miR-451 suppresses the NF-kappaB-mediated proinflammatory molecules expression through inhibiting LMP7 in diabetic nephropathy

microRNAs as molecular tools for brain health: Neuroprotective potential in neurodegenerative disorders

As research on microRNAs (miRNAs) advances, it is becoming increasingly clear that these small molecules play crucial roles in the central nervous system (CNS). They are involved in various essential neuronal functions, with specific miRNAs preferentially expressed in different cell types within the nervous system. Notably, certain miRNAs are found at higher levels in the brain and spinal cord compared to other tissues, suggesting they may have specialized functions in the CNS. miRNAs associated with long-term neurodegenerative changes could serve as valuable tools for early treatment decisions and disease monitoring. The significance of miRNAs such as miR-320, miR-146 and miR-29 in the early diagnosis of neurodegenerative disorders becomes evident, especially considering that many neurological and physical symptoms manifest only after substantial degeneration of specific neurons. Interestingly, serum miRNA levels such as miR-92 and miR-486 may correlate with various MRI parameters in multiple sclerosis. Targeting miRNAs using antisense strategies, such as antisense miR-146 and miR-485, may provide advantages over targeting mRNAs, as a single anti-miRNA can regulate multiple disease-related genes. In the future, anti-miRNA-based therapeutic approaches could be integrated into the clinical management of neurological diseases. Certain miRNAs, including miR-223, miR-106, miR-181, and miR-146, contribute to the pathogenesis of various neurodegenerative diseases and thus warrant greater attention. This knowledge could pave the way for the identification of new diagnostic, prognostic, and theranostic biomarkers, and potentially guiding the development of RNA-based therapeutic strategies. This review highlights recent research on the roles of miRNAs in the nervous system, particularly their protective functions in neurodegenerative disorders.

MicroRNA regulation of enteric nervous system development and disease

The enteric nervous system (ENS), an elaborate network of neurons and glia woven through the gastrointestinal tract, is integral for digestive physiology and broader human health. Commensurate with its importance, ENS dysfunction is linked to a range of debilitating gastrointestinal disorders. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), with their pleiotropic roles in post-transcriptional gene regulation, serve as key developmental effectors within the ENS. Herein, we review the regulatory dynamics of miRNAs in ENS ontogeny, showcasing specific miRNAs implicated in both congenital and acquired enteric neuropathies, such as Hirschsprung's disease (HSCR), achalasia, intestinal neuronal dysplasia (IND), chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction (CIPO), and slow transit constipation (STC). By delineating miRNA-mediated mechanisms in these diseases, we underscore their importance for ENS homeostasis and highlight their potential as therapeutic targets.

MiR-451 in Inflammatory Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms, Biomarkers, and Therapeutic Applications-A Comprehensive Review Beyond Oncology

MicroRNAs play crucial roles in regulating inflammatory responses and disease progression. Since its identification on chromosome 17q11.2 in 2005, miR-451 has emerged as a key regulator of multiple physiological and pathological processes. While its role in cancer has been extensively documented, accumulating evidence reveals miR-451's broader significance in inflammatory conditions through the regulation of NF-κB, AMPK, and PI3K signaling pathways. This comprehensive review systematically analyzes miR-451's multifaceted functions in inflammatory diseases, with particular focus on ischemia-reperfusion injury, arthritis, and acute organ injuries. We present compelling evidence for miR-451's potential as a diagnostic biomarker, demonstrating its distinctive expression patterns across various biological specimens and disease states. Furthermore, we elucidate how miR-451 modulates inflammatory responses through the regulation of immune cell populations, including microglia activation, macrophage polarization, and neutrophil chemotaxis. By integrating current evidence and bioinformatic analyses, we establish a theoretical framework linking miR-451's molecular mechanisms to its therapeutic applications. This review not only synthesizes the current understanding of miR-451 in inflammatory diseases but also provides critical insights for developing novel diagnostic tools and therapeutic strategies.

Downregulation of the immunoproteasome subunit PSMB8 attenuates sepsis-associated acute kidney injury through the NF-κB pathway

Sepsis-associated acute kidney injury (S-AKI) is a prevalent and life-threatening complication in hospitalized and critically ill patients. Recent researches indicates that immunoproteasome, especially proteasome 20S subunit beta 8 (PSMB8), is highly associated with various kidney diseases. This study aims to investigate the potential involvement of PSMB8 in S-AKI and its impact on apoptosis and inflammation. The model of S-AKI induced by LPS (10 mg/kg) was assessed by histological examination. ELISA and Real-time PCR were used to detect the levels of inflammatory cytokines in the renal cortex. The role of shPSMB8 in LPS-induced apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry. Finally, western blot was performed to assess the NF-κB signaling pathway related proteins, and the nuclear translocation of NF-kB P65 was detected by immunofluorescence microscopy. PSMB8 knockdown substantially protected against renal injury by reducing blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels and ameliorating inflammation. PSMB8 knockdown inhibited renal expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and COX-2 to improve inflammatory response. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that downregulation of PSMB8 blocked LPS-induced S-AKI phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of NF-κB P65. Collectively, our results suggest that inhibition of PSMB8 significantly contributes to S-AKI via regulation of NF-κB. These findings reveal the pathogenic role of PSMB8 in AKI and suggest a novel therapeutic target for the condition.

