Androgenic signaling systems and their role in behavioral evolution

Physiological Basis of Convergent Evolution in Animal Communication Systems

To humans, the diverse array of display behaviors that animals use for communication can easily seem peculiar or bizarre. While ample research delves into the evolutionary principles that shape these signals' effectiveness, little attention is paid to evolutionary patterning of signal design across taxa, particularly when it comes to the potential convergent evolution of many elaborate behavioral displays. By taking a mechanistic perspective, we explore the physiological and neurobiological mechanisms that likely influence the evolution of communication signals, emphasizing the utilization of pre-existing structures over novel adaptations. Central to this investigation are the concepts of perceptual bias and ritualization that we propose contribute to the convergence of elaborate display designs across species. Perceptual bias explains a phenomenon where pre-existing perceptual systems of receivers, used for innate behaviors such as food and predator recognition, select for certain traits of a communication signal from a signaler. Ritualization occurs when traits with no functional role in communication are co-opted through selection and transformed into a new communicative signal. Importantly, susceptibility for ritualization can be brought about through physiological modifications that occurred early in evolutionary time. In this way, perceptual bias can be a selective force that causes the co-option of non-communicative traits into a new communication signal through ritualization involving pre-existing modifications to physiological systems. If the perceptual bias, non-communicative signal, and physiological modifications that increase susceptibility to ritualization are highly conserved, then we may see the convergent evolution of the new communication signal with unrelated taxa facing similar sensory constraints. We explore this idea here using the foot-flagging frog system as a theoretical case study.

Effects of Testosterone on Gene Expression Are Concordant between Sexes but Divergent across Species of Sceloporus Lizards

AbstractHormones mediate sexual dimorphism by regulating sex-specific patterns of gene expression, but it is unclear how much of this regulation involves sex-specific hormone levels versus sex-specific transcriptomic responses to the same hormonal signal. Moreover, transcriptomic responses to hormones can evolve, but the extent to which hormonal pleiotropy in gene regulation is conserved across closely related species is not well understood. We addressed these issues by elevating testosterone levels in juvenile females and males of three Sceloporus lizard species before sexual divergence in circulating testosterone and then characterizing transcriptomic responses in the liver. In each species, more genes were responsive to testosterone in males than in females, suggesting that early developmental processes prime sex-specific transcriptomic responses to testosterone later in life. However, overall transcriptomic responses to testosterone were concordant between sexes, with no genes exhibiting sex-by-treatment interactions. By contrast, hundreds of genes exhibited species-by-treatment interactions, particularly when comparing distantly related species with different patterns of sexual dimorphism, suggesting evolutionary lability in gene regulation by testosterone. Collectively, our results indicate that early organizational effects may lead to sex-specific differences in the magnitude, but not the direction, of transcriptomic responses to testosterone and that the hormone-genome interface accrues regulatory changes over evolutionary time.

Under the influence: exogenous testosterone influences men's cross-sex perceptions of sexual interest

The sexual misperception bias is a cognitive bias in which men tend to overestimate sexual interest from women, potentially shaped by evolutionary mating strategies. Testosterone, often linked to mating behaviors, might play a role in sustaining sexual overperceptions. To explore this possibility, we conducted a placebo-controlled study with 190 heterosexual men, administering either 11 mg of testosterone or a placebo. Participants interacted with an attractive female confederate, while naïve raters assessed the confederate's affiliative behaviors. Our findings suggest that exogenous testosterone did not broadly impact sexual overperception. However, we found that affiliative behavior from the confederate was positively correlated with perceived sexual interest among testosterone-treated, but not placebo-treated men. In addition, we found that this effect among testosterone-treated men was contingent on their self-perceived attractiveness. Specifically, the confederate's affiliative behaviors were positively correlated with perceived sexual interest, but only for testosterone-treated men with average or above average self-perceived attractiveness. Furthermore, our data revealed that men's tendency to project their own short-term and long-term mating interests increases as a function of self-perceived attractiveness, and this coupling is enhanced by testosterone for long-term interest. Taken together, these results suggest that testosterone may potentiate existing biases, particularly when sexual motivation is high, and bias perceptions of friendly behavior when engaging in cross-sex mindreading. This study adds to the understanding of the neuroendocrine bases of social cognition, suggesting that testosterone can affect men's perceptions of potential mates.

Evolutionary Loss of Male-Specific Coloration Is Associated with the Loss of Androgen Receptor Expression in Skin of Sceloporus Lizards

AbstractHormones can induce trait development in one species yet have no effect on the same trait in a closely related species, but the mechanisms underlying these differences are unclear. Here, we compare two closely related lizard species to explore the cellular mechanisms associated with the evolutionary loss of hormonally mediated ventral coloration. The eastern fence lizard (Sceloporus undulatus) has sexually dimorphic blue and black ventral coloration that develops when maturational increases in androgens induce melanin synthesis in males. The closely related striped plateau lizard (Sceloporus virgatus) has sexually monomorphic white ventral skin that does not produce melanin in response to the same signal. We used immunohistochemistry to localize the androgen receptor (AR) in the skin of both species and to test whether the loss of ventral coloration in S. virgatus corresponds to the loss of AR in the skin. We found that the ventral skin of S. virgatus displays little or no AR staining in the pigment cell layer, potentially explaining the loss of androgen sensitivity in this tissue, relative to the robust AR staining in the same layer of S. undulatus. Based on the location of three markers for melanophores (microphthalmia-associated transcription factor, dopachrome tautomerase, and tyrosinase), AR appears to be present in melanophores in S. undulatus. However, we could not detect these melanophore markers in the skin of S. virgatus. Therefore, the evolutionary loss of ventral coloration may have occurred via the loss of the AR-producing melanophore in mature ventral skin, preventing the development of a male-typical trait and sexual dimorphism in this tissue.

