleus and Echis carinatus, are prominent, medically important species and are the most dangerous snakes of this region; therefore, the commercial polyvalent antivenom (PAV) contains antibodies against the venoms of these snakes. However, envenomations by species other than the 'Big Four' snakes are grossly neglected, and PAV is only partially effective in neutralizing the venom of these snakes. Many issues confounding effective treatment of snakebite are discussed in this review, and these hurdles preventing successful treatment of snakebite must be addressed. However, in South Asian countries, the pre-hospital treatment and appropriate first aid are equally important to mitigate the problem of snakebite and therefore, these issues are also highlighted here. Further, this review suggests a roadmap and guidelines for the prevention of snakebite and improvement of hospital management of snakebite in these Southern Asian countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashis K Mukherjee
- Division of Life Sciences, Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology, Vigyan Path Garchuk, Paschim Boragaon, Guwahati, 781035, Assam, India; Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, 78028, Assam, India; School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639-0017, USA.
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639-0017, USA
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24
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Complex target SELEX-based identification of DNA aptamers against Bungarus caeruleus venom for the detection of envenomation using a paper-based device. Biosens Bioelectron 2021; 193:113523. [PMID: 34333364 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2021.113523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Complex target SELEX always have been an intriguing approach to the scientific community, as it offers the potential discovery of novel biomarkers. We herein successfully performed SELEX on Bungarus caeruleus venom to develop a panel of highly affine aptamers that specifically recognizes the B. caeruleus (common krait) venom and was able to discriminate the B. caeruleus venom from Cobra, Russell's, and Saw-scaled viper's venom. The aptamers generated against the crude venom also lead to the identification of the specific component of the venom, which is β-Bungarotoxin, a toxin uniquely present in the B. caeruleus venom. The best performing aptamer candidates were used as a molecular recognition element in a paper-based device and were able to detect as low as 2 ng krait venom in human serum background. The developed aptamer-based paper device can be used for potential point-of-care venom detection applications due to its simplicity and affordability.
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25
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Patra A, Banerjee D, Dasgupta S, Mukherjee AK. The in vitro laboratory tests and mass spectrometry-assisted quality assessment of commercial polyvalent antivenom raised against the ‘Big Four’ venomous snakes of India. Toxicon 2021; 192:15-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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26
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Gupta A, Smilie C, Bhaskar V, Batra P. Unusually prolonged neuromuscular weakness caused by krait (Bungarus caeruleus) bite: Two case reports. Toxicon 2021; 193:1-3. [PMID: 33497743 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Snakebites are common in India and the most common neurotoxic snakebites in India are due to Common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) and cobra (Naja naja). Severe envenomation may mimic brain death or a locked-in state with flaccid paralysis in a descending manner and total ophthalmoplegia. Usually, patients who receive timely antivenom and ventilator support recover completely without any sequalae. We are reporting two cases of krait bite with an unusually long period of flaccid paralysis, which required prolong ventilation. While case 1 required 10 days of mechanical ventilation followed by 5 days of non-invasive ventilation, case 2 required 11 days of mechanical ventilation followed by 5 days of non-invasive ventilation. Both the cases had delayed recovery and residual weakness at 3-month follow up. These case reports suggest that krait bite may cause prolong neuromuscular weakness in children, which has implications for both acute and chronic management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashish Gupta
- University College of Medical Sciences and Guru Teg Bahadur Hospital, Delhi, India.
| | - Chabungbam Smilie
- University College of Medical Sciences and Guru Teg Bahadur Hospital, Delhi, India.
| | - Vikram Bhaskar
- University College of Medical Sciences and Guru Teg Bahadur Hospital, Delhi, India.
| | - Prerna Batra
- University College of Medical Sciences and Guru Teg Bahadur Hospital, Delhi, India.