Isoliquiritigenin Prevents the Development of Nephropathy by an HFD in Rats Through the Induction of Antioxidant Production and Inhibition of the MD-2/TLR4/NF-κB Pathway

This study tested the ISL against renal damage induced by a high-fat diet (HFD) and explored its underlying mechanisms. Adult male rats were assigned to four groups: (1) control on a standard diet (STD), (2) ISL on STD (30 mg/kg), (3) HFD, and (4) HFD + ISL (30 mg/kg). After 12 weeks of dietary intervention, ISL treatment led to significant reductions in body weight gain, visceral fat, and glucose and insulin levels in HFD-fed rats. Notably, ISL decreased serum urea and creatinine, increased serum albumin, and improved urinary profiles by lowering the urinary albumin and the albumin/creatinine ratio. Histological analyses revealed that ISL enhanced the glomerular structure and mitigated tubular damage, as evidenced by reduced urinary excretion of the kidney injury markers NGAL and KIM-1. Additionally, ISL significantly lowered cholesterol, triglycerides, and free fatty acids in both the control and HFD groups while also decreasing oxidized low-density lipoproteins (ox-LDLs) and malondialdehyde (MDA). Importantly, ISL enhanced renal antioxidant levels, increasing glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT). Moreover, ISL downregulated mRNA levels of MD-2, Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4), and NF-κB, leading to reduced NF-κB p65 levels in renal tissues. In conclusion, ISL offers substantial protection against HFD-induced renal toxicity through mechanisms that attenuate metabolic stress, enhance antioxidant defenses, and inhibit the MD-2/TLR4/NF-κB inflammatory pathway.

MiR-144/451 attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced lung inflammation by downregulating Rac1 and STAT-3 in macrophages

MicroRNAs have been shown to play a critical role in lung inflammatory diseases. Here, we report that knocking out miR-144/451 in mice exacerbates lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced lung inflammation. The lung inflammation in mice was induced by intratracheal instillation of LPS. Loss-of-function experiments demonstrated that miR-144/451 gene knockout (KO) increased LPS-induced lung inflammation and oxidant stress compared with wild-type (WT) mice, as manifested by increased total bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cells and neutrophil counts, elevated TNF-α and IL-6 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, enhanced myeloperoxidase activity, and reduced catalase and glutathione peroxidase activity in lung tissues. We also found that LPS significantly decreased miR-451 expression in lung tissues and macrophages; while miR-451 overexpression in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells remarkably reduced TNF-α and IL-6 levels as well as reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, suggesting a feedback loop might exist in inflammatory cells. Rac1 mRNA and protein levels were downregulated in miR-451-overexpressed RAW264.7 cells. Ex vivo stimulation experiments, performed using alveolar macrophages isolated from miR-144/451 KO mice, confirmed that Rac1 inhibitor alleviated levels of TNF-α and ROS in response to LPS stimulation compared with WT controls. Luciferase reporter assay demonstrated that STAT-3 is a direct target of miR-451. STAT-3 protein levels were elevated in miR-144/451 KO macrophages. LPS treatment also resulted in higher phosphorylation levels of STAT-3 in macrophages from KO mice than in WT cells. Our study identified miR-144/451 as an anti-inflammatory factor in LPS-induced lung inflammation that acts by downregulating Rac1 and STAT-3.

Cytosolic Hmgb1 accumulation in mesangial cells aggravates diabetic kidney disease progression via NFκB signaling pathway

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is the predominant type of end-stage renal disease. Increasing evidence suggests thatglomerular mesangial cell (MC) inflammation is pivotal for cell proliferation and DKD progression. However, the exactmechanism of MC inflammation remains largely unknown. This study aims to elucidate the role of inflammatoryfactor high-mobility group box 1 (Hmgb1) in DKD. Inflammatory factors related to DKD progression are screened viaRNA sequencing (RNA-seq). In vivo and in vitro experiments, including db/db diabetic mice model, CCK-8 assay, EdUassay, flow cytometric analysis, Co-IP, FISH, qRT-PCR, western blot, single cell nuclear RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq),are performed to investigate the effects of Hmgb1 on the inflammatory behavior of MCs in DKD. Here, wedemonstrate that Hmgb1 is significantly upregulated in renal tissues of DKD mice and mesangial cells cultured withhigh glucose, and Hmgb1 cytopasmic accumulation promotes MC inflammation and proliferation. Mechanistically,Hmgb1 cytopasmic accumulation is two-way regulated by MC-specific cyto-lncRNA E130307A14Rik interaction andlactate-mediated acetylated and lactylated Hmgb1 nucleocytoplasmic translocation, and accelerates NFκB signalingpathway activation via directly binding to IκBα. Together, this work reveals the promoting role of Hmgb1 on MCinflammation and proliferation in DKD and helps expound the regulation of Hmgb1 cytopasmic accumulation in twoways. In particular, Hmgb1 may be a promising therapeutic target for DKD.

Panel miRNAs are potential diagnostic markers for chronic kidney diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Accurate detection of kidney damage is key to preventing renal failure, and identifying biomarkers is essential for this purpose. We aimed to assess the accuracy of miRNAs as diagnostic tools for chronic kidney disease (CKD).

METHODS

We thoroughly searched five databases (MEDLINE, Web of Science, Embase, Scopus, and CENTRAL) and performed a meta-analysis using R software. We assessed the overall diagnostic potential using the pooled area under the curve (pAUC), sensitivity (SEN), and specificity (SPE) values and the risk of bias by using the QUADAS-2 tool. The study protocol was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42021282785).