Species differences in hormonally mediated gene expression underlie the evolutionary loss of sexually dimorphic coloration in Sceloporus lizards

Phenotypic sexual dimorphism often involves the hormonal regulation of sex-biased expression for underlying genes. However, it is generally unknown whether the evolution of hormonally mediated sexual dimorphism occurs through upstream changes in tissue sensitivity to hormone signals, downstream changes in responsiveness of target genes, or both. Here, we use comparative transcriptomics to explore these possibilities in 2 species of Sceloporus lizards exhibiting different patterns of sexual dichromatism. Sexually dimorphic S. undulatus develops blue and black ventral coloration in response to testosterone, while sexually monomorphic S. virgatus does not, despite exhibiting similar sex differences in circulating testosterone levels. We administered testosterone implants to juveniles of each species and used RNAseq to quantify gene expression in ventral skin. Transcriptome-wide responses to testosterone were stronger in S. undulatus than in S. virgatus, suggesting species differences in tissue sensitivity to this hormone signal. Species differences in the expression of genes for androgen metabolism and sex hormone-binding globulin were consistent with this idea, but expression of the androgen receptor gene was higher in S. virgatus, complicating this interpretation. Downstream of androgen signaling, we found clear species differences in hormonal responsiveness of genes related to melanin synthesis, which were upregulated by testosterone in S. undulatus, but not in S. virgatus. Collectively, our results indicate that hormonal regulation of melanin synthesis pathways contributes to the development of sexual dimorphism in S. undulatus, and that changes in the hormonal responsiveness of these genes in S. virgatus contribute to the evolutionary loss of ventral coloration.

Social regulation of androgenic hormones and gestural display behavior in a tropical frog

Many animals use forms of gesture and dance to communicate with conspecifics in the breeding season, though the mechanisms of this behavior are rarely studied. Here, we investigate the hormone basis of such visual signal behavior in Bornean rocks frogs (Staurois parvus). Our results show that males aggregating at breeding waterfalls have higher testosterone (T) levels, and we speculate that this hormone increase is caused by social cues associated with sexual competition. To this end, we find that T levels in frogs at the waterfall positively predict the number waving gestures-or "foot flags"-that males perform while competing with rivals. By contrast, T does not predict differences in male calling behavior. In these frogs, vocal displays are used largely as an alert signal to direct a rival's attention to the foot flag; thus, our results are consistent with the view that factors related to reproductive context drive up T levels to mediate displays most closely linked to male-male combat, which in this case is the frog's elaborate gestural routine.

Sex and seasonal differences in neural steroid sensitivity predict territorial aggression in Siberian hamsters

Many animals display marked changes in physiology and behavior on a seasonal timescale, including non-reproductive social behaviors (e.g., aggression). Previous studies from our lab suggest that the pineal hormone melatonin acts via steroid hormones to regulate seasonal aggression in Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus), a species in which both males and females display increased non-breeding aggression. The neural actions of melatonin on steroids and aggressive behavior, however, are relatively unexplored. Here, we housed male and female hamsters in long-day photoperiods (LDs, characteristic of breeding season) or short-day photoperiods (SDs, characteristic of non-breeding season) and administered timed melatonin (M) or control injections. Following 10 weeks of treatment, we quantified aggressive behavior and neural steroid sensitivity by measuring the relative mRNA expression of two steroidogenic enzymes (aromatase and 5α-reductase 3) and estrogen receptor 1 in brain regions associated with aggression or reproduction [medial preoptic area (MPOA), anterior hypothalamus (AH), arcuate nucleus (ARC), and periaqueductal gray (PAG)] via quantitative PCR. Although LD-M and SD males and females displayed increased aggression and similar changes in gene expression in the ARC, there were sex-specific effects of treatment with melatonin and SDs on gene expression in the MPOA, AH, and PAG. Furthermore, males and females exhibited different relationships between neural gene expression and aggression in response to melatonin and SDs. Collectively, these findings support a role for melatonin in regulating seasonal variation in neural steroid sensitivity and aggression and reveal how distinct neuroendocrine responses may modulate a similar behavioral phenotype in male and female hamsters.

Systems biology as a framework to understand the physiological and endocrine bases of behavior and its evolution-From concepts to a case study in birds

Organismal behavior, with its tremendous complexity and diversity, is generated by numerous physiological systems acting in coordination. Understanding how these systems evolve to support differences in behavior within and among species is a longstanding goal in biology that has captured the imagination of researchers who work on a multitude of taxa, including humans. Of particular importance are the physiological determinants of behavioral evolution, which are sometimes overlooked because we lack a robust conceptual framework to study mechanisms underlying adaptation and diversification of behavior. Here, we discuss a framework for such an analysis that applies a "systems view" to our understanding of behavioral control. This approach involves linking separate models that consider behavior and physiology as their own networks into a singular vertically integrated behavioral control system. In doing so, hormones commonly stand out as the links, or edges, among nodes within this system. To ground our discussion, we focus on studies of manakins (Pipridae), a family of Neotropical birds. These species have numerous physiological and endocrine specializations that support their elaborate reproductive displays. As a result, manakins provide a useful example to help imagine and visualize the way systems concepts can inform our appreciation of behavioral evolution. In particular, manakins help clarify how connectedness among physiological systems-which is maintained through endocrine signaling-potentiate and/or constrain the evolution of complex behavior to yield behavioral differences across taxa. Ultimately, we hope this review will continue to stimulate thought, discussion, and the emergence of research focused on integrated phenotypes in behavioral ecology and endocrinology.

