First record of emerging contaminants in sponges of an inhabited island in the Maldives

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the coastal zone of Ubatuba (Brazil): An ecological and touristic hotspot facing high contamination

This study presents the first investigation into the occurrence, spatial distribution, and ecological risk of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the coastal zone of Ubatuba, a tourist hotspot with significant ecological value located on the southeastern coast of Brazil. Sampling was conducted immediately after the New Year holidays, over two consecutive years (January 2019 and 2020), in two areas with distinct physiographic and oceanographic characteristics and different levels of anthropogenic impact: Flamengo Inlet and Ubatuba Bay. Quantitative analysis using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) detected 15 of the 22 target compounds, including antihypertensives, anti-inflammatory/analgesics, β-blockers, caffeine, cocaine, and its human metabolite, benzoylecgonine. Concentrations ranged from 0.024 ng L-1 (carbamazepine) to 3500 ng L-1 (caffeine). The occurrence of caffeine, cocaine, diclofenac, and propanolol at outer stations in Flamengo Inlet suggests that lateral advection by coastal currents may transport these contaminants along the inner shelf, far from their original sources. Ecological risk assessment indicated that caffeine and diclofenac pose a high risk in both study areas, with phytoplankton being the most sensitive to these contaminants. Notably, concentrations of some target compounds in Ubatuba Bay were comparable to or exceeded those reported in highly urbanized coastal regions globally. Our findings complement earlier studies and contradict the assumption that PPCPs contamination are mainly connected with highly anthropized areas. This also highlights the need to investigate the impact of domestic sewage and touristic pollution on ecologically sensitive coastal habitats to obtain a more comprehensive view of PPCPs pollution and its implication for conservation goals and public health.

Changes in the swimming behavior of Temora turbinata (Copepoda, Calanoida) in response to sub-lethal concentrations of caffeine and triclosan

Caffeine (CAF) and triclosan (TCS) are contaminants of emerging environmental concern due to their widespread presence in marine environments and their potential biological effects on non-target organisms. Despite growing efforts to assess the toxicity of CAF and TCS in aquatic organisms, knowledge of their impacts on marine zooplankton remains limited, particularly regarding physiological aspects such as swimming behavior, a key component of copepod ecology. As the most abundant group of zooplankton, copepods play a crucial role in pelagic food webs and biogeochemical carbon cycles. This study presents findings from microcosm experiments designed to evaluate the immediate effects of two sub-lethal concentrations of CAF and TCS on the three-dimensional swimming behavior of the marine calanoid copepod Temora turbinata. Using 3D horizontal optical system, we analyzed the displacement patterns and swimming speeds of adult T. turbinata individuals before, during, and after exposure to 50 µg L⁻¹ and 100 µg L⁻¹ concentrations of CAF and TCS. Results indicate that both CAF and TCS immediately affect copepod free-swimming behavior, with CAF exposure inducing hyperactivity and TCS exposure leading to hypoactivity. By addressing knowledge gaps concerning the effects of emerging contaminants on marine zooplankton, this study supports the use of copepod kinematics as a sensitive indicator of short-term responses to sub-lethal chemical exposure, providing a predictive tool for assessing contaminant effects on planktonic communities.

Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) exposure to fluoxetine: Bioaccumulation and biotransformation products

The significant rise in antidepressant consumption in recent years was accentuated by COVID-19 pandemic. Among these antidepressant, fluoxetine, a selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (SSRI), is the most prescribed worldwide. The present study investigated its bioaccumulation and metabolization in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis, generally recognized as a reliable bioindicator for assessing environmental quality and the accumulation of various contaminants. Mussels were exposed to a nominal concentration of fluoxetine (3.1 μg/L) for 28 days. Mussels were sacrificed at day 2, 7, 14 and 28 of exposure. The order of accumulation level was gills > digestive glands > soft tissues, and a regular increase in fluoxetine and norfluoxetine was observed across the various sampling days for both digestive glands and soft tissues. The calculated bioconcentration factor (BCF) ranged from 253 at D2 to 1734 at D28 for fluoxetine, and pseudo-BCF from 7 at D2 to 64 at D28 for norfluoxetine. Non-targeted approaches highlighted ten metabolites, which are reported for the first time in Mytilus, in addition to norfluoxetine. Notably, this study highlighted two phase I metabolites and one phase II metabolite previously unreported. These findings contribute to the understanding of fluoxetine accumulation and metabolism in Mytilus and enhance the knowledge of pharmaceuticals detoxification processes in non-target organisms.