RESULTS

We analyzed data from 8351 CKD patients, 2989 healthy individuals, and 4331 people with chronic diseases. Among the single miRNAs, the pooled SEN was 0.82, and the SPE was 0.81 for diabetic nephropathy (DN) vs. diabetes mellitus (DM). The SEN and SPE were 0.91 and 0.89 for DN and healthy controls, respectively. miR-192 was the most frequently reported miRNA in DN patients, with a pAUC of 0.91 and SEN and SPE of 0.89 and 0.89, respectively, compared to those in healthy controls. The panel of miRNAs outperformed the single miRNAs (pAUC of 0.86 vs. 0.79, p < 0.05). The SEN and SPE of the panel miRNAs were 0.89 and 0.73, respectively, for DN vs. DM. In the lupus nephritis (LN) vs. systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) cohorts, the SEN and SPE were 0.84 and 0.81, respectively. Urinary miRNAs tended to be more effective than blood miRNAs (p = 0.06).

CONCLUSION

MiRNAs show promise as effective diagnostic markers for CKD. The detection of miRNAs in urine and the use of a panel of miRNAs allows more accurate diagnosis.

Inducible deletion of microRNA activity in kidney mesenchymal cells exacerbates renal fibrosis

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are sequence-specific inhibitors of post-transcriptional gene expression. However, the physiological functions of these non-coding RNAs in renal interstitial mesenchymal cells remain unclear. To conclusively evaluate the role of miRNAs, we generated conditional knockout (cKO) mice with platelet-derived growth factor receptor-β (PDGFR-β)-specific inactivation of the key miRNA pathway gene Dicer. The cKO mice were subjected to unilateral ureteral ligation, and renal interstitial fibrosis was quantitatively evaluated using real-time polymerase chain reaction and immunofluorescence staining. Compared with control mice, cKO mice had exacerbated interstitial fibrosis exhibited by immunofluorescence staining and mRNA expression of PDGFR-β. A microarray analysis showed decreased expressions of miR-9-5p, miR-344g-3p, and miR-7074-3p in cKO mice compared with those in control mice, suggesting an association with the increased expression of PDGFR-β. An analysis of the signaling pathways showed that the major transcriptional changes in cKO mice were related to smooth muscle cell differentiation, regulation of DNA metabolic processes and the actin cytoskeleton, positive regulation of fibroblast proliferation and Ras protein signal transduction, and focal adhesion-PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways. Depletion of Dicer in mesenchymal cells may downregulate the signaling pathway related to miR-9-5p, miR-344g-3p, and miR-7074-3p, which can lead to the progression of chronic kidney disease. These findings highlight the possibility for future diagnostic or therapeutic developments for renal fibrosis using miR-9-5p, miR-344g-3p, and miR-7074-3p.

MicroRNA-630 alleviates inflammatory reactions in rats with diabetic kidney disease by targeting toll-like receptor 4

BACKGROUND

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a major complication of diabetes mellitus. Renal tubular epithelial cell (TEC) damage, which is strongly associated with the inflammatory response and mesenchymal trans-differentiation, plays a significant role in DKD; However, the precise molecular mechanism is unknown. The recently identified microRNA-630 (miR-630) has been hypothesized to be closely associated with cell migration, apoptosis, and autophagy. However, the association between miR-630 and DKD and the underlying mechanism remain unknown.

AIM

To investigate how miR-630 affects TEC injury and the inflammatory response in DKD rats.

METHODS

Streptozotocin was administered to six-week-old male rats to create a hyperglycemic diabetic model. In the second week of modeling, the rats were divided into control, DKD, negative control of lentivirus, and miR-630 overexpression groups. After 8 wk, urine and blood samples were collected for the kidney injury assays, and renal tissues were removed for further molecular assays. The target gene for miR-630 was predicted using bioinformatics, and the association between miR-630 and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) was confirmed using in vitro investigations and double luciferase reporter gene assays. Overexpression of miR-630 in DKD rats led to changes in body weight, renal weight index, basic blood parameters and histopathological changes.

RESULTS

The expression level of miR-630 was reduced in the kidney tissue of rats with DKD (P < 0.05). The miR-630 and TLR4 expressions in rat renal TECs (NRK-52E) were measured using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. The mRNA expression level of miR-630 was significantly lower in the high-glucose (HG) and HG + mimic negative control (NC) groups than in the normal glucose (NG) group (P < 0.05). In contrast, the mRNA expression level of TLR4 was significantly higher in these groups (P < 0.05). However, miR-630 mRNA expression increased and TLR4 mRNA expression significantly decreased in the HG + miR-630 mimic group than in the HG + mimic NC group (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and IL-6 were significantly higher in the HG and HG + mimic NC groups than in NG group (P < 0.05). However, the levels of these cytokines were significantly lower in the HG + miR-630 mimic group than in the HG + mimic NC group (P < 0.05). Notably, changes in protein expression were observed. The HG and HG + mimic NC groups showed a significant decrease in E-cadherin protein expression, whereas TLR4, α-smooth muscle actin (SMA), and collagen IV protein expression increased (P < 0.05). Conversely, the HG + miR-630 mimic group exhibited a significant increase in E-cadherin protein expression and a notable decrease in TLR4, α-SMA, and collagen IV protein expression than in the HG + mimic NC group (P < 0.05). The miR-630 targets TLR4 gene expression. In vivo experiments demonstrated that DKD rats treated with miR-630 agomir exhibited significantly higher miR-630 mRNA expression than DKD rats injected with agomir NC. Additionally, rats treated with miR-630 agomir showed significant reductions in urinary albumin, blood glucose, TLR4, and proinflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) expression levels (P < 0.05). Moreover, these rats exhibited fewer kidney lesions and reduced infiltration of inflammatory cells.

CONCLUSION

MiR-630 may inhibit the inflammatory reaction of DKD by targeting TLR4, and has a protective effect on DKD.