Biomaterials for Testicular Bioengineering: How far have we come and where do we have to go?

Traditional therapeutic interventions aim to restore male fertile potential or preserve sperm viability in severe cases, such as semen cryopreservation, testicular tissue, germ cell transplantation and testicular graft. However, these techniques demonstrate several methodological, clinical, and biological limitations, that impact in their results. In this scenario, reproductive medicine has sought biotechnological alternatives applied for infertility treatment, or to improve gamete preservation and thus increase reproductive rates in vitro and in vivo. One of the main approaches employed is the biomimetic testicular tissue reconstruction, which uses tissue-engineering principles and methodologies. This strategy pursues to mimic the testicular microenvironment, simulating physiological conditions. Such approach allows male gametes maintenance in culture or produce viable grafts that can be transplanted and restore reproductive functions. In this context, the application of several biomaterials have been proposed to be used in artificial biological systems. From synthetic polymers to decellularized matrixes, each biomaterial has advantages and disadvantages regarding its application in cell culture and tissue reconstruction. Therefore, the present review aims to list the progress that has been made and the continued challenges facing testicular regenerative medicine and the preservation of male reproductive capacity, based on the development of tissue bioengineering approaches for testicular tissue microenvironment reconstruction.

Gene expression in the female tree swallow brain is associated with inter- and intra-population variation in glucocorticoid levels

Studies of the evolutionary causes and consequences of variation in circulating glucocorticoids (GCs) have begun to reveal how they are shaped by selection. Yet the extent to which variation in circulating hormones reflects variation in other important regulators of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, and whether these relationships vary among populations inhabiting different environments, remain poorly studied. Here, we compare gene expression in the brain of female tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) from populations that breed in environments that differ in their unpredictability. We find evidence of inter-population variation in the expression of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors in the hypothalamus, with the highest gene expression in a population from an extreme environment, and lower expression in a population from a more consistent environment as well as in birds breeding at an environmentally variable high-altitude site that are part of a population that inhabits a mixture of high and low altitude habitats. Within some populations, variation in circulating GCs predicted differences in gene expression, particularly in the hypothalamus. However, some patterns were present in all populations, whereas others were not. These results are consistent with the idea that some combination of local adaptation and phenotypic plasticity may modify components of the HPA axis affecting stress resilience. Our results also underscore that a comprehensive understanding of the function and evolution of the stress response cannot be gained from measuring circulating hormones alone, and that future studies that apply a more explicitly evolutionary approach to important regulatory traits are likely to provide significant insights.

The telomere regulatory gene POT1 responds to stress and predicts performance in nature: Implications for telomeres and life history evolution

Telomeres are emerging as correlates of fitness-related traits and may be important mediators of ecologically relevant variation in life history strategies. Growing evidence suggests that telomere dynamics can be more predictive of performance than length itself, but very little work considers how telomere regulatory mechanisms respond to environmental challenges or influence performance in nature. Here, we combine observational and experimental data sets from free-living tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) to assess how performance is predicted by the telomere regulatory gene POT1, which encodes a shelterin protein that sterically blocks telomerase from repairing the telomere. First, we show that lower POT1 gene expression in the blood was associated with higher female quality, that is, earlier breeding and heavier body mass. We next challenged mothers with an immune stressor (lipopolysaccharide injection) that led to "sickness" in mothers and 24 h of food restriction in their offspring. While POT1 did not respond to maternal injection, females with lower constitutive POT1 gene expression were better able to maintain feeding rates following treatment. Maternal injection also generated a 1-day stressor for chicks, which responded with lower POT1 gene expression and elongated telomeres. Other putatively stress-responsive mechanisms (i.e., glucocorticoids, antioxidants) showed marginal responses in stress-exposed chicks. Model comparisons indicated that POT1 mRNA abundance was a largely better predictor of performance than telomere dynamics, indicating that telomere regulators may be powerful modulators of variation in life history strategies.

