Physical exercise and the functions of microRNAs

High-intensity interval training prevents high-fat diet-induced hepatic steatosis by modulating miRNA-34a, miRNA-467b, and their primary target proteins in male rats

AIMS

High-fat diet (HFD) consumption contributes to obesity and liver damage, while exercise training may counteract these effects. Given the regulatory role of microRNAs in lipid metabolism, this study investigates the impact of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and HFD on hepatic fat accumulation, as well as the expression of miRNA-34a, miRNA-467b, and their associated proteins.

MAIN METHODS

Twenty-four male rats were randomly assigned to four groups: (1) CON, (2) HIIT, (3) HFD, and (4) HIIT+HFD. The HFD groups received a 60% fat diet, while the rats in the HIIT groups performed high-intensity interval training (3 sessions/week, 2.5 minutes high-intensity running × 90% maximal running capacity (MRC) with 2.5 minutes active rest × 50% MRC, for ten weeks). Forty-eight hours post-intervention, blood and liver samples were collected to assess histopathology, liver enzymes, and the expression of miRNA-34a, miRNA-467b, SIRT1, PPAR-ɑ, and LPL proteins.

KEY FINDINGS

The HFD group exhibited excessive hepatic lipid accumulation, whereas HIIT significantly prevented HFD-induced hepatic steatosis, as confirmed by histopathological examinations. Liver enzyme levels (AST, ALT, and ALP) were significantly higher in the HFD group and significantly lower in both the HIIT and HIIT+HFD groups. Additionally, HIIT significantly increased miRNA-467b, SIRT1, and PPAR-ɑ expression while significantly decreasing miRNA-34a and LPL expression, preventing the effects of HFD.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings identified a novel molecular mechanism confirming that HIIT is beneficial to prevent hepatic steatosis and hepatic damage induced by HFD, likely due to the modulation of miRNA-467b, miRNA-34a, and their main target proteins.

Bridging the gap in obesity research: A consensus statement from the European Society for Clinical Investigation

BACKGROUND

Most forms of obesity are associated with chronic diseases that remain a global public health challenge.

AIMS

Despite significant advancements in understanding its pathophysiology, effective management of obesity is hindered by the persistence of knowledge gaps in epidemiology, phenotypic heterogeneity and policy implementation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This consensus statement by the European Society for Clinical Investigation identifies eight critical areas requiring urgent attention. Key gaps include insufficient long-term data on obesity trends, the inadequacy of body mass index (BMI) as a sole diagnostic measure, and insufficient recognition of phenotypic diversity in obesity-related cardiometabolic risks. Moreover, the socio-economic drivers of obesity and its transition across phenotypes remain poorly understood.

RESULTS

The syndemic nature of obesity, exacerbated by globalization and environmental changes, necessitates a holistic approach integrating global frameworks and community-level interventions. This statement advocates for leveraging emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence, to refine predictive models and address phenotypic variability. It underscores the importance of collaborative efforts among scientists, policymakers, and stakeholders to create tailored interventions and enduring policies.

DISCUSSION

The consensus highlights the need for harmonizing anthropometric and biochemical markers, fostering inclusive public health narratives and combating stigma associated with obesity. By addressing these gaps, this initiative aims to advance research, improve prevention strategies and optimize care delivery for people living with obesity.

CONCLUSION

This collaborative effort marks a decisive step towards mitigating the obesity epidemic and its profound impact on global health systems. Ultimately, obesity should be considered as being largely the consequence of a socio-economic model not compatible with optimal human health.

Physical exercise and epigenetic modifications in skeletal muscle, brain, and heart

The origins of many diseases can be traced to the dynamic interplay of genetic predispositions and environmental exposures post-birth. Epigenetic modifications have recently gained prominence as a significant mediator between genetic information and environmental factors, influencing the occurrence and progression of disease. There is a burgeoning body of evidence supports that physical exercise, acting as an external environmental stimulus, exerts a discernible impact on major epigenetic modifications, including histone modifications, DNA methylation, RNA methylation, and non-coding RNA. This effect assumes a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of various human diseases. Exploring the epigenetic molecular mechanisms through which physical exercise enhances human health holds the promise of deepening our understanding of how it improves physiological functions, mitigates disease risks, and establishes a theoretical foundation for employing physical exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention in disease prevention and treatment.