Pharmacological induction of autophagy reduces inflammation in macrophages by degrading immunoproteasome subunits

Defective autophagy is linked to proinflammatory diseases. However, the mechanisms by which autophagy limits inflammation remain elusive. Here, we found that the pan-FGFR inhibitor LY2874455 efficiently activated autophagy and suppressed expression of proinflammatory factors in macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Multiplex proteomic profiling identified the immunoproteasome, which is a specific isoform of the 20s constitutive proteasome, as a substrate that is degraded by selective autophagy. SQSTM1/p62 was found to be a selective autophagy-related receptor that mediated this degradation. Autophagy deficiency or p62 knockdown blocked the effects of LY2874455, leading to the accumulation of immunoproteasomes and increases in inflammatory reactions. Expression of proinflammatory factors in autophagy-deficient macrophages could be reversed by immunoproteasome inhibitors, confirming the pivotal role of immunoproteasome turnover in the autophagy-mediated suppression on the expression of proinflammatory factors. In mice, LY2874455 protected against LPS-induced acute lung injury and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis and caused low levels of proinflammatory cytokines and immunoproteasomes. These findings suggested that selective autophagy of the immunoproteasome was a key regulator of signaling via the innate immune system.

microRNA Expression Profile in Obesity-Induced Kidney Disease Driven by High-Fat Diet in Mice

Obesity is one of the main causes of chronic kidney disease; however, the precise molecular mechanisms leading to the onset of kidney injury and dysfunction in obesity-associated nephropathy remain unclear. The present study aimed to unveil the kidney microRNA (miRNA) expression profile in a model of obesity-induced kidney disease in C57BL/6J mice using next-generation sequencing (NGS) analysis. High-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity led to notable structural alterations in tubular and glomerular regions of the kidney, increased renal expression of proinflammatory and profibrotic genes, as well as an elevated renal expression of genes involved in cellular lipid metabolism. The miRNA sequencing analysis identified a set of nine miRNAs differentially expressed in the kidney upon HFD feeding, with miR-5099, miR-551b-3p, miR-223-3p, miR-146a-3p and miR-21a-3p showing the most significant differential expression between standard diet (STD) and HFD mice. A validation analysis showed that the expression levels of miR-5099, miR-551b-3p and miR-146a-3p were consistent with NGS results, while Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analyses revealed that these three validated miRNAs modulated target genes involved in metabolic and adipocytokine pathways, fatty acid and lipid metabolism, and inflammatory, senescence and profibrotic pathways. Our results suggest that differentially expressed miRNAs play pivotal roles in the intricate pathophysiology of obesity-associated kidney disease and could potentially create novel treatment strategies to counteract the deleterious effects of obesity on kidney function.

MicroRNAs: Key modulators of inflammation-associated diseases

Inflammation is a multifaceted biological and pathophysiological response to injuries, infections, toxins, and inflammatory mechanisms that plays a central role in the progression of various diseases. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are tiny, 19-25 nucleotides long, non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression via post-transcriptional repression. In this review, we highlight the recent findings related to the significant roles of miRNAs in regulating various inflammatory cascades and immunological processes in the context of many lifestyle-related diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, etc. We also converse on how miRNAs can have a dual impact on inflammatory responses, suggesting that regulation of their functions for therapeutic purposes may be disease-specific.

Peripheral blood mononuclear cell low molecular mass protein 7 in acute ischemic stroke: vertical change from admission to discharge and correlation with disability, stroke recurrence, and death

Objective

Low molecular mass protein 7 (LMP7) aggravates abnormal T cell differentiation and atherosclerosis, but its clinical role in acute ischemic stroke (AIS) is still unclear. This study aimed to investigate the correlation of peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) LMP7 with T cell subsets, disease severity, and prognosis in AIS patients.

Methods

A total of 162 AIS patients were enrolled for detecting PBMC LMP7 and T helper (Th) 1, Th2, and Th17 cells via reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and flow cytometry, respectively. In addition, PBMC LMP7 at discharge was also quantified.

Results

Increased LMP7 at admission was associated with decreased Th2 cells (P=0.014), elevated Th17 cells (P<0.001), C-reactive protein (P=0.005), National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score (P=0.007), and disease severity (defined by NIHSS score) (P=0.010). LMP7 at admission reflected a high risk of stroke recurrence (area under curve (AUC): 0.748, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.564-0.932), but not mRS score at month 3 (M3) >2 (AUC: 0.585, 95%CI: 0.479-0.691), or death (AUC: 0.723, 95%CI: 0.338-1.000). LMP7 at discharge was reduced compared to that at admission (P<0.001). LMP7 at discharge was positively correlated with the risk of stroke recurrence (AUC: 0.849, 95%CI: 0.735-0.963) and death (AUC: 0.919, 95%CI: 0.836-1.000), but had a weak capacity to reflect mRS score at M3 >2 (AUC: 0.671, 95%CI: 0.578-0.765).

Conclusion

PBMC LMP7 positively correlates with Th17 cells, inflammation, and disease severity in AIS patients, meanwhile, its level at discharge shows a good ability to reflect the risks of stroke recurrence and death.

Sfrp2 promotes renal dysfunction of diabetic kidney disease via modulating Fzd5-induced cytosolic calcium ion concentration and CaMKII/Mek/Erk pathway in mesangial cells

OBJECTIVE

Mesangial cells (MCs) in the kidney play central role in maintaining glomerular integrity, and their abnormal proliferation leads to major glomerular diseases including diabetic kidney disease (DKD). Although high blood glucose elicits MCs impairment, the underlying molecular mechanism is poorly understood. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of secreted frizzled-related protein 2 (Sfrp2) from single-nucleus RNA profiling on MC proliferation of DKD in vitro and in vivo and explored the specific mechanisms.