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27
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Kazandjian TD, Petras D, Robinson SD, van Thiel J, Greene HW, Arbuckle K, Barlow A, Carter DA, Wouters RM, Whiteley G, Wagstaff SC, Arias AS, Albulescu LO, Plettenberg Laing A, Hall C, Heap A, Penrhyn-Lowe S, McCabe CV, Ainsworth S, da Silva RR, Dorrestein PC, Richardson MK, Gutiérrez JM, Calvete JJ, Harrison RA, Vetter I, Undheim EAB, Wüster W, Casewell NR. Convergent evolution of pain-inducing defensive venom components in spitting cobras. Science 2021; 371:386-390. [PMID: 33479150 PMCID: PMC7610493 DOI: 10.1126/science.abb9303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Convergent evolution provides insights into the selective drivers underlying evolutionary change. Snake venoms, with a direct genetic basis and clearly defined functional phenotype, provide a model system for exploring the repeated evolution of adaptations. While snakes use venom primarily for predation, and venom composition often reflects diet specificity, three lineages of cobras have independently evolved the ability to spit venom at adversaries. Using gene, protein, and functional analyses, we show that the three spitting lineages possess venoms characterized by an up-regulation of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) toxins, which potentiate the action of preexisting venom cytotoxins to activate mammalian sensory neurons and cause enhanced pain. These repeated independent changes provide a fascinating example of convergent evolution across multiple phenotypic levels driven by selection for defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- T D Kazandjian
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - D Petras
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - S D Robinson
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - J van Thiel
- Institute of Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden 2333BE, Netherlands
| | - H W Greene
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - K Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - A Barlow
- School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - D A Carter
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - R M Wouters
- Institute of Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden 2333BE, Netherlands
| | - G Whiteley
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - S C Wagstaff
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
- Research Computing Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - A S Arias
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | - L-O Albulescu
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - A Plettenberg Laing
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - C Hall
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - A Heap
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - S Penrhyn-Lowe
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - C V McCabe
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1RL, UK
| | - S Ainsworth
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - R R da Silva
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos (NPPNS), Molecular Sciences Department, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - P C Dorrestein
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - M K Richardson
- Institute of Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden 2333BE, Netherlands
| | - J M Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | - J J Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - R A Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - I Vetter
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- School of Pharmacy, University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - E A B Undheim
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - W Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - N R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK.
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28
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Sunagar K, Khochare S, Senji Laxme RR, Attarde S, Dam P, Suranse V, Khaire A, Martin G, Captain A. A Wolf in Another Wolf's Clothing: Post-Genomic Regulation Dictates Venom Profiles of Medically-Important Cryptic Kraits in India. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13010069. [PMID: 33477742 PMCID: PMC7832344 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13010069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus) shares a distribution range with many other ‘phenotypically-similar’ kraits across the Indian subcontinent. Despite several reports of fatal envenomings by other Bungarus species, commercial Indian antivenoms are only manufactured against B. caeruleus. It is, therefore, imperative to understand the distribution of genetically distinct lineages of kraits, the compositional differences in their venoms, and the consequent impact of venom variation on the (pre)clinical effectiveness of antivenom therapy. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted phylogenetic and comparative venomics investigations of kraits in Southern and Western India. Phylogenetic reconstructions using mitochondrial markers revealed a new species of krait, Romulus’ krait (Bungarus romulusi sp. nov.), in Southern India. Additionally, we found that kraits with 17 mid-body dorsal scale rows in Western India do not represent a subspecies of the Sind Krait (B. sindanus walli) as previously believed, but are genetically very similar to B. sindanus in Pakistan. Furthermore, venom proteomics and comparative transcriptomics revealed completely contrasting venom profiles. While the venom gland transcriptomes of all three species were highly similar, venom proteomes and toxicity profiles differed significantly, suggesting the prominent role of post-genomic regulatory mechanisms in shaping the venoms of these cryptic kraits. In vitro venom recognition and in vivo neutralisation experiments revealed a strong negative impact of venom variability on the preclinical performance of commercial antivenoms. While the venom of B. caeruleus was neutralised as per the manufacturer’s claim, performance against the venoms of B. sindanus and B. romulusi was poor, highlighting the need for regionally-effective antivenoms in India.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India; (S.K.); (R.R.S.L.); (S.A.); (P.D.); (V.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Suyog Khochare
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India; (S.K.); (R.R.S.L.); (S.A.); (P.D.); (V.S.)
| | - R. R. Senji Laxme
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India; (S.K.); (R.R.S.L.); (S.A.); (P.D.); (V.S.)
| | - Saurabh Attarde
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India; (S.K.); (R.R.S.L.); (S.A.); (P.D.); (V.S.)
| | - Paulomi Dam
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India; (S.K.); (R.R.S.L.); (S.A.); (P.D.); (V.S.)
| | - Vivek Suranse
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India; (S.K.); (R.R.S.L.); (S.A.); (P.D.); (V.S.)
| | - Anil Khaire
- Indian Herpetological Society, 7/47, Pune Satara Road, Pune 411009, Maharashtra, India;
| | - Gerard Martin
- The Liana Trust, Survey #1418/1419 Rathnapuri, Hunsur 571189, Karnataka, India;
| | - Ashok Captain
- 3/1 Boat Club Road, Pune 411001, Maharashtra, India;
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29
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Ratanabanangkoon K, Tan KY, Pruksaphon K, Klinpayom C, Gutiérrez JM, Quraishi NH, Tan CH. A pan-specific antiserum produced by a novel immunization strategy shows a high spectrum of neutralization against neurotoxic snake venoms. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11261. [PMID: 32647261 PMCID: PMC7347863 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-66657-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenomation is a neglected tropical disease of high mortality and morbidity largely due to insufficient supply of effective and affordable antivenoms. Snake antivenoms are mostly effective against the venoms used in their production. It is thus crucial that effective and affordable antivenom(s) with wide para-specificity, capable of neutralizing the venoms of a large number of snakes, be produced. Here we studied the pan-specific antiserum prepared previously by a novel immunization strategy involving the exposure of horses to a ‘diverse toxin repertoire’ consisting of 12 neurotoxic Asian snake toxin fractions/ venoms from six species. This antiserum was previously shown to exhibit wide para-specificity by neutralizing 11 homologous and 16 heterologous venoms from Asia and Africa. We now show that the antiserum can neutralize 9 out of 10 additional neurotoxic venoms. Altogether, 36 snake venoms belonging to 10 genera from 4 continents were neutralized by the antiserum. Toxin profiles previously generated using proteomic techniques of these 36 venoms identified α-neurotoxins, β-neurotoxins, and cytotoxins as predominant toxins presumably neutralized by the antiserum. The bases for the wide para-specificity of the antiserum are discussed. These findings indicate that it is feasible to generate antivenoms of wide para-specificity against elapid neurotoxic venoms from different regions in the world and raises the possibility of a universal neurotoxic antivenom. This should reduce the mortality resulting from neurotoxic snakebite envenomation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavi Ratanabanangkoon
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand. .,Laboratory of Immunology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand.