Exosomes and microRNAs as mediators of the exercise

MicroRNAs (miRNAs), also known as microribonucleic acids, are small molecules found in specific tissues that are essential for maintaining proper control of genes and cellular processes. Environmental factors, such as physical exercise, can modulate miRNA expression and induce targeted changes in gene transcription. This article presents an overview of the present knowledge on the principal miRNAs influenced by physical activity in different tissues and bodily fluids. Numerous research projects have emphasized the significant impact of miRNAs on controlling biological changes brought about by physical activity. These molecules play main roles in important processes such as the growth of skeletal muscle and heart muscle cells, the creation of mitochondria, the development of the vascular system, and the regulation of metabolism. Studies have shown that physical exertion utilizes the contributions of miR-1, miR-133, miR-206, miR-208, and miR-486 to revitalize and restore skeletal muscle tissue. Moreover, detecting alterations in miRNA levels and connecting them to the specific outcomes of various exercise routines and intensities can act as indicators for physical adaptation and the reaction to physical activity in long-term diseases. Numerous studies have confirmed that extracellular vesicles (EVs) which composed of different members such as exosomes have the ability to reduce inflammation through the activation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB pathway. Furthermore, physical activity greatly affects the levels of specific miRNAs present in exosomes derived from skeletal muscle. Therefore, exosomal miRNAs target some pathways that are related to growth and development, such asWnt/β-catenin, PI3K/AKT, and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1). Exercise-induced exosomes have also been identified as important mediators in promoting beneficial effects throughout the body. The aim of this review is to summarize the effect of exercise on the function of miRNAs and exosomes.

Regulatory role of lncMD1 in goat skeletal muscle satellite cell differentiation via miR-133a-3p and miR-361-3p targeting

Skeletal muscle satellite cells (SMSCs) are pivotal in skeletal muscle development and are influenced by numerous regulatory factors. This study focuses on the regulatory and functional mechanism roles of lncMD1, a muscle-specific long non-coding RNA, in the proliferation and differentiation of goat SMSCs. Employing in vitro cultured goat SMSCs, this study demonstrated that lncMD1, functions as a decoy for miR-133a-3p and miR-361-3p. This interaction competitively binds these microRNAs to modulate the expression of dynactin subunit 2 (DCTN2) and dynactin subunit 1 (DCTN1), thereby affects SMSCs proliferation and differentiation. These findings enhance the understanding of non-coding RNAs in goat SMSCs growth cycles and offer a theoretical foundation for exploring the molecular processes of goat skeletal muscle myogenic development.

Advancements in Research on Mesenchymal Stem-Cell-Derived Exosomal miRNAs: A Pivotal Insight into Aging and Age-Related Diseases

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are capable of differentiating into various cell types and play a crucial role in repairing aging tissues and diseased organs. Aging manifests as a gradual loss of cellular, tissue, and organ function, leading to the progression of pathologies. Exosomes (Exos) are extracellular vesicles secreted by cells, which maintain cellular homeostasis, clear cellular debris, and facilitate communication between cells and organs. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the mechanisms for the synthesis and sorting of MSC-Exo miRNAs and summarizes the current research status of MSCs-Exos in mitigating aging and age-related diseases. It delves into the underlying molecular mechanisms, which encompass antioxidative stress, anti-inflammatory response, and the promotion of angiogenesis. Additionally, this review also discusses potential challenges in and future strategies for advancing MSC-Exo miRNA-based therapies in the treatment of aging and age-related diseases.

Effects of exercise modality combined with moderate hypoxia on blood glucose regulation in adults with overweight

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the combined effects of moderate hypoxia with three different exercise modes on glucose regulation in healthy overweight adults. Methods: Thirteen overweight males (age: 31 ± 4 years; body fat 26.3 ± 3.2%) completed three exercise trials in a randomized crossover design involving 60 min cycling exercise at 90% lactate threshold (LOW), sprint interval training (20 × 4 s all-out; SIT) and lower limb functional bodyweight exercises (8 sets of 4 × 20 s; FEX) under moderate hypoxia (FiO2 = 16.5%). Post-exercise oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was performed following each trial. Heart rate, oxygen saturation (SpO2), physical activity enjoyment scale (PACES), and perceptual measures were recorded during each exercise session. Venous blood was collected pre-, immediately post-, and 24 h post-exercise and analysed for plasma glucose and insulin, incremental area under curve (iAUC), and circulating microRNA expression (c-miRs-486-5p, -126-5p, and -21-5p). Interstitial glucose concentrations were measured using continuous glucose monitoring (CGM). Results: Post-exercise OGTT iAUC for plasma glucose and insulin concentration were lower in SIT and LOW vs. control (p < 0.05) while post-exercise interstitial glucose iAUC and c-miRs were not different between exercise modes. Heart rate was greater in SIT vs. LOW and FEX, and FEX vs. LOW (p < 0.05), SpO2 was lower in SIT, while PACES was not different between exercise modes. Perceptual measures were greater in SIT vs. LOW and FEX. Conclusion: Acute SIT and LOW under moderate hypoxia improved post-exercise plasma insulin compared to FEX exercises. Considering SIT was also time-efficient, well tolerated, and enjoyable for participants, this may be the preferred exercise modality for improving glucose regulation in adult males with overweight when combined with moderate hypoxia.