Biomonitoring of human activities recovery following lockdown in a highly touristic Mediterranean Island using Mytilus galloprovincialis

Coastal waters face significant anthropogenic stress, particularly from tourism, exacerbating pollution, especially in areas like touristic islands. Ischia, the largest island in the Gulf of Naples and part of the Regno di Nettuno Marine Protected Area, suffers from pollution due to tourism and maritime traffic. During the initial SARS-CoV-2 lockdown from March to June 2020, Ischia was isolated, providing a unique opportunity to study pollutant release and its impact on coastal ecosystems. Adult Mytilus galloprovincialis mussels were transplanted to three sites on the island for active biomonitoring. Accumulation of chemicals in tissues and biomarkers related to metabolism, detoxification, and oxidative stress were measured. Results indicated that pollutants from daily activities entered the sea, affecting filter feeders. Translocated organisms showed modulated metabolic functions and biochemical changes, highlighting coastal vulnerability and calling for conservation efforts.

Occurrence of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) and active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in key species of anthozoans in Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea's biodiversity is declining due to climate change and human activities, with plastics and emerging contaminants (ECs) posing significant threats. This study assessed phthalic acid esters (PAEs) and active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) occurrence in four anthozoan species (Cladocora caespitosa, Eunicella cavolini, Madracis pharensis, Parazoanthus axinellae) using solid phase microextraction (SPME) and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). All specimens were contaminated with at least one contaminant, reaching maximum values of 57.3 ng/g for the ∑PAEs and 64.2 ng/g (wet weight) for ∑APIs, with dibutyl phthalate and Ketoprofen being the most abundant. P. axinellae was the most contaminated species, indicating higher susceptibility to bioaccumulation, while the other three species showed two-fold lower concentrations. Moreover, the potential adverse effects of these contaminants on anthozoans have been discussed. Investigating the impact of PAEs and APIs on these species is crucial, given their key role in the Mediterranean benthic communities.

The Impacts of the Multispecies Approach to Caffeine on Marine Invertebrates

Caffeine is one of the most consumed substances by humans through foodstuffs (coffee, tea, drugs, etc.). Its human consumption releases a high quantity of caffeine into the hydrological network. Thus, caffeine is now considered an emergent pollutant sometimes found at high concentrations in oceans and seas. Surprisingly, little research has been conducted on the molecular responses induced by caffeine in marine organisms. We studied, in laboratory conditions, six phylogenetically distant species that perform distinct ecological functions (Actinia equina and Aulactinia verrucosa (cnidarians, predator), Littorina littorea (gastropod, grazer), Magallana gigas (bivalve, filter-feeder), and Carcinus maenas and Pachygrapsus marmoratus (crabs, predator and scavenger)) subjected to caffeine exposure. The antioxidant responses (catalase, CAT; glutathione peroxidase, GPx; superoxide dismutase, SOD), lipid peroxidation (MDA), and the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity were estimated when the organisms were exposed to environmental caffeine concentrations (5 μg/L (low), 10 μg/L (high)) over 14 days. Differential levels of responses and caffeine effects were noted in the marine invertebrates, probably in relation to their capacity to metabolization the pollutant. Surprisingly, the filter feeder (M. gigas, oyster) did not show enzymatic responses or lipid peroxidation for the two caffeine concentrations tested. The marine gastropod (grazer) appeared to be more impacted by caffeine, with an increase in activities for all antioxidative enzymes (CAT, GPx, SOD). In parallel, the two cnidarians and two crabs were less affected by the caffeine contaminations. However, caffeine was revealed as a neurotoxic agent to all species studied, inducing high inhibition of AChE activity. This study provides new insights into the sublethal impacts of caffeine at environmentally relevant concentrations in marine invertebrates.

Development of a trace quantitative method to investigate caffeine distribution in the Yellow and Bohai Seas, China, and assessment of its potential neurotoxic effect on fish larvae

Caffeine is an emerging contaminant in aquatic environments. The study utilized a validated method to investigate the presence and distribution of caffeine in the surface water of the Yellow and Bohai Seas, urban rivers, and the Yantai estuary area. The analytical method conforms to EPA guidelines and exhibits a limit of quantification that is 200 times lower than that of prior investigations. The study revealed that the highest concentration of 1436.4 ng/L was found in convergence of ocean currents in the Yellow and Bohai Seas. The presence of larger populations and the process of urban industrialization have been observed to result in elevated levels of caffeine in offshore regions, confirming that caffeine can serve as a potential indicator of anthropogenic contamination. Fish larvae exhibited hypoactivity in response to caffeine exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations. The study revealed that caffeine pollution can have adverse effects on marine and offshore ecosystems. This emphasizes the importance of decreasing neurotoxic pollution in the aquatic environment.