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - Kritsada Pruksaphon
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Chaiya Klinpayom
- Veterinary Hospital, The Veterinary and Remount Department, The Royal Thai Army, Nakorn Pathom, 73000, Thailand
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Naeem H Quraishi
- Anti Snake Venom/Anti Rabies Serology Laboratory, People's University of Medical and Health Sciences for Women, Nawabshah, Pakistan
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia.
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30
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Hia YL, Tan KY, Tan CH. Comparative venom proteomics of banded krait (Bungarus fasciatus) from five geographical locales: Correlation of venom lethality, immunoreactivity and antivenom neutralization. Acta Trop 2020; 207:105460. [PMID: 32278639 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The banded krait, Bungarus fasciatus is a medically important venomous snake in Asia. The wide distribution of this species in Southeast Asia and southern China indicates potential geographical variation of the venom which may impact the clinical management of snakebite envenomation. This study investigated the intraspecific venom variation of B. fasciatus from five geographical locales through a venom decomplexing proteomic approach, followed by toxinological and immunological studies. The venom proteomes composed of a total of 9 toxin families, comprising 22 to 31 proteoforms at varying abundances. The predominant proteins were phospholipase A2 (including beta-bungarotoxin), Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitor (KSPI) and three-finger toxins (3FTx), which are toxins that cause neurotoxicity and lethality. The venom lethality varied with geographical origins of the snake, with intravenous median lethal doses (LD50) ranging from 0.45-2.55 µg/g in mice. The Thai Bungarus fasciatus monovalent antivenom (BFMAV) demonstrated a dose-dependent increasing immunological binding activity toward all venoms; however, its in vivo neutralization efficacy varied vastly with normalized potency values ranging from 3 to 28 mg/g, presumably due to the compositional differences of dominant proteins in the different venoms. The findings support that antivenom use should be optimized in different geographical areas. The development of a pan-regional antivenom may be a more sustainable solution for the treatment of snakebite envenomation.
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Chanda A, Mukherjee AK. Mass spectrometric analysis to unravel the venom proteome composition of Indian snakes: opening new avenues in clinical research. Expert Rev Proteomics 2020; 17:411-423. [DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2020.1778471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Chanda
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, India
| | - Ashis K. Mukherjee
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, India
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Tan KY, Wong KY, Tan NH, Tan CH. Quantitative proteomics of Naja annulifera (sub-Saharan snouted cobra) venom and neutralization activities of two antivenoms in Africa. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 158:S0141-8130(20)33035-X. [PMID: 32339578 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.04.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Envenomation by Naja annulifera (snouted cobra), a non-spitting African cobra, can result in local tissue damage and fatal paralysis but a species-specific antivenom treatment is currently lacking. In this study, we investigated the quantitative proteome of N. annulifera venom, incorporating HPLC and LC-MS/MS to elucidate the venom toxicity. The immunoreactivities and in vivo neutralization activities of two hetero-specific antivenom products (Premium Serums Pan Africa polyvalent antivenom, PANAF and VINS African polyvalent antivenom, VAPAV) against the venom were subsequently examined. N. annulifera venom comprises 10 toxin families, with three-finger toxin (3FTx) being the most abundantly expressed (~78%). Within 3FTx, cytotoxin is the most dominant form and made up three-quarter of the venom bulk (~74%), whereas alpha-neurotoxins constitute <4% of the total venom proteins. Phospholipase A2 was undetected in the venom proteome, consistent with the unusual absence of PLA2 from the venoms of cobras in the Uraeus subgenus. In ELISA, PANAF and VAPAV showed comparable immunoreactivity toward the protein antigens of N. annulifera venom. These antivenoms, despite being raised against hetero-specific venoms, were capable of cross-neutralizing the lethal effect of N. annulifera venom in mice, with PANAF being marginally more potent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kin Ying Wong
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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Rusmili MRA, Othman I, Abidin SAZ, Yusof FA, Ratanabanangkoon K, Chanhome L, Hodgson WC, Chaisakul J. Variations in neurotoxicity and proteome profile of Malayan krait (Bungarus candidus) venoms. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0227122. [PMID: 31887191 PMCID: PMC6936869 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Malayan krait (Bungarus candidus) is a medically important snake species found in Southeast Asia. The neurotoxic effects of envenoming present as flaccid paralysis of skeletal muscles. It is unclear whether geographical variation in venom composition plays a significant role in the degree of clinical neurotoxicity. In this study, the effects of geographical variation on neurotoxicity and venom composition of B. candidus venoms from Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand were examined. In the chick biventer cervicis nerve-muscle preparation, all venoms abolished indirect twitches and attenuated contractile responses to nicotinic receptor agonists, with venom from Indonesia displaying the most rapid neurotoxicity. A proteomic analysis