RESULTS

By snRNA-seq analysis of isolated renal cells from leptin receptor-deficient db/db mice and control db/m mice, we found that Sfrp2 was increased in the MCs of DKD in comparison to other intrinsic renal cells, which was further verified in vitro and in vivo. We also found that the expression of Sfrp2 was significantly upregulated in DKD patients and correlated with renal function, demonstrating that Sfrp2 might serve as an independent biomarker for DKD patients. Functionally, we showed the loss and acquisition of Sfrp2 affected cytosolic Ca2+ concentration, cell proliferation and fibrosis of MC, albuminuria and kidney injury in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, we identify c-Jun as a transcription factor of Sfrp2 promoting its transcription, and the Ca2+ signaling related protein frizzled receptor 5 (Fzd5) as the binding protein of Sfrp2. And we further found Sfrp2 promoted Fzd5-induced cytosolic Ca2+ concentration and the downstream CaMKII/Mek/Erk pathway activation, leading to MC proliferation and fibrosis in DKD.

CONCLUSION

Our study revealed a novel involvement for Sfrp2 in the regulation of MC function and the effect of Sfrp2 on cell proliferation and fibrosis of MC via the Fzd5/Ca2+/CaMKII/Mek/Erk pathway, implying that Sfrp2 may be a possible biomarker and therapeutic target for DKD.

Signaling pathways regulated by natural active ingredients in the fight against exercise fatigue-a review

Exercise fatigue is a normal protective mechanism of the body. However, long-term fatigue hinders normal metabolism and exercise capacity. The generation and recovery from exercise fatigue involves alterations in multiple signaling pathways, mainly AMPK, PI3K/Akt, Nrf2/ARE, NF-κB, PINK1/Parkin, and BDNF/TrkB, as well as MAPK signaling pathways that mediate energy supply, reduction of metabolites, oxidative stress homeostasis, muscle fiber type switching, and central protective effects. In recent studies, a rich variety of natural active ingredients have been identified in traditional Chinese medicines and plant extracts with anti-fatigue effects, opening up the field of research in new anti-fatigue drugs. In this review we give an overview of the signaling pathways associated with the activity of natural food active ingredients against exercise fatigue. Such a comprehensive review is necessary to understand the potential of these materials as preventive measures and treatments of exercise fatigue. We expect the findings highlighted and discussed here will help guide the development of new health products and provide a theoretical and scientific basis for future research on exercise fatigue.

Actoeside mitigated the renal proximal tubule cells damage triggered by high glucose through miR-766/VCAM1/NF-κB signalling pathway

CONTEXT

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) triggered by diabetes mellitus is one of the primary causes of end-stage renal failure worldwide.

OBJECTIVE

This study intends to explore the function and potential mechanism of actoeside on renal proximal tubule (HK-2) cells damage induced by high-glucose (HG).

METHODS

The DN model was established in HK-2 cells with 30 mM HG treatment. The viability, apoptosis and inflammation of HK-2 cells were analysed severally via CCK-8, flow cytomery and ELISA. The key factors related to NF-κB were detected by western blotting.

RESULTS

Actoeside attenuated the HG-induced HK-2 cells damage. The differentially expression of miR-766 and VCAM1 in DN patients was reversed by actoeside. Moreover, the increased phosphorylation levels of p65 NF-κB/IκBα induced by HG were attenuated by actoeside.

CONCLUSIONS

Actoeside promoted the growth and repressed the apoptosis and inflammation of HK-2 cells via miR-766/VCAM1/NF-κB signalling pathway, affording a promising idea for the treatment of DN.

Immunohistochemical Identification and Assessment of the Location of Immunoproteasome Subunits LMP2 and LMP7 in Acquired Cholesteatoma

Cholesteatoma, accompanied by chronic inflammatory response, is characterized by invasive growth and osteolytic activity. As specific proteasome isoforms, the immunoproteasomes serve as an important modulator of inflammatory responses. The aim of the present study was to determine the biological activity of cholesteatoma through the analysis of the expression and localization of immunoproteasome subunits of low molecule weight protein (LMP) 2 and LMP7. Cholesteatoma specimens were obtained from 15 adults who underwent ear surgery due to acquired attic cholesteatoma. Normal skin specimens were taken from retro-auricular skin incisions from the same patients. The specimens were stained with anti-LMP7 antibody, using immunohistochemistry techniques based on the binding of biotinylated secondary antibody with the enzyme-labeled streptavidin and the Envision FLEX system. In all specimens of cholesteatoma, the immunohistochemical reaction with the antibody against the LMP2 was positive, in both the cytoplasm of the cholesteatoma matrix and the perimatrix. A negative reaction with anti-LMP2 was observed in the cytoplasm and nuclei of control skin cells. A positive nuclear and cytoplasmic immunohistochemical reaction with anti-LMP7 has been demonstrated in numerous cells, in both the matrix and perimatrix of cholesteatoma. We present evidence of the presence of expressions of LMP2 and LMP7 within cholesteatoma tissue. Our results might bring new information concerning immunoproteasome-dependent pathophysiologic mechanisms in cholesteatoma.