Non-coding RNAs in exercise immunology: A systematic review

Regular physical exercise has been recognized as a potent modulator of immune function, with its effects including enhanced immune surveillance, reduced inflammation, and improved overall health. While strong evidence exists that physical exercise affects the specific expression and activity of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) also involved in immune system regulation, heterogeneity in individual study designs and analyzed exercise protocols exists, and a condensed list of functional, exercise-dependent ncRNAs with known targets in the immune system is missing from the literature. A systematic review and qualitative analysis was used to identify and categorize ncRNAs participating in immune modulation by physical exercise. Two combined approaches were used: (a) a systematic literature search for "ncRNA and exercise immunology", (b) and a database search for microRNAs (miRNAs) (miRTarBase and DIANA-Tarbase v8) aligned with known target genes in the immune system based on the Reactome database, combined with a systematic literature search for "ncRNA and exercise". Literature searches were based on PubMed, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus; and miRNA databases were filtered for targets validated by in vitro experimental data. Studies were eligible if they reported on exercise-based interventions in healthy humans. After duplicate removal, 95 studies were included reporting on 164 miRNAs, which were used for the qualitative synthesis. Six studies reporting on long-noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) or circular RNAs were also identified. Results were analyzed using ordering tables that included exercise modality (endurance/resistance exercise), acute or chronic interventions, as well as the consistency in reported change between studies. Evaluation criteria were defined as "validated" with 100% of ≥3 independent studies showing identical direction of regulation, "plausible" (≥80%), or "suggestive" (≥70%). For resistance exercise, upregulation of miR-206 was validated while downregulation of miR-133a appeared plausible. For endurance exercise, 15 miRNAs were categorized as validated, with 12 miRNAs being consistently elevated and 3 miRNAs being downregulated, most of them after acute exercise training. In conclusion, our approach provides evidence that miRNAs play a major role in exercise-induced effects on the innate and adaptive immune system by targeting different pathways affecting immune cell distribution, function, and trafficking as well as production of (anti-)inflammatory cytokines. miRNAs miR-15, miR-29c, miR-30a, miR-142/3, miR-181a, and miR-338 emerged as key players in mediating the immunomodulatory effects of exercise predominantly after acute bouts of endurance exercise.

Mesoporous bioactive glass scaffolds for the delivery of bone marrow stem cell-derived osteoinductive extracellular vesicles lncRNA promote senescent bone defect repair by targeting the miR-1843a-5p/Mob3a/YAP axis

Bone repair in elderly patients poses a huge challenge due to the age-related progressive decline in regenerative abilities attributed to the senescence of bone marrow stem cells (BMSCs). Bioactive scaffolds have been applied in bone regeneration due to their various biological functions. In this study, we aimed to fabricate functionalized bioactive scaffolds through loading osteoinductive extracellular vesicles (OI-EVs) based on mesoporous bioactive glass (MBG) scaffolds (1010 particles/scaffold) and to investigate its effects on osteogenesis and senescence of BMSCs. The results suggested that OI-EVs upregulate the proliferative and osteogenic capacities of senescent BMSCs. More importantly, The results showed that loading OI-EVs into MBG scaffolds achieved better bone regeneration. Furthermore, OI-EVs and BMSCs RNAs bioinformatics analysis indicated that OI-EVs play roles through transporting pivotal lncRNA acting as a "sponge" to compete with Mob3a for miR-1843a-5p to promote YAP dephosphorylation and nuclear translocation, ultimately resulting in elevated proliferation and osteogenic differentiation and reduced senescence-related phenotypes. Collectively, these results suggested that the OI-EVs lncRNA ceRNA regulatory networks might be the key point for senescent osteogenesis. More importantly, the study indicated the feasibility of loading OI-EVs into scaffolds and provided novel insights into biomaterial design for facilitating bone regeneration in the treatment of senescent bone defects. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Constructing OI-EVs/MBG delivering system and verification of its bone regeneration enhancement in senescent defect repair. Aging bone repair poses a huge challenge due to the age-related progressive degenerative decline in regenerative abilities attributed to the senescence of BMSCs. OI-EVs/MBG delivering system were expected as promising treatment for senescent bone repair, which could provide an effective strategy for bone regeneration in elderly patients. Clarification of potential OI-EVs lncRNA ceRNA regulatory mechanism in senescent bone regeneration OI-EVs play important roles through transferring lncRNA-ENSRNOG00000056625 sponging miR-1843a-5p that targeted Mob3a to activate YAP translocation into nucleus, ultimately alleviate senescence, promote proliferation and osteogenic differentiation in O-BMSCs, which provides theoretical basis for EVs-mediated therapy in future clinical works.