indicated that three finger toxins (3FTx), phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitors were common toxin groups in the venoms. In addition, venom from Thailand contained L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO), cysteine rich secretory protein (CRISP), thrombin-like enzyme (TLE) and snake venom metalloproteinase (SVMP). Short-chain post-synaptic neurotoxins were not detected in any of the venoms. The largest quantity of long-chain post-synaptic neurotoxins and non-conventional toxins was found in the venom from Thailand. Analysis of PLA2 activity did not show any correlation between the amount of PLA2 and the degree of neurotoxicity of the venoms. Our study shows that variation in venom composition is not limited to the degree of neurotoxicity. This investigation provides additional insights into the geographical differences in venom composition and provides information that could be used to improve the management of Malayan krait envenoming in Southeast Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhamad Rusdi Ahmad Rusmili
- Kulliyyah of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan Campus, Bandar Indera Mahkota, Kuantan, Pahang Darul Makmur, Malaysia
| | - Iekhsan Othman
- Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Sunway Campus, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Syafiq Asnawi Zainal Abidin
- Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Sunway Campus, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Fathin Athirah Yusof
- Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Sunway Campus, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Kavi Ratanabanangkoon
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Lawan Chanhome
- Snake Farm, Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Wayne C. Hodgson
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Biomedical Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Janeyuth Chaisakul
- Department of Pharmacology, Phramongkutklao College of Medicine, Bangkok, Thailand
- * E-mail: ,
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Beyond the 'big four': Venom profiling of the medically important yet neglected Indian snakes reveals disturbing antivenom deficiencies. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007899. [PMID: 31805055 PMCID: PMC6894822 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Snakebite in India causes the highest annual rates of death (46,000) and disability (140,000) than any other country. Antivenom is the mainstay treatment of snakebite, whose manufacturing protocols, in essence, have remained unchanged for over a century. In India, a polyvalent antivenom is produced for the treatment of envenomations from the so called ‘big four’ snakes: the spectacled cobra (Naja naja), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii), and saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus). In addition to the ‘big four’, India is abode to many other species of venomous snakes that have the potential to inflict severe clinical or, even, lethal envenomations in their human bite victims. Unfortunately, specific antivenoms are not produced against these species and, instead, the ‘big four’ antivenom is routinely used for the treatment. Methods We characterized the venom compositions, biochemical and pharmacological activities and toxicity profiles (mouse model) of the major neglected yet medically important Indian snakes (E. c. sochureki, B. sindanus, B. fasciatus, and two populations of N. kaouthia) and their closest ‘big four’ congeners. By performing WHO recommended in vitro and in vivo preclinical assays, we evaluated the efficiencies of the commercially marketed Indian antivenoms in recognizing venoms and neutralizing envenomations by these neglected species. Findings As a consequence of dissimilar ecologies and diet, the medically important snakes investigated exhibited dramatic inter- and intraspecific differences in their venom profiles. Currently marketed antivenoms were found to exhibit poor dose efficacy and venom recognition potential against the ‘neglected many’. Premium Serums antivenom failed to neutralise bites from many of the neglected species and one of the ‘big four’ snakes (North Indian population of B. caeruleus). Conclusions This study unravels disturbing deficiencies in dose efficacy and neutralisation capabilities of the currently marketed Indian antivenoms, and emphasises the pressing need to develop region-specific snakebite therapy for the ‘neglected many’. Snakebite is a ‘neglected tropical disease’ that majorly affects the rural populations in developing countries. India bears the brunt of snakebites with over 46,000 deaths and 140,000 disabilities, annually. A significant number of these bites are attributed to the widely distributed ‘big four’ snakes, namely spectacled cobra (Naja naja), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii), and saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus). The commercial antivenoms marketed in India are only manufactured against these four species, while neglecting many other medically relevant snakes with restricted geographic distribution. Snakebite pathology is dependent on the venom composition of the population/species, which can, in turn, vary intra- and inter-specifically. Though this variation severely limits the cross-population/species antivenom efficacy, envenomations by the neglected snakes in India are treated with the ‘big four’ antivenom. Therefore, to unravel the underlying venom variability, we investigated venom proteomic, biochemical/pharmacological and toxicity profiles of the major neglected Indian snakes and their ‘big four’ relatives. To assess the effectiveness of the ‘big four’ antivenom in treating bites from these neglected snakes, we performed preclinical experiments, which revealed alarming inadequacies of the commercial antivenoms. Our findings accentuate the compelling necessity for the innovation of highly efficacious next-generation snakebite therapy in India.