ONX0914 inhibition of immunoproteasome subunit LMP7 ameliorates diabetic cardiomyopathy via restraining endothelial-mesenchymal transition

Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a chronic metabolic disease with few effective therapeutic options. Immunoproteasome is an inducible proteasome that plays an important role in the regulation of many cardiovascular diseases, while its role in DCM remains under discussion. The present study aims to demonstrate whether inhibiting immunoproteasome subunit low molecular weight polypeptide 7 (LMP7) could alleviate DCM. Here, we established a type I diabetes mellitus mouse model by streptozotocin (STZ) in 8-week-old male wild-type C57BL/6J mice. We found that immunoproteasome subunit LMP7 was overexpressed in the heart of diabetic mice, while inhibiting LMP7 with pharmacological inhibitor ONX0914 significantly alleviated myocardial fibrosis and improved cardiac function. Besides, compared with diabetic mice, ONX0914 treatment reduced protein levels of mesenchymal markers (Vimentin, α-smooth muscle actin, and SM22α) and increased endothelial markers (VE-cadherin and CD31). In TGFβ1 stimulated HUVECs, we also observed that ONX0914 could inhibit endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EndMT). Mechanistically, we prove that ONX0914 could regulate autophagy activity both in vivo and vitro. Meanwhile, the protective effect of ONX0914 on TGFβ1 stimulated HUVECs could be abolished by 3-methyladenine (3MA) or hydroxychloroquine (CQ). All in all, our data highlight that inhibition of LMP7 with ONX0914 could ameliorate EndMT in diabetic mouse hearts at least in part via autophagy activation. Thus, LMP7 may be a potential therapeutic target for the DCM.

Equine Hoof Progenitor Cells Display Increased Mitochondrial Metabolism and Adaptive Potential to a Highly Pro-Inflammatory Microenvironment

Medicinal signaling cells (MSC) exhibit distinct molecular signatures and biological abilities, depending on the type of tissue they originate from. Recently, we isolated and described a new population of stem cells residing in the coronary corium, equine hoof progenitor cells (HPCs), which could be a new promising cell pool for the treatment of laminitis. Therefore, this study aimed to compare native populations of HPCs to well-established adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) in standard culture conditions and in a pro-inflammatory milieu to mimic a laminitis condition. ASCs and HPCs were either cultured in standard conditions or subjected to priming with a cytokines cocktail mixture. The cells were harvested and analyzed for expression of key markers for phenotype, mitochondrial metabolism, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and immunomodulation using RT-qPCR. The morphology and migration were assessed based on fluorescent staining. Microcapillary cytometry analyses were performed to assess the distribution in the cell cycle, mitochondrial membrane potential, and oxidative stress. Native HPCs exhibited a similar morphology to ASCs, but a different phenotype. The HPCs possessed lower migration capacity and distinct distribution across cell cycle phases. Native HPCs were characterized by different mitochondrial dynamics and oxidative stress levels. Under standard culture conditions, HPCs displayed different expression patterns of apoptotic and immunomodulatory markers than ASCs, as well as distinct miRNA expression. Interestingly, after priming with the cytokines cocktail mixture, HPCs exhibited different mitochondrial dynamics than ASCs; however, the apoptosis and immunomodulatory marker expression was similar in both populations. Native ASCs and HPCs exhibited different baseline expressions of markers involved in mitochondrial dynamics, the oxidative stress response, apoptosis and inflammation. When exposed to a pro-inflammatory microenvironment, ASCs and HPCs differed in the expression of mitochondrial condition markers and chosen miRNAs.

Capturing the Kidney Transcriptome by Urinary Extracellular Vesicles-From Pre-Analytical Obstacles to Biomarker Research

Urinary extracellular vesicles (uEV) hold non-invasive RNA biomarkers for genitourinary tract diseases. However, missing knowledge about reference genes and effects of preanalytical choices hinder biomarker studies. We aimed to assess how preanalytical variables (urine storage temperature, isolation workflow) affect diabetic kidney disease (DKD)-linked miRNAs or kidney-linked miRNAs and mRNAs (kidney-RNAs) in uEV isolates and to discover stable reference mRNAs across diverse uEV datasets. We studied nine raw and normalized sequencing datasets including healthy controls and individuals with prostate cancer or type 1 diabetes with or without albuminuria. We focused on kidney-RNAs reviewing literature for DKD-linked miRNAs from kidney tissue, cell culture and uEV/urine experiments. RNAs were analyzed by expression heatmaps, hierarchical clustering and selecting stable mRNAs with normalized counts (>200) and minimal coefficient of variation. Kidney-RNAs were decreased after urine storage at -20 °C vs. -80 °C. Isolation workflows captured kidney-RNAs with different efficiencies. Ultracentrifugation captured DKD -linked miRNAs that separated healthy and diabetic macroalbuminuria groups. Eleven mRNAs were stably expressed across the datasets. Hence, pre-analytical choices had variable effects on kidney-RNAs-analyzing kidney-RNAs complemented global correlation, which could fade differences in some relevant RNAs. Replicating prior DKD-marker results and discovery of candidate reference mRNAs encourages further uEV biomarker studies.

A proteoglycan isolated from Ganoderma lucidum attenuates diabetic kidney disease by inhibiting oxidative stress-induced renal fibrosis both in vitro and in vivo

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) was regarded as "miraculous herb" by the Chinese and recorded detailly in the "Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing" as a tonic to improve health and prolong life. A proteoglycan (namely, FYGL) was extracted from Ganoderma lucidum, which was a water-soluble hyperbranched proteoglycan, and was found to be able to protect pancreatic tissue against oxidative stress damage.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a complication of diabetes, but the effective treatment is still lack. Chronic hyperglycemia in diabetic patients induce the accumulation of ROS, which injure the renal tissue and lead to the renal dysfunction. In this work, the efficacy and target mechanics of FYGL on diabetic renal function were investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the present study, the mechanism of the reno-protection of FYGL was analyzed on diabetic db/db mice and rat glomerular mesangial cells (HBZY-1) induced by high glucose (HG) with palmitate (PA) (HG/PA). In vitro, the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were evaluated by commercial kits. the expressions of NOX1 and NOX4, phosphorylation of MAPK and NF-κB, and pro-fibrotic proteins were measured by Western blot. In vivo, diabetic db/db mice were gavaged with FYGL for 8 weeks, body weight and fasting blood glucose (FBG) were tested weekly. On 8th week, the serum, urine and renal tissue were collected for glucose tolerance test (OGTT), redox indicator (SOD, CAT, GSH and MDA), lipid metabolism (TC, TG, LDL and HDL), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine (Scr), uric acid (UA), 8-oxo-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), and the changes of histopathology and expression of collagen IV and AGEs.