Evolutionary endocrinology and the problem of Darwin's tangled bank

Like Darwin's tangled bank of biodiversity, the endocrine mechanisms that give rise to phenotypic diversity also exhibit nearly endless forms. This tangled bank of mechanistic diversity can prove problematic as we seek general principles on the role of endocrine mechanisms in phenotypic evolution. A key unresolved question is therefore: to what degree are specific endocrine mechanisms re-used to bring about replicated phenotypic evolution? Related areas of inquiry are booming in molecular ecology, but behavioral traits are underrepresented in this literature. Here, I leverage the rich comparative tradition in evolutionary endocrinology to evaluate whether and how certain mechanisms may be repeated hotspots of behavioral evolutionary change. At one extreme, mechanisms may be parallel, such that evolution repeatedly uses the same gene or pathway to arrive at multiple independent (or, convergent) origins of a particular behavioral trait. At the other extreme, the building blocks of behavior may be unique, such that outwardly similar phenotypes are generated via lineage-specific mechanisms. This review synthesizes existing case studies, phylogenetic analyses, and experimental evolutionary research on mechanistic parallelism in animal behavior. These examples show that the endocrine building blocks of behavior have some elements of parallelism across replicated evolutionary events. However, support for parallelism is variable among studies, at least some of which relates to the level of complexity at which we consider sameness (i.e. pathway vs. gene level). Moving forward, we need continued experimentation and better testing of neutral models to understand whether, how - and critically, why - mechanism A is used in one lineage and mechanism B is used in another. We also need continued growth of large-scale comparative analyses, especially those that can evaluate which endocrine parameters are more or less likely to undergo parallel evolution alongside specific behavioral traits. These efforts will ultimately deepen understanding of how and why hormone-mediated behaviors are constructed the way that they are.

Activational vs. organizational effects of sex steroids and their role in the evolution of reproductive behavior: Looking to foot-flagging frogs and beyond

Sex steroids play an important role in regulation of the vertebrate reproductive phenotype. This is because sex steroids not only activate sexual behaviors that mediate copulation, courtship, and aggression, but they also help guide the development of neural and muscular systems that underlie these traits. Many biologists have therefore described the effects of sex steroid action on reproductive behavior as both "activational" and "organizational," respectively. Here, we focus on these phenomena from an evolutionary standpoint, highlighting that we know relatively little about the way that organizational effects evolve in the natural world to support the adaptation and diversification of reproductive behavior. We first review the evidence that such effects do in fact evolve to mediate the evolution of sexual behavior. We then introduce an emerging animal model - the foot-flagging frog, Staurois parvus - that will be useful to study how sex hormones shape neuromotor development necessary for sexual displays. The foot flag is nothing more than a waving display that males use to compete for access to female mates, and thus the neural circuits that control its production are likely laid down when limb control systems arise during the developmental transition from tadpole to frog. We provide data that highlights how sex steroids might organize foot-flagging behavior through its putative underlying mechanisms. Overall, we anticipate that future studies of foot-flagging frogs will open a powerful window from which to see how sex steroids influence the neuromotor systems to help germinate circuits that drive signaling behavior. In this way, our aim is to bring attention to the important frontier of endocrinological regulation of evolutionary developmental biology (endo-evo-devo) and its relationship to behavior.

Correlated evolution between colour conspicuousness and drum speed in woodpeckers

Sexual selection drives the evolution of many spectacular animal displays that we see in nature. Yet, how selection combines and elaborates different signal traits remains unclear. Here, we investigate this issue by testing for correlated evolution between head plumage colour and drumming behaviour in woodpeckers. These signals function in the context of mate choice and male-male competition, and they may appear to a receiver as a single multimodal display. We test for such correlations in males of 132 species using phylogenetic linear models, while considering the effect of habitat. We find that the plumage chromatic contrast is positively correlated with the speed of the drum, supporting the idea that species evolving more conspicuous plumage on their head also evolve faster drum displays. By contrast, we do not find evidence of correlated evolution between drum speed and head colour diversity, size of the head's red patch, or extent of the plumage achromatic contrast. Drum length was not correlated with any of the plumage coloration metrics. Lastly, we find no evidence that habitat acts as a strong selective force driving the evolution of head coloration or drumming elaboration. Coevolution between different signal modalities is therefore complex, and probably depends on the display components in question.

Social status mediates behavioral, endocrine, and neural responses to an intruder challenge in a social cichlid, Astatotilapia burtoni

Most animals encounter social challenges throughout their lives as they compete for resources. Individual responses to such challenges can depend on social status, sex, and community-level attributes, yet most of our knowledge of the behavioral and physiological mechanisms by which individuals respond to challenges has come from dyadic interactions between a resource holder and a challenger (usually both males). To incorporate differences in individual behavior that are influenced by surrounding group members, we use naturalistic communities of the cichlid fish, Astatotilapia burtoni, and examine resident dominant male responses to a territorial intrusion within the social group. We measured behavior and steroid hormones (testosterone and cortisol), and neural activity in key brain regions implicated in regulating territorial and social dominance behavior. In response to a male intruder, resident dominant males shifted from border defense to overt attack behavior, accompanied by decreased basolateral amygdala activity. These differences were context dependent - resident dominant males only exhibited increased border defense when the intruder secured dominance. Neither subordinate males nor females changed their behavior in response to a territorial intrusion in their community. However, neural activity in both hippocampus and lateral septum of subordinates increased when the intruder failed to establish dominance. Our results demonstrate how a social challenge results in multi-faceted behavioral, hormonal, and neural changes, depending on social status, sex, and the outcome of an intruder challenge. Taken together, our work provides novel insights into the mechanisms through which individual group members display context- and status-appropriate challenge responses in dynamic social groups.