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Comparative proteomes, immunoreactivities and neutralization of procoagulant activities of Calloselasma rhodostoma (Malayan pit viper) venoms from four regions in Southeast Asia. Toxicon 2019; 169:91-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2019] [Revised: 07/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Deka A, Gogoi A, Das D, Purkayastha J, Doley R. Proteomics of Naja kaouthia venom from North East India and assessment of Indian polyvalent antivenom by third generation antivenomics. J Proteomics 2019; 207:103463. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2019.103463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Albulescu LO, Kazandjian T, Slagboom J, Bruyneel B, Ainsworth S, Alsolaiss J, Wagstaff SC, Whiteley G, Harrison RA, Ulens C, Kool J, Casewell NR. A Decoy-Receptor Approach Using Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Mimics Reveals Their Potential as Novel Therapeutics Against Neurotoxic Snakebite. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:848. [PMID: 31417406 PMCID: PMC6683245 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite is a neglected tropical disease that causes 138,000 deaths each year. Neurotoxic snake venoms contain small neurotoxins, including three-finger toxins (3FTxs), which can cause rapid paralysis in snakebite victims by blocking postsynaptic transmission via nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). These toxins are typically weakly immunogenic and thus are often not effectively targeted by current polyclonal antivenom therapies. We investigated whether nAChR mimics, also known as acetylcholine binding proteins (AChBPs), could effectively capture 3FTxs and therefore be developed as a novel class of snake-generic therapeutics for combatting neurotoxic envenoming. First, we identified the binding specificities of 3FTx from various medically important elapid snake venoms to nAChR using two recombinant nAChR mimics: the AChBP from Lymnaea stagnalis and a humanized neuronal α7 version (α7-AChBP). We next characterized these AChBP-bound and unbound fractions using SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry. Interestingly, both mimics effectively captured long-chain 3FTxs from multiple snake species but largely failed to capture the highly related short-chain 3FTxs, suggesting a high level of binding specificity. We next investigated whether nAChR mimics could be used as snakebite therapeutics. We showed that while α7-AChBP alone did not protect against Naja haje (Egyptian cobra) venom lethality in vivo, it significantly prolonged survival times when coadministered with a nonprotective dose of antivenom. Thus, nAChR mimics are capable of neutralizing specific venom toxins and may be useful adjunct therapeutics for improving the safety and affordability of existing snakebite treatments by reducing therapeutic doses. Our findings justify exploring the future development of AChBPs as potential snakebite treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Taline Kazandjian
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Julien Slagboom
- AIMMS Division of BioMolecular Analysis, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Ben Bruyneel
- AIMMS Division of BioMolecular Analysis, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Stuart Ainsworth
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jaffer Alsolaiss
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Simon C Wagstaff
- Bioinformatics Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth Whiteley
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Robert A Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Ulens
- Laboratory of Structural Neurobiology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jeroen Kool
- AIMMS Division of BioMolecular Analysis, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Tan CH, Wong KY, Chong HP, Tan NH, Tan KY. Proteomic insights into short neurotoxin-driven, highly neurotoxic venom of Philippine cobra (Naja philippinensis) and toxicity correlation of cobra envenomation in Asia. J Proteomics 2019; 206:103418. [PMID: 31201947 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2019.103418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 05/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The Philippine cobra, Naja philippinensis, is a WHO Category 1 venomous snake of medical importance responsible for fatal envenomation in the northern Philippines. To elucidate the venom proteome and pathophysiology of envenomation, N. philippinensis venom proteins were decomplexed with reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, and protein fractions were subsequently digested with trypsin, followed by nano-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis and data mining. Three-finger toxins (3FTX, 66.64% of total venom proteins) and phospholipases A2 (PLA2, 22.88%) constitute the main bulk of venom proteome. Other proteins are present at low abundances (<4% each); these include metalloproteinase, serine protease, cobra venom factor, cysteine-rich secretory protein, vespryn, phosphodiesterase, 5' nucleotidase and nerve growth factor. In the three-finger toxin family, the alpha-neurotoxins comprise solely short neurotoxins (SNTX, 44.55%), supporting that SNTX is the principal toxin responsible for neuromuscular paralysis and lethality reported in clinical envenomation. Cytotoxins (CTX) are the second most abundant 3FTX proteins in the venom (21.31%). The presence of CTX correlates with the venom cytotoxic effect, which is more prominent in murine cells than in human cells. From the practical standpoint, SNTX-driven neuromuscular paralysis is significant in N. philippinensis envenomation. Antivenom production and treatment should be tailored accordingly to ensure effective neutralization of SNTX. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The venom proteome of Naja philippinensis, the Philippine cobra, is unravelled for the first time. Approximately half the protein bulk of the venom is made up of short neurotoxins (44.55% of the total venom proteins). As the only alpha-neurotoxins present in the venom, short neurotoxins are the causative toxins of the post-synaptic blockade and fast-onset neuromuscular paralysis in N. philippinensis envenomation. A substantial amount of cytotoxins (21.31%) was also detected in N. philippinensis venom, supporting that the venom can be cytotoxic although the effect is much weaker in human cells compared to murine cells. The finding is consistent with the low incidence of local tissue necrosis in N. philippinensis envenomation, although this does not negate the need for monitoring and care of bite wound in the patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kin Ying Wong