Insights into environmental caffeine contamination in ecotoxicological biomarkers and potential health effects of Danio rerio

Caffeine (CAF) exposures have been shown to cause several pharmacological and biological effects in target and non-target organisms. Although there are already several ecotoxicological studies with CAF in non-target organisms, they are focused on marine organisms, with relevant concentrations in these ecosystems, therefore, less ecologically relevant to freshwater ecosystems (the main ecoreceptor of this type of anthropogenic contaminant). The present study aimed to assess the chronic effects (28 days) of sub-lethal and environmentally relevant concentrations of CAF (0.16, 0.42, 1.09, 2.84, 7.40, 19.23, and 50 μg/L) in Danio rerio. Biochemical endpoints as biomarkers of antioxidant defense, biotransformation, lipid peroxidation, energy sources, and neurotransmission were assessed. CAF exposure induced alterations in antioxidant defenses (superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase activities, and glutathione content) preventing lipid peroxidation. Lactate dehydrogenase activity decreased in all the concentrations tested, while acetylcholinesterase activity was only affected by the highest concentrations tested (19.23 and 50 μg/L). We also utilized a multi-biomarker approach (Integrated Biomarker Response version 2, IBRv2) to investigate the effects of CAF in the dispersion scope of individual biochemical responses of D. rerio. IBRv2 showed that the concentration of 50 μg/L promotes the highest stress. However, the results showed that CAF induced disturbances in the metabolic pathways studied in D. rerio. These results demonstrated the toxic effects of CAF on freshwater fish, compromising their physiological functions and evidencing the need for monitoring the residues of CAF released into the inland aquatic environments. Furthermore, this research evidence that phylogenetically and physiologically different species may present different biological responses with concern for ecologically relevant environmental conditions. In this sense, the present study generated ecotoxicologically relevant data, that can be considered by environment regulators, since the here-endpoints evaluated showed sensitivity and consistency in the evaluation of caffeine risks in freshwater environments.

Bioconcentration and cellular effects of emerging contaminants in sponges from Maldivian coral reefs: A managing tool for sustainable tourism

Tourism is the main income source for the Maldives, but concurrently, it represents a growing threat to its marine ecosystem. Here, we monitored the bioaccumulation of 15 emerging contaminants (ECs) in the Maldivian reef sponges Spheciospongia vagabunda collected in two resort islands (Athuruga and Thudufushi, Ari Atoll) and an inhabited island (Magoodhoo, Faafu Atoll), and we analysed their impact on different sponge cellular stress biomarkers. Caffeine and the insect repellent DEET were detected in sponges of all the islands, whereas the antibiotic erythromycin and the UV filter 4-methylbenzylidene camphor were found in resort islands only. Although concentrations were approximately a few ng/g d.w., we quantified various induced cellular effects, in particular an increase of the levels of the enzyme glutathione S-transferase involved in cell detoxification. Our results highlight the importance to increase awareness on ECs pollution, promoting the use of more environmental friendly products to achieving the sustainable development goals.

An Overview of Analytical Methods to Determine Pharmaceutical Active Compounds in Aquatic Organisms

There is increasing scientific evidence that some pharmaceuticals are present in the marine ecosystems at concentrations that may cause adverse effects on the organisms that inhabit them. At present, there is still very little scientific literature on the (bio)accumulation of these compounds in different species, let alone on the relationship between the presence of these compounds and the adverse effects they produce. However, attempts have been made to optimize and validate analytical methods for the determination of residues of pharmaceuticals in marine biota by studying the stages of sample treatment, sample clean-up and subsequent analysis. The proposed bibliographic review includes a summary of the most commonly techniques, and its analytical features, proposed to determine pharmaceutical compounds in aquatic organisms at different levels of the trophic chain in the last 10 years.

Insights into bioaccumulation and bioconcentration of potentially toxic elements in marine sponges from the Northwestern Mediterranean coast of Morocco

The present research aimed to investigate the concentrations and patterns of six potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in three common sponge species collected along the Moroccan Mediterranean coast, as well as their levels in ambient seawater and sediments. Distinct inter-species variability in PTEs bioaccumulation was observed among the three species, suggesting that sponges have distinct selectivity for assimilating PTEs from the surrounding environment. C. crambe had a higher enrichment capacity for Cu, As, Cr and Ni, while P. ficiformis and C. reniformis exhibited the highest concentration of Cd and Pb, respectively. Interestingly, a similar spatial distribution patterns of PTEs was observed in the three media, with high values occurring in Tangier and Al-Hoceima locations. Overall, our results confirm that sponges reliably reflect the bioavailability of PTEs in their immediate environment, especially C. crambe, whose PTE tissue contents were highly and positively correlated with the contents of all PTEs in the sediments.