Evolution of hormone-phenotype couplings and hormone-genome interactions

When selection favors a new relationship between a cue and a hormonally mediated response, adaptation can proceed by altering the hormonal signal that is produced or by altering the phenotypic response to the hormonal signal. The field of evolutionary endocrinology has made considerable progress toward understanding the evolution of hormonal signals, but we know much less about the evolution of hormone-phenotype couplings, particularly at the hormone-genome interface. We briefly review and classify the mechanisms through which these hormone-phenotype couplings likely evolve, using androgens and their receptors and genomic response elements to illustrate our view. We then present two empirical studies of hormone-phenotype couplings, one rooted in evolutionary quantitative genetics and another in comparative transcriptomics, each focused on the regulation of sexually dimorphic phenotypes by testosterone (T) in the brown anole lizard (Anolis sagrei). First, we illustrate the potential for hormone-phenotype couplings to evolve by showing that coloration of the dewlap (an ornament used in behavioral displays) exhibits significant heritability in its responsiveness to T, implying that anoles harbor genetic variance in the architecture of hormonal pleiotropy. Second, we combine T manipulations with analyses of the liver transcriptome to ask whether and how statistical methods for characterizing modules of co-expressed genes and in silico techniques for identifying androgen response elements (AREs) can improve our understanding of hormone-genome interactions. We conclude by emphasizing important avenues for future work at the hormone-genome interface, particularly those conducted in a comparative evolutionary framework.

Oxytocin-like receptor expression in evolutionarily conserved nodes of a vocal network associated with male courtship in a teleost fish

Neuropeptides, including oxytocin-like peptides, are a conserved group of hormones that regulate a wide range of social behaviors, including vocal communication. In the current study, we evaluate whether putative brain sites for the actions of isotocin (IT), the oxytocin (OT) homolog of teleost fishes are associated with vocal courtship and circuitry in the plainfin midshipman fish (Porichthys notatus). During the breeding season, nesting males produce advertisement calls known as "hums" to acoustically court females at night and attract them to nests. We first identify IT receptor (ITR) mRNA in evolutionarily conserved regions of the forebrain preoptic area (POA), anterior hypothalamus (AH), and midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG), and in two topographically separate populations within the hindbrain vocal pattern generator- duration-coding vocal prepacemaker (VPP) and amplitude-coding vocal motor nuclei (VMN) that also innervate vocal muscles. We also verify that ITR expression overlaps known distribution sites of OT-like immunoreactive fibers. Next, using phosphorylated ribosomal subunit 6 (pS6) as a marker for activated neurons, we demonstrate that ITR-containing neurons in the anterior parvocellular POA, AH, PAG, VPP, and VMN are activated in humming males. Posterior parvocellular and magno/gigantocellular divisions of the POA remain constitutively active in nonhumming males that are also in a reproductive state. Together with prior studies of midshipman fish and other vertebrates, our findings suggest that IT-signaling influences male courtship behavior, in part, by acting on brain regions that broadly influence behavioral state (POA) as well as the initiation (POA and PAG) and temporal structure (VPP and VMN) of advertisement hums.

Testosterone pulses paired with a location induce a place preference to the nest of a monogamous mouse under field conditions

Changing social environments such as the birth of young or aggressive encounters present a need to adjust behavior. Previous research examined how long-term changes in steroid hormones mediate these adjustments. We tested the novel concept that the rewarding effects of transient testosterone pulses (T-pulses) in males after social encounters alters their spatial distribution on a territory. In free-living monogamous California mice (Peromyscus californicus), males administered three T-injections at the nest spent more time at the nest than males treated with placebo injections. This mimics T-induced place preferences in the laboratory. Female mates of T-treated males spent less time at the nest but the pair produced more vocalizations and call types than controls. Traditionally, transient T-changes were thought to have transient behavioral effects. Our work demonstrates that in the wild, when T-pulses occur in a salient context such as a territory, the behavioral effects last days after T-levels return to baseline.

A Common Endocrine Signature Marks the Convergent Evolution of an Elaborate Dance Display in Frogs

AbstractUnrelated species often evolve similar phenotypic solutions to the same environmental problem, a phenomenon known as convergent evolution. But how do these common traits arise? We address this question from a physiological perspective by assessing how convergence of an elaborate gestural display in frogs (foot-flagging) is linked to changes in the androgenic hormone systems that underlie it. We show that the emergence of this rare display in unrelated anuran taxa is marked by a robust increase in the expression of androgen receptor (AR) messenger RNA in the musculature that actuates leg and foot movements, but we find no evidence of changes in the abundance of AR expression in these frogs' central nervous systems. Meanwhile, the magnitude of the evolutionary change in muscular AR and its association with the origin of foot-flagging differ among clades, suggesting that these variables evolve together in a mosaic fashion. Finally, while gestural displays do differ between species, variation in the complexity of a foot-flagging routine does not predict differences in muscular AR. Altogether, these findings suggest that androgen-muscle interactions provide a conduit for convergence in sexual display behavior, potentially providing a path of least resistance for the evolution of motor performance.