Time for micro-RNAs in steatotic liver disease: a case-control study

One of the challenges of modern-day living is to resist the temptation of overfeeding and sedentariness and maintain a healthy body and mind. On a favorable genetic and epigenetic background, a high-fat diet combined with lack of physical exercise constitutes the foundation for severe metabolic disturbances including steatotic liver disease. In our case-control study, we had the aim of establishing the role of selected micro-RNAs-miR-122, miR-192, miR-33a, and miR-33b-as superior biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of steatotic liver in a 36-patient cohort compared to 12 healthy controls. Initial results confirmed the decline in miR-122 expression as fatty liver is progressing. However, combinations of ΔmiRs, such as ΔmiR33a_192, ΔmiR33a_122, and ΔmiR33b_122, correlate with ultrasound steatosis grade (R 2 = 0.78) while others such as ΔmiR33b_122 provide a high specificity and sensitivity in fatty liver disease with an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.85. Compared to classical biomarkers, micro-RNAs can be used for both diagnostic and prognostic purposes as their diminished expression in severe cases of steatosis is associated with higher risk of emerging hepatocellular carcinoma. Manipulating micro-RNAs through agomirs or antagomirs can be the answer to the yet unsolved problem of efficient therapy in MAFLD.

Acute response in circulating microRNAs following a single bout of short-sprint and heavy strength training in well-trained cyclists

Background: Heavy strength (HS) and short-sprint (SS) are commonly used training methods for competitive road cyclists, with the aim to improve the anaerobic power and short time cycling performance. Knowledge of how such training methods affects biochemical as well as molecular factors, are particularly important for determining individual recovery and long-term adaptations. The primary aim of the current study was to investigate the expression levels of small non-coding RNAs in response to HS and SS training in elite cyclists as potential biomarkers for individual optimal restitution time. Methods: Eleven well trained cyclists performed one session of HS training and one session of SS training on separate days. Blood samples were taken at baseline and 5 min, 1 h and 21 h post training. Along with physiological measurements and biochemical factors (serum creatine kinase, myoglobin, human growth hormone and plasma lactate), real-time quantitative PCR was used to explore whether HS and/or SS training influenced the abundance of 24 circulating miRNAs, in serum, associated with muscle development, angiogenesis, and/or inflammation. Results: Based on complete miRNA profiles from nine cyclists, the miRNAs showing most altered expression after both training sessions included the three striated muscle-specific miRNAs (myomiRs) miR-1-3p, 133a-3p and 133b-3p. While all three miRNAs showed significantly highest expression at 1 h post HS session, the acute effect of the SS session included a significantly higher level of miR-1-3p alone, at 5 min (highest), as well as at 1 h and 21 h post session. Correlation (negative) with biochemical markers was only shown for miR-133a-3p and CK (r = -0.786, p = 0.041) and between miR-133b-3p and [La-] (r = -0.711, p = .032), at 21 h post SS session. Conclusion: Our findings support that unique myomiRs are regulated by HS and SS training. Such knowledge may be important for individually adjusted restitution times.