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Ho Phin Chong
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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Comparative analysis of Naja kaouthia venom from North-East India and Bangladesh and its cross reactivity with Indian polyvalent antivenoms. Toxicon 2019; 164:31-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Kalita B, Mukherjee AK. Recent advances in snake venom proteomics research in India: a new horizon to decipher the geographical variation in venom proteome composition and exploration of candidate drug prototypes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s42485-019-00014-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Patra A, Chanda A, Mukherjee AK. Quantitative proteomic analysis of venom from Southern India common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) and identification of poorly immunogenic toxins by immune-profiling against commercial antivenom. Expert Rev Proteomics 2019; 16:457-469. [DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2019.1609945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aparup Patra
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, India
| | - Abhishek Chanda
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, India
| | - Ashis K. Mukherjee
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, India
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Tan CH, Wong KY, Tan NH, Ng TS, Tan KY. Distinctive Distribution of Secretory Phospholipases A₂ in the Venoms of Afro-Asian Cobras (Subgenus: Naja, Afronaja, Boulengerina and Uraeus). Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11020116. [PMID: 30769779 PMCID: PMC6410299 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2019] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The protein abundances of phospholipases A2 in cobra venom proteomes appear to vary among cobra species. To determine the unique distribution of snake venom phospholipases A2 (svPLA2) in the cobras, the svPLA2 activities for 15 cobra species were examined with an acidimetric and a colorimetric assay, using egg yolk suspension and 4-nitro-3-octanoyloxy benzoic acid (NOBA) as the substrate. The colorimetric assay showed significant correlation between svPLA2 enzymatic activities with the svPLA2 protein abundances in venoms. High svPLA2 activities were observed in the venoms of Asiatic spitting cobras (Naja sputatrix, Naja sumatrana) and moderate activities in Asiatic non-spitters (Naja naja, Naja atra, Naja kaouthia), African spitters (subgenus Afronaja), and forest cobra (subgenus Boulengerina). African non-spitting cobras of subgenus Uraeus (Naja haje, Naja annulifera, Naja nivea, Naja senegalensis) showed exceptionally low svPLA2 enzymatic activities. The negligible PLA2 activity in Uraeus cobra venoms implies that PLA2 may not be ubiquitous in all snake venoms. The svPLA2 in cobra envenoming varies depending on the cobra species. This may potentially influence the efficacy of cobra antivenom in specific use for venom neutralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia.
| | - Kin Ying Wong
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia.
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia.
| | - Tzu Shan Ng
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia.
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia.
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Exploring the Diversity and Novelty of Toxin Genes in Naja sumatrana, the Equatorial Spitting Cobra from Malaysia through De Novo Venom-Gland Transcriptomics. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11020104. [PMID: 30754700 PMCID: PMC6409529 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The equatorial spitting cobra, Naja sumatrana, is a distinct species of medically important venomous snakes, listed as WHO Category 1 in Southeast Asia. The diversity of its venom genes has not been comprehensively examined, although a few toxin sequences annotated to Naja sputatrix were reported previously through cloning studies. To investigate this species venom genes’ diversity, de novo venom-gland transcriptomics of N. sumatrana from West Malaysia was conducted using next-generation sequencing technology. Genes encoding toxins represented only 60 of the 55,396 transcripts, but were highly expressed, contributing to 79.22% of total gene expression (by total FPKM) in the venom-glands. The toxin transcripts belong to 21 families, and 29 transcripts were further identified as full-length. Three-finger toxins (3FTx) composed of long, short, and non-conventional groups, constituted the majority of toxin transcripts (91.11% of total toxin FPKM), followed by phospholipase A2 (PLA2, 7.42%)—which are putatively pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic. The remaining transcripts in the 19 families were expressed at extremely low levels. Presumably, these toxins were associated with ancillary functions. Our findings unveil the diverse toxin genes unique to N. sumatrana, and provide insights into the pathophysiology of N. sumatrana envenoming.