Migratory state and patterns of steroid hormone regulation in the pectoralis muscle of a nomadic migrant, the pine siskin (Spinus pinus)

The endocrine system is known to mediate responses to environmental change and transitions between different life stages (e.g., a non-breeding to a breeding life stage). Previous works from the field of environmental endocrinology have primarily focused on changes in circulating hormones, but a comprehensive understanding of endocrine signaling pathways requires studying changes in additional endocrine components (e.g., receptor densities) in a diversity of contexts and life stages. Migratory birds, for instance, can exhibit dramatic changes in their physiology and behavior, and both sex steroids as well as glucocorticoids are proposed mediators of the transition into a migratory state. However, the role of changes in endocrine signaling components within integral target tissues, such as flight muscles, in modulating the transition into a migratory state remains poorly understood. Here, we examined changes in gene expression levels of and correlational patterns (i.e., integration) between 8 endocrine signaling components associated with either glucocorticoids or sex steroid signaling in the pectoralis muscles of a nomadic migratory bird, the pine siskin (Spinus pinus). The pectoralis muscle is essential to migratory flight and undergoes conspicuous changes in preparation for migration, including hypertrophy. We focus on endocrine receptors and enzymes (e.g., 5α-reductase) that modulate the signaling capacity of circulating hormones within target tissues and may influence either catabolic or anabolic functioning within the pectoralis. Endocrine signaling components were compared between captive birds sampled prior to the expression of vernal migratory preparation and during the expression of a vernal migratory state. While birds exhibited differences in the size and color of the flight muscle and behavioral shifts indicative of a migratory state (i.e., zugunruhe), none of the measured endocrine components differed before and after the transition into the migratory state. Patterns of integration amongst all genes did, however, differ between the two life stages, suggesting the contrasting demands of different life stages may shape entire endocrine signaling networks within target tissues rather than individual components. Our work aligns with previous endocrine studies on pine siskins and, viewed together, suggest additional studies are needed to understand the endocrine system's role in mediating the development and progression of the vernal migratory state in this species. Further, the patterns observed in pine siskins, a nomadic migrant, differ from previous studies on obligate migrants and suggest that different mechanisms or interactions between endocrine signaling components may mediate the migratory transition in nomadic migrants.

Nesting strategy shapes territorial aggression but not testosterone: A comparative approach in female and male birds

Our understanding of the proximate and ultimate mechanisms shaping competitive reproductive phenotypes primarily stems from research on male-male competition for mates, even though competition is widespread in both sexes. We evaluate the hypothesis that the restricted nature of a resource required for reproduction, i.e. nest site, is a key variable driving territorial competition and testosterone secretion in female and male birds. Obligate secondary cavity-nesting has evolved repeatedly across avian lineages, providing a useful comparative context to explore how competition over limited nest cavities shapes aggression and its underlying mechanisms across species. Although evidence from one or another cavity-nesting species suggests that territorial aggression is adaptive in both females and males, this has not yet been tested in a comparative framework. We predicted that cavity-nesting generates more robust territorial aggression, in comparison to close relatives with less restrictive nesting strategies. Our focal species were two obligate secondary cavity-nesting species and two related species with more flexible nesting strategies in the same avian family: tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) vs. barn swallow (Hirundo rustica); Eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis) vs. American robin (Turdus migratorius). We assayed conspecific aggression using simulated territorial intrusion and found that cavity-nesting species displayed greater territorial aggression than their close relatives. This pattern held for both females and males. Because territorial aggression is often associated with elevated testosterone, we also hypothesized that cavity-nesting species would exhibit higher testosterone levels in circulation. However, cavity-nesting species did not have higher testosterone in circulation for either sex, despite some correlative evidence that testosterone is associated with higher rates of physical attack in female tree swallows. Our focus on a context that is relevant to both sexes - competition over essential breeding resources - provides a useful framework for co-consideration of proximate and ultimate drivers of reproductive competition in females and males.

Sexual selection and introgression in avian hybrid zones: Spotlight on Manacus

Hybrid zones offer a window into the processes and outcomes of evolution, from species formation or fusion to genomic underpinnings of specific traits and isolating mechanisms. Sexual selection is believed to be an important factor in speciation processes, and hybrid zones present special opportunities to probe its impact. The manakins (Aves, Pipridae) are a promising group in which to study the interplay of sexual selection and natural hybridization: they show substantial variation across the family in the strength of sexual selection they experience, they readily hybridize within and between genera, and they appear to have formed hybrid species, a rare event in birds. A hybrid zone between two manakins in the genus Manacus is unusual in that plumage and behavioral traits of one species have introgressed asymmetrically into populations of the second species through positive sexual selection, then apparently stalled at a river barrier. This is one of a handful of documented examples of asymmetric sexual trait introgression with a known selective mechanism. It offers opportunities to examine reproductive isolation, introgression, plumage color evolution, and natural factors enhancing or constraining the effects of sexual selection in real time. Here, we review previous work in this system, propose new hypotheses for observed patterns, and recommend approaches to test them.

How research on female vertebrates contributes to an expanded challenge hypothesis

The bi-directional links between hormones and behavior have been a rich area of research for decades. Theory on the evolution of testosterone (T) was greatly advanced by the challenge hypothesis, which presented a framework for understanding interspecific, seasonal, and social variation in T levels in males, and how they are shaped by the competing demands of parental care and male-male competition. Female competition is also widespread in nature, although it is less clear whether or how the challenge hypothesis applies to females. Here, we evaluate this issue in four parts: (1) We summarize and update prior analyses of seasonal plasticity and interspecific variation in T in females. (2) We evaluate experimental links between T and female aggression on shorter timescales, asking how T manipulations affect aggression and conversely, how social manipulations affect T levels in female mammals, birds, lizards, and fishes. (3) We examine alternative mechanisms that may link aggression to the social environment independently of T levels in circulation. (4) We present a case study, including new data analyses, in an aggressive female bird (the tree swallow, Tachycineta bicolor) to explore how variation in tissue-level processing of T may bridge the gap between circulating T and variation in behavior that is visible to natural selection. We close by connecting these multivariate levels of sex steroid signaling systems alongside different temporal scales (social, seasonal, and evolutionary) to generate broadly applicable insights into how animals respond to their social environment, regardless of whether they are male or female.