Immobilization of psychrophile Psychrobacter sp. ANT206 onto novel reusable magnetic nanoparticles and its application for nitro-aromatic compounds biodegradation under low temperature

Efficient biodegradation may offer a solution for the treatment of nitro-aromatic compounds (NACs) with toxicity, mutagenicity and persistence in the environment. In this study, dopamine (DA) functionalized magnetic nanoparticles with biocompatibility and hydrophilicity were synthesized and utilized for the immobilization of nitro-aromatic compounds degrading psychrophile Psychrobacter sp. ANT206 harboring the cold-adapted nitroreductase. The prepared nanocarriers were characterized using multiple methods. The highest immobilization yield of cells immobilized by Fe3O4@SiO2@DA was 90.67% under the optimized conditions of 10 °C, pH 7.5, 2 h and cell/support 1.2 mg/mg, and the activity recovery was 89.41%. In addition, the obtained immobilized cells displayed excellent salinity stability and reusability. Moreover, immobilized P. sp. ANT206 strains showed remarkable biodegradation capability on nitrobenzene and p-nitrophenol. This study introduced those novel Fe3O4@SiO2@DA nanoparticles could be applied as ideal and low-cost nanocarriers for the immobilization of cells and large-scale bioremediation of hazardous NACs with perspective applications under low temperature.

Detection of plastic particles in marine sponges by a combined infrared micro-spectroscopy and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry approach

Plastic pollution threatens the marine environment, especially due to the adverse effects caused by micro and nano particles interacting with the marine biota. In order to provide reliable data regarding micro and nanoplastic contamination and the related impacts, efficient analytical solutions are needed. We developed a new analysis workflow that uses marine sponges to monitor plastic pollution by characterizing the plastic particles accumulated in their tissue. Specimens of cf. Haliclona (Haplosclerida) were sampled in the Maldivian archipelago. The aim was to optimize the method and to carry out a pilot study of the contamination of the related reef habitat. Particles were isolated, size fractioned, counted and submitted to morphological and chemical characterization. The constituting polymer was identified by infrared microspectroscopy for particles >25 μm, and by pyrolysis coupled with gas chromatography mass spectrometry for those <25 μm. Method recoveries were between 87 and 83% and limits of quantitation (LOQs) were between 6.6 and 30.2 ng/g. Analyses showed that 70% of the sponges presented plastic contamination, with an average of 1.2 particles/g tissue for the 25-150 μm size range, and a total plastic concentration of up to 4.8 μg/g in the 0.2-25 μm size range, with polyolefin being the most represented polymer in both size ranges. Overall, the study demonstrated the reliability of the proposed analytical workflow and of the use of sponges as biosamplers for plastic particles.

Multi-generational impacts of exposure to antidepressant fluoxetine on behaviour, reproduction, and morphology of freshwater snail Physa acuta

Contamination of the environment by pharmaceutical pollutants poses an increasingly critical threat to aquatic ecosystems around the world. This is particularly true of psychoactive compounds, such as antidepressant drugs, which have become ubiquitous contaminants and have been demonstrated to modify aquatic animal behaviours at very low concentrations (i.e. ng/L). Despite raising risks to the hydrosphere, there is a notable paucity of data on the long term, multigenerational effects of antidepressants at environmentally realistic concentrations. Moreover, current research has predominantly focused on mean-level effects, with little research on variation among and within individuals when considering key behavioural traits. In this work, we used a multigenerational exposure of a freshwater snail (Physa acuta) to an environmentally relevant concentration of the antidepressant fluoxetine (mean measured concentration: 32.7 ng/L, SE: 2.3). The snails were allowed to breed freely in large mesocosm populations over 3 years. Upon completion of the exposure, we repeatedly measured the locomotory activity (624 measures total), reproductive output (234 measures total) as well as morphometric endpoints (78 measures total). While we found no mean-level differences between treatments in locomotory activities, we did find that fluoxetine exposed snails (n = 46) had significantly reduced behavioural plasticity (i.e. V_W; within-individual variation) in activity levels compared to unexposed snails (n = 32). As a result, fluoxetine exposed snails demonstrated significant behavioural repeatability, which was not the case for unexposed snails. Further, we report a reduction in egg mass production in fluoxetine exposed snails, and a marginally non-significant difference in morphology between treatment groups. These results highlight the potential detrimental effects of long-term fluoxetine exposure on non-target organisms at environmentally realistic dosages. Additionally, our findings demonstrate the underappreciated potential for psychoactive contaminants to have impacts beyond mean-level effects, with consequences for population resilience to current and future environmental challenges.