Metabolic memory: mechanisms and diseases

Metabolic diseases and their complications impose health and economic burdens worldwide. Evidence from past experimental studies and clinical trials suggests our body may have the ability to remember the past metabolic environment, such as hyperglycemia or hyperlipidemia, thus leading to chronic inflammatory disorders and other diseases even after the elimination of these metabolic environments. The long-term effects of that aberrant metabolism on the body have been summarized as metabolic memory and are found to assume a crucial role in states of health and disease. Multiple molecular mechanisms collectively participate in metabolic memory management, resulting in different cellular alterations as well as tissue and organ dysfunctions, culminating in disease progression and even affecting offspring. The elucidation and expansion of the concept of metabolic memory provides more comprehensive insight into pathogenic mechanisms underlying metabolic diseases and complications and promises to be a new target in disease detection and management. Here, we retrace the history of relevant research on metabolic memory and summarize its salient characteristics. We provide a detailed discussion of the mechanisms by which metabolic memory may be involved in disease development at molecular, cellular, and organ levels, with emphasis on the impact of epigenetic modulations. Finally, we present some of the pivotal findings arguing in favor of targeting metabolic memory to develop therapeutic strategies for metabolic diseases and provide the latest reflections on the consequences of metabolic memory as well as their implications for human health and diseases.

The Impact of Physical Exercise on microRNAs in Hemodialysis Patients: A Review and a Protocol for an Ancillary Study

Physical inactivity is considered a significant risk factor for mortality and morbidity among chronic hemodialysis (HD) patients. Therefore, physical exercise is recommended in the treatment of HD patients. Although the beneficial effects of physical exercise in HD patients are well-described in the literature, the underlying physiological mechanisms still need to be fully understood. Recently, microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as potential mediators of the therapeutic effects of physical exercise in healthy individuals. miRNAs are short, single-stranded, noncoding RNAs involved in gene expression regulation. Specifically, upon forming the RNA-induced silencing complex, miRNAs selectively bind to specific miRNAs within cells, reducing gene expression. miRNAs can be secreted by cells in an accessible form or enclosed within exosomes or extracellular vesicles. They can be detected in various body fluids, including serum (circulating miRNAs), facilitating the study of their diverse expression. Currently, there is no available data regarding the impact of physical exercise on the expression of miRNAs involved in osteogenic differentiation, a fundamental mechanism in the development of vascular calcification, for HD patients. Therefore, we have designed an observational and longitudinal case-control study to evaluate the expression of miR-9 and miR-30b in HD patients participating in a 3-month interdialytic physical exercise program. This paper aims to present the study protocol and review the expression of circulating miRNAs in HD patients and their modulation through physical exercise.

miR-195b is required for proper cellular homeostasis in the elderly

Over the last decade we have witnessed an increasing number of studies revealing the functional role of non-coding RNAs in a multitude of biological processes, including cellular homeostasis, proliferation and differentiation. Impaired expression of non-coding RNAs can cause distinct pathological conditions, including herein those affecting the gastrointestinal and cardiorespiratory systems, respectively. miR-15/miR-16/miR-195 family members have been broadly implicated in multiple biological processes, including regulation of cell proliferation, apoptosis and metabolism within distinct tissues, such as heart, liver and lungs. While the functional contribution of miR-195a has been reported in multiple biological contexts, the role of miR-195b remains unexplored. In this study we dissected the functional role of miR-195b by generating CRISPR-Cas9 gene edited miR-195b deficient mice. Our results demonstrate that miR-195b is dispensable for embryonic development. miR-195b-/- mice are fertile and displayed no gross anatomical and/or morphological defects. Mechanistically, cell cycle regulation, metabolism and oxidative stress markers are distinctly impaired in the heart, liver and lungs of aged mice, a condition that is not overtly observed at midlife. The lack of overt functional disarray during embryonic development and early adulthood might be due to temporal and tissue-specific compensatory mechanisms driven by selective upregulation miR-15/miR-16/miR-195 family members. Overall, our data demonstrated that miR-195b is dispensable for embryonic development and adulthood but is required for cellular homeostasis in the elderly.

Gut liver brain axis in diseases: the implications for therapeutic interventions

Gut-liver-brain axis is a three-way highway of information interaction system among the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and nervous systems. In the past few decades, breakthrough progress has been made in the gut liver brain axis, mainly through understanding its formation mechanism and increasing treatment strategies. In this review, we discuss various complex networks including barrier permeability, gut hormones, gut microbial metabolites, vagus nerve, neurotransmitters, immunity, brain toxic metabolites, β-amyloid (Aβ) metabolism, and epigenetic regulation in the gut-liver-brain axis. Some therapies containing antibiotics, probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), polyphenols, low FODMAP diet and nanotechnology application regulate the gut liver brain axis. Besides, some special treatments targeting gut-liver axis include farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonists, takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5) agonists, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor antagonists and fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF19) analogs. Targeting gut-brain axis embraces cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), antidepressants and tryptophan metabolism-related therapies. Targeting liver-brain axis contains epigenetic regulation and Aβ metabolism-related therapies. In the future, a better understanding of gut-liver-brain axis interactions will promote the development of novel preventative strategies and the discovery of precise therapeutic targets in multiple diseases.