Sex Steroids as Regulators of Gestural Communication

Gestural communication is ubiquitous throughout the animal kingdom, occurring in species that range from humans to arthropods. Individuals produce gestural signals when their nervous system triggers the production of limb and body movement, which in turn functions to help mediate communication between or among individuals. Like many stereotyped motor patterns, the probability of a gestural display in a given social context can be modulated by sex steroid hormones. Here, we review how steroid hormones mediate the neural mechanisms that underly gestural communication in humans and nonhumans alike. This is a growing area of research, and thus we explore how sex steroids mediate brain areas involved in language production, social behavior, and motor performance. We also examine the way that sex steroids can regulate behavioral output by acting in the periphery via skeletal muscle. Altogether, we outline a new avenue of behavioral endocrinology research that aims to uncover the hormonal basis for one of the most common modes of communication among animals on Earth.

Androgenic modulation of extraordinary muscle speed creates a performance trade-off with endurance

Performance trade-offs can dramatically alter an organism's evolutionary trajectory by making certain phenotypic outcomes unattainable. Understanding how these trade-offs arise from an animal's design is therefore an important goal of biology. To explore this topic, we studied how androgenic hormones, which regulate skeletal muscle function, influence performance trade-offs relevant to different components of complex reproductive behaviour. We conducted this work in golden-collared manakins (Manacus vitellinus), a neotropical bird in which males court females by rapidly snapping their wings together above their back. Androgens help mediate this behavior by radically increasing the twitch speed of a dorsal wing muscle (scapulohumeralis caudalis, SH), which actuates the bird's wing-snap. Through hormone manipulations and in situ muscle recordings, we tested how these positive effects on SH speed influence trade-offs with endurance. Indeed, this latter trait impacts the display by shaping signal length. We found that androgen-dependent increases in SH speed incur a cost to endurance, particularly when this muscle performs at its functional limits. Moreover, when behavioural data were overlaid on our muscle recordings, displaying animals appeared to balance display speed with fatigue-induced muscle fusion (physiological tetanus) to generate the fastest possible signal while maintaining an appropriate signal duration. Our results point to androgen action as a functional trigger of trade-offs in sexual performance - these hormones enhance one element of a courtship display, but in doing so, impede another.

Testosterone secretion varies in a sex- and stage-specific manner: Insights on the regulation of competitive traits from a sex-role reversed species

Testosterone (T) mediates a variety of traits that function in competition for mates, including territorial aggression, ornaments, armaments, and gametogenesis. The link between T and mating competition has been studied mainly in males, but females also face selection pressures to compete for mates. Sex-role reversed species, in which females are the more competitive sex, provide a unique perspective on the role of T in promoting competitive traits. Here, we examine patterns of T secretion in sex-role reversed northern jacanas (Jacana spinosa) during breeding, when females are fertile and males are either seeking copulations or conducting parental care. We measured baseline levels of T in circulation along with a suite of behavioral and morphological traits putatively involved in mating competition. We evaluated hypotheses that levels of T track gonadal sex and parental role, and we begin to investigate whether T and competitive traits co-vary in a sex- and stage- specific manner. Although females had higher expression of competitive traits than males at either breeding stage, we found that females and incubating males had similar levels of T secretion, which were lower than those observed in copulating males. T was correlated with wing spur length in females and testes mass in copulating males, but was otherwise uncorrelated with other competitive traits. These findings suggest that levels of T in circulation alone do not predict variation in competitive traits across levels of analysis, including gonadal sex and parental role. Instead, our findings coupled with prior research indicate that selection for female mating competition and male care may generate different physiological regulation of competitive traits.

Neuroendocrinology of Sex-Role Reversal

Females of some species are considered sex-role reversed, meaning that they face stronger competition for mates compared to males. While much attention has been paid to behavioral and morphological patterns associated with sex-role reversal, less is known about its physiological regulation. Here, we evaluate hypotheses relating to the neuroendocrine basis of sex-role reversal. We refute the most widely tested activational hypothesis for sex differences in androgen secretion; sex-role reversed females do not have higher levels of androgens in circulation than males. However, we find some evidence that the effects of androgens may be sex-specific; circulating androgen levels correlate with some competitive phenotypes in sex-role reversed females. We also review evidence that sex-role reversed females have higher tissue-specific sensitivity to androgens than males, at least in some species and tissues. Organizational effects may explain these relationships, considering that early exposure to sex steroids can shape later sensitivity to hormones, often in sex-specific ways. Moving forward, experimental and correlative studies on the ontogeny and expression of sex-role reversal will further clarify the mechanisms that generate sex-specific behaviors and sex roles.