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Venomics of Trimeresurus (Popeia) nebularis, the Cameron Highlands Pit Viper from Malaysia: Insights into Venom Proteome, Toxicity and Neutralization of Antivenom. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11020095. [PMID: 30736335 PMCID: PMC6410072 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Trimeresurus nebularis is a montane pit viper that causes bites and envenomation to various communities in the central highland region of Malaysia, in particular Cameron’s Highlands. To unravel the venom composition of this species, the venom proteins were digested by trypsin and subjected to nano-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for proteomic profiling. Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMP) dominated the venom proteome by 48.42% of total venom proteins, with a characteristic distribution of P-III: P-II classes in a ratio of 2:1, while P-I class was undetected. Snaclecs constituted the second most venomous protein family (19.43%), followed by snake venom serine proteases (SVSP, 14.27%), phospholipases A2 (5.40%), disintegrins (5.26%) and minor proteins including cysteine-rich secretory proteins, L-amino acid oxidases, phosphodiesterases, 5′-nucleotidases. The venomic profile correlates with local (painful progressive edema) and systemic (hemorrhage, coagulopathy, thrombocytopenia) manifestation of T. nebularis envenoming. As specific antivenom is unavailable for T. nebularis, the hetero-specific Thai Green Pit viper Monovalent Antivenom (GPVAV) was examined for immunological cross-reactivity. GPVAV exhibited good immunoreactivity to T. nebularis venom and the antivenom effectively cross-neutralized the hemotoxic and lethal effects of T. nebularis (lethality neutralizing potency = 1.6 mg venom per mL antivenom). The findings supported GPVAV use in treating T. nebularis envenoming.
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Oh AMF, Tan CH, Tan KY, Quraishi NH, Tan NH. Venom proteome of Bungarus sindanus (Sind krait) from Pakistan and in vivo cross-neutralization of toxicity using an Indian polyvalent antivenom. J Proteomics 2019; 193:243-254. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2018.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Revised: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Tan CH, Tan KY. Functional Application of Snake Venom Proteomics in In Vivo Antivenom Assessment. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1871:153-158. [PMID: 30276739 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-8814-3_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography is commonly employed as a decomplexing strategy in snake venom proteomics. The chromatographic fractions often contain relatively pure toxins that can be assessed functionally for toxicity level through the determination of their median lethal doses (LD50). Further, antivenom efficacy can be evaluated specifically against these venom fractions to understand the limitation of the antivenom as the treatment for snake envenomation. However, methods of toxicity assessment and antivenom evaluation vary across laboratories; hence there is a need to standardize the protocols and parameters, in particular those related to the neutralizing efficacy of antivenom. This chapter outlines the important in vivo techniques and data interpretation that can be applied in the functional study of snake venom proteomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomic Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Venom Proteome of Spine-Bellied Sea Snake ( Hydrophis curtus) from Penang, Malaysia: Toxicity Correlation, Immunoprofiling and Cross-Neutralization by Sea Snake Antivenom. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 11:toxins11010003. [PMID: 30583590 PMCID: PMC6356285 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The venom proteome of Hydrophis curtus (synonym: Lapemis hardwickii) from Penang, Malaysia was investigated with nano-electrospray ionization-liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-LCMS/MS) of the reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) venom fractions. Thirty distinct protein forms were identified as toxins from ten families. The three major protein families were phospholipase A2 (PLA2, 62.0% of total venom proteins), three-finger toxin (3FTX, 26.33%) and cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRiSP, 9.00%). PLA2 comprises diverse homologues (11 forms), predominantly the acidic subtypes (48.26%). 3FTX composed of one short alpha-neurotoxin (SNTX, 22.89%) and four long alpha-neurotoxins (LNTX, 3.44%). Both SNTX and LNTX were lethal in mice (intravenous LD50 = 0.10 and 0.24 μg/g, respectively) but the PLA2 were non-lethal (LD50 >1 μg/g). The more abundant and toxic SNTX appeared to be the main driver of venom lethality (holovenom LD50 = 0.20 μg/g). The heterologous Sea Snake Antivenom (SSAV, Australia) effectively cross-neutralized the venom (normalized potency = 9.35 mg venom neutralized per g antivenom) and the two neurotoxins in vivo, with the LNTX being neutralized more effectively (normalized potency = 3.5 mg toxin/g antivenom) than SNTX (normalized potency = 1.57 mg/g). SSAV immunorecognition was strong toward PLA2 but moderate-to-weak toward the alpha-neurotoxins, indicating that neutralization of the alpha-neurotoxins should be further improved.