Major Depressive Disorder and Gut Microbiota: Role of Physical Exercise

Major depressive disorder (MDD) has a high prevalence and is a major contributor to the global burden of disease. This psychiatric disorder results from a complex interaction between environmental and genetic factors. In recent years, the role of the gut microbiota in brain health has received particular attention, and compelling evidence has shown that patients suffering from depression have gut dysbiosis. Several studies have reported that gut dysbiosis-induced inflammation may cause and/or contribute to the development of depression through dysregulation of the gut-brain axis. Indeed, as a consequence of gut dysbiosis, neuroinflammatory alterations caused by microglial activation together with impairments in neuroplasticity may contribute to the development of depressive symptoms. The modulation of the gut microbiota has been recognized as a potential therapeutic strategy for the management of MMD. In this regard, physical exercise has been shown to positively change microbiota composition and diversity, and this can underlie, at least in part, its antidepressant effects. Given this, the present review will explore the relationship between physical exercise, gut microbiota and depression, with an emphasis on the potential of physical exercise as a non-invasive strategy for modulating the gut microbiota and, through this, regulating the gut-brain axis and alleviating MDD-related symptoms.

The Role of miRNAs in the Development, Proliferation, and Progression of Endometrial Cancer

Endometrial cancer is one of the most common cancers in developing and developed countries. Although the detection of this cancer is high at the early stages, there is still a lack of markers to monitor the disease, its recurrence, and metastasis. MiRNAs are in charge of the post-transcriptional regulation of genes responsible for the most important biological processes, which is why they are increasingly used as biomarkers in many types of cancer. Many studies have demonstrated the influence of miRNAs on the processes related to carcinogenesis. The characteristics of miRNA expression profiles in endometrial cancer will allow their use as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. This paper focuses on the discussion of selected miRNAs based on the literature and their role in the development of endometrial cancer.

miRNA Dysregulation in Cardiovascular Diseases: Current Opinion and Future Perspectives

MicroRNAs (miRNAs), small noncoding RNAs, are post-transcriptional gene regulators that can promote the degradation or decay of coding mRNAs, regulating protein synthesis. Many experimental studies have contributed to clarifying the functions of several miRNAs involved in regulatory processes at the cardiac level, playing a pivotal role in cardiovascular disease (CVD). This review aims to provide an up-to-date overview, with a focus on the past 5 years, of experimental studies on human samples to present a clear background of the latest advances to summarize the current knowledge and future perspectives. SCOPUS and Web of Science were searched using the following keywords: (miRNA or microRNA) AND (cardiovascular diseases); AND (myocardial infarction); AND (heart damage); AND (heart failure), including studies published from 1 January 2018 to 31 December 2022. After an accurate evaluation, 59 articles were included in the present systematic review. While it is clear that miRNAs are powerful gene regulators, all the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The need for up-to-date data always justifies the enormous amount of scientific work to increasingly highlight their pathways. Given the importance of CVDs, miRNAs could be important both as diagnostic and therapeutic (theranostic) tools. In this context, the discovery of “TheranoMIRNAs” could be decisive in the near future. The definition of well-setout studies is necessary to provide further evidence in this challenging field.

Serum microRNAs associated with concussion in football players

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mild TBI)/concussion is a common sports injury, especially common in football players. Repeated concussions are thought to lead to long-term brain damage including chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). With the worldwide growing interest in studying sport-related concussion the search for biomarkers for early diagnosis and progression of neuronal injury has also became priority. MicroRNAs are short, non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally. Due to their high stability in biological fluids, microRNAs can serve as biomarkers in a variety of diseases including pathologies of the nervous system. In this exploratory study, we have evaluated changes in the expression of selected serum miRNAs in collegiate football players obtained during a full practice and game season. We found a miRNA signature that can distinguish with good specificity and sensitivity players with concussions from non-concussed players. Furthermore, we found miRNAs associated with the acute phase (let-7c-5p, miR-16-5p, miR-181c-5p, miR-146a-5p, miR-154-5p, miR-431-5p, miR-151a-5p, miR-181d-5p, miR-487b-3p, miR-377-3p, miR-17-5p, miR-22-3p, and miR-126-5p) and those whose changes persist up to 4 months after concussion (miR-17-5p and miR-22-3p).