Sex steroids as mediators of phenotypic integration, genetic correlations, and evolutionary transitions

In recent decades, endocrinologists have increasingly adopted evolutionary methods and perspectives to characterize the evolution of the vertebrate endocrine system and leverage it as a model for developing and testing evolutionary theories. This review summarizes recent research on sex steroids (androgens and estrogens) to illustrate three ways in which a detailed understanding of the molecular and cellular architecture of hormonally mediated gene expression can enhance our understanding of general evolutionary principles. By virtue of their massively pleiotropic effects on the expression of genes and phenotypes, sex steroids and their receptors can (1) structure the patterns of phenotypic variance and covariance that are available to natural selection, (2) alter the underlying genetic correlations that determine a population's evolutionary response to selection, and (3) facilitate evolutionary transitions in fitness-related phenotypes via subtle regulatory shifts in underlying tissues and genes. These principles are illustrated by the author's research on testosterone and sexual dimorphism in lizards, and by recent examples drawn from other vertebrate systems. Mechanistically, these examples call attention to the importance of evolutionary changes in (1) androgen- and estrogen-mediated gene expression, (2) androgen and estrogen receptor expression, and (3) the distribution of androgen and estrogen response elements in target genes throughout the genome. A central theme to emerge from this review is that the rapidly increasing availability of genomic and transcriptomic data from non-model organisms places evolutionary endocrinologist in an excellent position to address the hormonal regulation of the key evolutionary interface between genes and phenotypes.

Tissue-specific expression profiles and positive selection analysis in the tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) using a de novo transcriptome assembly

Tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) are one of the most commonly studied wild birds in North America. They have advanced numerous research areas, including life history, physiology, and organismal responses to global change; however, transcriptomic resources are scarce. To further advance the utility of this system for biologists across disciplines, we generated a transcriptome for the tree swallow using six tissues (brain, blood, ovary, spleen, liver, and muscle) collected from breeding females. We de novo assembled 207,739 transcripts, which we aligned to 14,717 high confidence protein-coding genes. We then characterized each tissue with regard to its unique genes and processes and applied this transcriptome to two fundamental questions in evolutionary biology and endocrinology. First, we analyzed 3,015 single-copy orthologs and identified 46 genes under positive selection in the tree swallow lineage, including those with putative links to adaptations in this species. Second, we analyzed tissue-specific expression patterns of genes involved in sex steroidogenesis and processing. Enzymes capable of synthesizing these behaviorally relevant hormones were largely limited to the ovary, whereas steroid binding genes were found in nearly all other tissues, highlighting the potential for local regulation of sex steroid-mediated traits. These analyses provide new insights into potential sources of phenotypic variation in a free-living female bird and advance our understanding of fundamental questions in evolutionary and organismal biology.

Evaluating testosterone as a phenotypic integrator: From tissues to individuals to species

Hormones have the potential to bring about rapid phenotypic change; however, they are highly conserved over millions of years of evolution. Here, we examine the evolution of hormone-mediated phenotypes, and the extent to which regulation is achieved via independence or integration of the many components of endocrine systems. We focus on the sex steroid testosterone (T), its cognate receptor (androgen receptor) and related endocrine components. We pose predictions about the mechanisms underlying phenotypic integration, including coordinated sensitivity to T within and among tissues and along the HPG axis. We then assess these predictions with case studies from wild birds, asking whether gene expression related to androgenic signaling naturally co-varies among individuals in ways that would promote phenotypic integration. Finally, we review how mechanisms of integration and independence vary over developmental or evolutionary time, and we find limited support for integration.

Phenotypic variation reveals sites of evolutionary constraint in the androgenic signaling pathway

Steroid hormone systems play an important role in shaping the evolution of vertebrate sexual traits, but several aspects of this relationship remain unclear. For example, we currently know little about how steroid signaling complexes are adapted to accommodate the emergence of behavior in response to sexual selection. We use downy woodpeckers (Dryobates pubescens) to evaluate how the machinery underlying androgen action can evolve to accommodate this bird's main territorial signal, the drum. We focus specifically on modifications to androgenic mechanisms in the primary neck muscle that actuates the hammering movements underlying this signal. Of the signaling components we examine, we find that levels of circulating testosterone (T) and androgen receptor (AR) expression are consistently increased in a way that likely enhances androgenic regulation of drumming. By contrast, the expression of nuclear receptor co-factors-the 'molecular rheostats' of steroid action-show no such relationship in our analyses. If anything, co-factors are expressed in directions that would presumably hinder androgenic regulation of the drum. These findings therefore collectively point to T levels and AR as the more evolutionarily labile components of the androgenic system, in that they are likely more apt to change over time to support sexual selection for territorial signaling in woodpeckers. Yet the signaling elements that fine-tune AR's functional effects on the genome-namely the receptor's transcriptional co-factors-do not change in such a manner, and thus may be under tighter evolutionary constraint.

Testicular Cancer: Genes, Environment, Hormones

Testicular cancer (TC) represents one of the most peculiar clinical challenges at present. In fact, currently treatments are so effective ensuring a 5 years disease-free survival rate in nearly 95% of patients. On the other hand however, TC represents the most frequent newly diagnosed form of cancer in men between the ages of 14 and 44 years, with an incidence ranging from <1 to 9.9 affected individuals per 100,000 males across countries, while the overall incidence is also increasing worldwide. Furthermore, cancer survivors show a 2% risk of developing cancer in the contralateral testis within 15 years of initial diagnosis. This complex and multifaceted scenario requires a great deal of effort to understand the clinical base of available evidence. It is now clear that genetic, environmental and hormonal risk factors concur and mutually influence both the development of the disease and its prognosis, in terms of response to treatment and the risk of recurrence. In this paper, the most recent issues describing the relative contribution of the aforementioned risk factors in TC development are discussed. In addition, particular attention is paid to the exposure to environmental chemical substances and thermal stress, whose role in cancer development and progression has recently been investigated at the molecular level.