RESULTS

The results in vitro showed that FYGL significantly inhibited the HG/PA-induced HBZY-1 cells proliferation, ROS generation, MDA production, promoted SOD activity, and suppressed NOX1, NOX4, MAPK, NF-κB, and pro-fibrotic proteins expression. In addition, FYGL markedly alleviated blood glucose, antioxidant activity and lipid metabolism, improved renal functions, and relieved renal histopathological abnormalities, especially renal fibrosis.

CONCLUSIONS

The antioxidant activity of FYGL can reduce ROS caused by diabetes and protect renal from oxidative stress-induced dysfunction, thereby improving renal function. This study shows that FYGL has the potential to treat diabetic kidney disease.

Understanding the lncRNA/miRNA-NFκB regulatory network in Diabetes Mellitus: From function to clinical translation

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and its significant ramifications make out one of the primary reasons behind morbidity worldwide. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), such as microRNAs and long noncoding RNAs, are involved in regulating manifold biological processes, including diabetes initiation and progression. One of the established pathways attributed to DM development is NF-κB signaling. Neurons, β cells, adipocytes, and hepatocytes are among the metabolic tissues where NF-κB is known to produce a range of inflammatory chemokines and cytokines. The direct or indirect role of ncRNAs such as lncRNAs and miRNAs on the NF-κB signaling pathway and DM development has been supported by many studies. As a result, effective diabetes treatment and preventive methods will benefit from a comprehensive examination of the interplay between NF-κB and ncRNAs. Herein, we provide a concise overview of the role of NF-κB-mediated signaling pathways in diabetes mellitus and its consequences. The reciprocal regulation of ncRNAs and the NF-κB signaling pathway in diabetes is then discussed, shedding light on the pathogenesis of the illness and its possible therapeutic interventions.

miRNA Signature of Urine Extracellular Vesicles Shows the Involvement of Inflammatory and Apoptotic Processes in Diabetic Chronic Kidney Disease

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of urine-derived extracellular vesicles (uEVs) in diabetic kidney disease (DKD) in patients diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

METHODS

UEVs were characterized by size distribution and microRNA content by next-generation small RNA sequencing and quantitative reverse transcription PCR.

RESULTS

A subset of sixteen miRNAs enriched in T2DM patients with DKD, including hsa-miR-514a-5p, hsa-miR‑451a, hsa-miR-126-3p, hsa-miR-214, or hsa-miR‑503 was identified. Eight miRNAs as hsa-miR-21-3p, hsa-miR-4792, hsa-miR‑375, hsa-miR-1268a, hsa-miR-501-5p, or hsa-miR-582 were downregulated. Prediction of potential target genes and pathway enrichment analysis of the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) confirmed possible functions related to cellular processes such as apoptosis, inflammation, and tissue remodeling, that promote diabetic complications, such as DKD. Among them, hsa-miR-375, hsa-miR-503, and hsa-miR-451a make important contribution. Additionally, downregulated hsa-miR-582-5p has not been reported so far in any diabetes-related pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed the most significant miRNAs in uEVs of patients with T2DM. However, as this is a bioinformatic prediction that we performed based on the putative targets of the identified miRNAs. Thus, further in vitro functional studies are needed to confirm our findings. Knowing the fact that EVs are crucial in transferring miRNAs, there is a great need toto discover their involvement in the pathomechanism of T2DM-related kidney disease.

Urinary microRNA in Diabetic Kidney Disease: A Literature Review

Diabetic kidney disease is the most common primary disease of end-stage kidney disease globally; however, a sensitive and accurate biomarker to predict this disease remains awaited. microRNAs are endogenous single-stranded noncoding RNAs that have intervened in different post-transcriptional regulations of various cellular biological functions. Previous literatures have reported its potential role in the pathophysiology of diabetic kidney disease, including regulation of Transforming Growth Factor-β1-mediated fibrosis, extracellular matrix and cell adhesion proteins, cellular hypertrophy, growth factor, cytokine production, and redox system activation. Urinary microRNAs have emerged as a novel, non-invasive liquid biopsy for disease diagnosis. In this review, we describe the available experimental and clinical evidence of urinary microRNA in the context of diabetic kidney disease and discuss the future application of microRNA in routine practice.

Diosmin Mitigates Gentamicin-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Rats: Insights on miR-21 and -155 Expression, Nrf2/HO-1 and p38-MAPK/NF-κB Pathways

Gentamicin (GNT) is the most frequently used aminoglycoside. However, its therapeutic efficacy is limited due to nephrotoxicity. Thus, the potential anticipatory effect of Diosmin (DIOS) against GNT-prompted kidney damage in rats together with the putative nephroprotective pathways were scrutinized. Four groups of rats were used: (1) control; (2) GNT only; (3) GNT plus DIOS; and (4) DIOS only. Nephrotoxicity was elucidated, and the microRNA-21 (miR-21) and microRNA-155 (miR-155) expression and Nrf2/HO-1 and p38-MAPK/NF-κB pathways were assessed. GNT provoked an upsurge in the relative kidney weight and serum level of urea, creatinine, and KIM-1. The MDA level was markedly boosted, with a decline in the level of TAC, SOD, HO-1, and Nrf2 expression in the renal tissue. Additionally, GNT exhibited a notable amplification in TNF-α, IL-1β, NF-κB p65, and p38-MAPK kidney levels. Moreover, caspase-3 and BAX expression were elevated, whereas the Bcl-2 level was reduced. Furthermore, GNT resulted in the down-regulation of miR-21 expression along with an up-regulation of the miR-155 expression. Histological examination revealed inflammation, degradation, and necrosis. GNT-provoked pathological abnormalities were reversed by DIOS treatment, which restored normal kidney architecture. Hence, regulating miR-21 and -155 expression and modulating Nrf2/HO-1 and p38-MAPK/NF-κB pathways could take a vital part in mediating the reno-protective effect of DIOS.