Caffeine as a contaminant of concern: A review on concentrations and impacts in marine coastal systems

Caffeine has been identified as emerging contaminant of concern due to its widespread occurrence in the aquatic environment and potential to be biologically active. Recently, these concerns have been translated in an increasing research on its occurrence and effects on biota. However, there is still a limited knowledge on seawater matrices and the implications of caffeine presence in coastal and marine ecosystems are not fully known. The present review aims to fill these knowledge gaps, analysing the existing literature regarding the occurrence, effects and potential risks of caffeine residues to coastal ecosystems, contributing to the risk assessment of this psychoactive drug in the aquatic environment. The analysed literature reported caffeine concentrations in the coastal ecosystems, raising high concerns about the potential adverse impacts on the ecological safety and human health. Caffeine has been found in tissues from coastal and marine biota including microalgae, coral reefs, bivalves and fish due to bioaccumulation after chronic, long-term exposures in a contaminated environment. Additionally, caffeine residues had been demonstrated to have adverse impacts on aquatic organisms, at environmentally realistic concentrations, inducing oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, neurotoxicity, changing energy reserves and metabolic activity, affecting reproduction and development and, in some cases, causing mortality. Considering the increasing adverse impacts of caffeine pollution in the coastal environment, this review highlights the urgent need to minimize the increasing load of caffeine to the aquatic ecosystems; being imperative the implementation of scientific programs and projects to classify effectively the caffeine as a high-priority environmentally hazardous emerging pollutant.

Removal of Emerging Contaminants from Wastewater Streams Using Membrane Bioreactors: A Review

Water is a very valuable natural resource. As the demand for water increases the presence of emerging contaminants in wastewater has become a growing concern. This is particularly true when one considers direct reuse of wastewater. Obtaining sufficient removal of emerging contaminants will require determining the level of removal for the various unit operations in the wastewater treatment process. Membrane bioreactors are attractive as they combine an activated sludge process with a membrane separation step. They are frequently used in a wastewater treatment process and can operate at higher solid loadings than conventional activated sludge processes. Determining the level of removal of emerging contaminants in the membrane bioreactor step is, therefore, of great interest. Removal of emerging contaminants could be by adsorption onto the biomass or membrane surface, biotransformation, size exclusion by the membrane, or volatilization. Given the fact that most emerging contaminants are low molecule weight non-volatile compounds, the latter two methods of removal are usually unimportant. However, biotransformation and adsorption onto the biomass are important mechanisms of removal. It will be important to determine if the microorganisms present at given treatment facility are able to remove ECs present in the wastewater.

Drug pollution & Sustainable Development Goals

The United Nations set "The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development," which includes the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a collection of 17 global goals designed to be a "blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all". Although only mentioned in one of the seventeen goals (goal 3), we argue that drugs in general, and growing drug pollution in particular, affects the SDGs in deeper, not readily apparent ways. So far, the emerging problem of drug pollution has not been sufficiently addressed. Here, we outline and discuss how drug pollution can affect SDGs and even threaten their achievement.

Screening of pharmaceuticals in coastal waters of the southern coast of Viti Levu in Fiji, South Pacific

The global reliance on pharmaceuticals coupled with the lack of effective treatment methods has resulted in pseudo-persistence of pharmaceuticals within the environment. Globally, efforts to quantify and monitor pharmaceuticals within the environment have been well underway, however few studies have been made within small Pacific Islands. This study aims at screening for the occurrence and concentration of pharmaceutical residues within the southern coastal waters of Fiji's main island, Viti Levu. Water samples were collected from a depth of ca. 0.6 m from seven sites and were analyzed for 80 pharmaceuticals via a combination of chromatography and heated electrospray ionization. Seventy-two pharmaceuticals were quantified at least once with average concentrations ranging between 0.04 ng/L (diltiazem) and 19 ng/L (ketoconazole), and with all but two pharmaceuticals (trimethoprim and biperiden) being present in less than 50% of the samples. Findings suggest that even though the release of pharmaceuticals into the marine environment is sporadic and pharmaceuticals are diluted via turbulent mixing, there are measurable concentrations of pharmaceuticals in Fiji and these pollutants are not necessarily restricted to highly populated areas.