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Silva A, Cristofori-Armstrong B, Rash LD, Hodgson WC, Isbister GK. Defining the role of post-synaptic α-neurotoxins in paralysis due to snake envenoming in humans. Cell Mol Life Sci 2018; 75:4465-4478. [PMID: 30069700 PMCID: PMC11105319 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-018-2893-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 07/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Snake venom α-neurotoxins potently inhibit rodent nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), but their activity on human receptors and their role in human paralysis from snakebite remain unclear. We demonstrate that two short-chain α-neurotoxins (SαNTx) functionally inhibit human muscle-type nAChR, but are markedly more reversible than against rat receptors. In contrast, two long-chain α-neurotoxins (LαNTx) show no species differences in potency or reversibility. Mutant studies identified two key residues accounting for this. Proteomic and clinical data suggest that paralysis in human snakebites is not associated with SαNTx, but with LαNTx, such as in cobras. Neuromuscular blockade produced by both subclasses of α-neurotoxins was reversed by antivenom in rat nerve-muscle preparations, supporting its effectiveness in human post-synaptic paralysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjana Silva
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Saliyapura, 50008, Sri Lanka
| | - Ben Cristofori-Armstrong
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
- Institute of Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Lachlan D Rash
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
- Institute of Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
| | - Wayne C Hodgson
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia.
| | - Geoffrey K Isbister
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia.
- Clinical Toxicology Research Group, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia.
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Munawar A, Ali SA, Akrem A, Betzel C. Snake Venom Peptides: Tools of Biodiscovery. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10110474. [PMID: 30441876 PMCID: PMC6266942 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2018] [Revised: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Nature endowed snakes with a lethal secretion known as venom, which has been fine-tuned over millions of years of evolution. Snakes utilize venom to subdue their prey and to survive in their natural habitat. Venom is known to be a very poisonous mixture, consisting of a variety of molecules, such as carbohydrates, nucleosides, amino acids, lipids, proteins and peptides. Proteins and peptides are the major constituents of the dry weight of snake venoms and are of main interest for scientific investigations as well as for various pharmacological applications. Snake venoms contain enzymatic and non-enzymatic proteins and peptides, which are grouped into different families based on their structure and function. Members of a single family display significant similarities in their primary, secondary and tertiary structures, but in many cases have distinct pharmacological functions and different bioactivities. The functional specificity of peptides belonging to the same family can be attributed to subtle variations in their amino acid sequences. Currently, complementary tools and techniques are utilized to isolate and characterize the peptides, and study their potential applications as molecular probes, and possible templates for drug discovery and design investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aisha Munawar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan.
| | - Syed Abid Ali
- H.E. J. Research Institute of Chemistry, (ICCBS), University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan.
| | - Ahmed Akrem
- Botany Division, Institute of Pure and Applied Biology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan.
| | - Christian Betzel
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, 22607 Hamburg, Germany.
- Laboratory for Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, DESY, Build. 22a, Notkestr. 85, 22603 Hamburg, Germany.
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Rajendran BK, Xavier Suresh M, Bhaskaran SP, Harshitha Y, Gaur U, Kwok HF. Pharmacoinformatic Approach to Explore the Antidote Potential of Phytochemicals on Bungarotoxin from Indian Krait, Bungarus caeruleus. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2018; 16:450-461. [PMID: 30455855 PMCID: PMC6231056 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2018.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2018] [Revised: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 10/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Venomous reptiles especially serpents are well known for their adverse effects after accidental conflicts with humans. Upon biting humans these serpents transmit arrays of detrimental toxins with diverse physiological activities that may either lead to minor symptoms such as dermatitis and allergic response or highly severe symptoms such as blood coagulation, disseminated intravascular coagulation, tissue injury, and hemorrhage. Other complications like respiratory arrest and necrosis may also occur. Bungarotoxins are a group of closely related neurotoxic proteins derived from the venom of kraits (Bungarus caeruleus) one of the six most poisonous snakes in India whose bite causes respiratory paralysis and mortality without showing any local symptoms. In the current study, by employing various pharmacoinformatic approaches, we have explored the antidote properties of 849 bioactive phytochemicals from 82 medicinal plants which have already shown antidote properties against various venomous toxins. These herbal compounds were taken and pharmacoinformatic approaches such as ADMET, docking and molecular dynamics were employed. The three-dimensional modelling approach provides structural insights on the interaction between bungarotoxin and phytochemicals. In silico simulations proved to be an effective analytical tools to investigate the toxin-ligand interaction, correlating with the affinity of binding. By analyzing the results from the present study, we proposed nine bioactive phytochemical compounds which are, 2-dodecanol, 7-hydroxycadalene, indole-3-(4'-oxo)butyric acid, nerolidol-2, trans-nerolidol, eugenol, benzene propanoic acid, 2-methyl-1-undecanol, germacren-4-ol can be used as antidotes for bungarotoxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barani Kumar Rajendran
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida de Universidade, Taipa, Macau
| | - M. Xavier Suresh
- Department of Physics, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Deemed to be University, Chennai 600119, India
| | - Shanmuga Priya Bhaskaran
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida de Universidade, Taipa, Macau
| | - Yarradoddi Harshitha
- Department of Physics, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Deemed to be University, Chennai 600119, India
| | - Uma Gaur
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida de Universidade, Taipa, Macau
| | - Hang Fai Kwok
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida de Universidade, Taipa, Macau
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