A novel fusion protein consisting of anti-ANGPTL3 antibody and interleukin-22 ameliorates diabetic nephropathy in mice

Introduction

The pathogenic mechanisms of diabetic nephropathy (DN) include podocyte injury, inflammatory responses and metabolic disorders. Although the antagonism of Angiopoietin-like protein 3 (ANGPTL3) can alleviate proteinuria symptoms by inhibiting the activation of integrin αvβ3 on the surface of podocytes, it can not impede other pathological processes, such as inflammatory responses and metabolic dysfunction of glucolipid. Interleukin-22 (IL-22) is considered to be a pivotal molecule involved in suppressing inflammatory responses, initiating regenerative repair, and regulating glucolipid metabolism.

Methods

Genes encoding the mIL22IgG2aFc and two chains of anti-ANGPTL3 antibody and bifunctional protein were synthesized. Then, the DN mice were treated with intraperitoneal injection of normal saline, anti-ANGPTL3 (20 mg/kg), mIL22Fc (12 mg/kg) or anti-ANGPTL3 /IL22 (25.3 mg/kg) and irrigation of positive drug losartan (20mg/kg/d) twice a week for 8 weeks.

Results

In this research, a novel bifunctional fusion protein (anti-ANGPTL3/IL22) formed by the fusion of IL-22 with the C-terminus of anti-ANGPTL3 antibody exhibited favorable stability and maintained the biological activity of anti-ANGPTL3 and IL-22, respectively. The fusion protein showed a more pronounced attenuation of proteinuria and improved dysfunction of glucolipid metabolism compared with mIL22Fc or anti-ANGPTL3. Our results also indicated that anti-ANGPTL3/IL22 intervention significantly alleviated renal fibrosis via inhibiting the expression of the inflammatory response-related protein nuclear factor kappa light-chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) p65 and NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome. Moreover, transcriptome analysis revealed the downregulation of signaling pathways associated with injury and dysfunction of the renal parenchymal cell indicating the possible protective mechanisms of anti-ANGPTL3/IL22 in DN.

Conclusion

Collectively, anti-ANGPTL3/IL22 bifunctional fusion protein can be a promising novel therapeutic strategy for DN by reducing podocyte injury, ameliorating inflammatory response, and enhancing renal tissue recovery.

MicroRNA-451 Attenuates the Inflammatory Response of Activated Microglia by Downregulating Nucleotide Binding Oligomerization Domain-Like Receptor Protein 3

BACKGROUND

Spinal cord injury is the most common problem encountered during spinal surgery. After the initial trauma, the disruption of the blood-brain barrier and subsequent microglia activation result in extensive inflammatory responses. Inflammasomes are large protein complexes that are essential during inflammation. One of the most studied inflammasome components, nucleotide binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP; nucleotide binding oligomerization domain-, leucine-rich repeat-, and pyrin domain-containing 3), is widely expressed in the central nervous system. Previous research has shown that microRNA-451 (miR-451) might play a role in regulating inflammatory conditions.

METHODS

Using bioinformatics analysis, we found that NLRP3 is a direct target of miR-451. This in silico prediction was confirmed using dual-luciferase reporter gene assays. To further demonstrate that miR-451 influenced microglial NLRP3 production, we activated microglial cells with lipopolysaccharides.

RESULTS

Activating microglial cells with lipopolysaccharides resulted in the production of NLRP3 inflammasomes and the secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β and interleukin-18. We were able to demonstrate that overexpression of miR-451 suppressed this NLRP3-induced proinflammatory cascade of events.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings have highlighted the potential anti-inflammatory role of miR-451 in reducing the secondary neuronal damage after spinal cord injury.

Genome-wide post-transcriptional regulation of bovine mammary gland response to Streptococcus uberis

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) as post-transcriptionally regulators of gene expression have been shown to be critical regulators to fine-tuning immune responses, besides their criteria for being an ideal biomarker. The regulatory role of miRNAs in responses to most mastitis-causing pathogens is not well understood. Gram-positive Streptococcus uberis (Str. uberis), the leading pathogen in dairy herds, cause both clinical and subclinical infections. In this study, a system biology approach was used to better understand the main post-transcriptional regulatory functions and elements of bovine mammary gland response to Str. uberis infection. Publicly available miRNA-Seq data containing 50 milk samples of the ten dairy cows (five controls and five infected) were retrieved for this current research. Functional enrichment analysis of predicted targets revealed that highly confident responsive miRNAs (4 up- and 19 downregulated) mainly regulate genes involved in the regulation of transcription, apoptotic process, regulation of cell adhesion, and pro-inflammatory signaling pathways. Time series analysis showed that six gene clusters significantly differed in comparisons between Str. uberis-induced samples with controls. Additionally, other bioinformatic analysis, including upstream network analysis, showed essential genes, including TP53 and TGFB1 and some small molecules, including glucose, curcumin, and LPS, commonly regulate most of the downregulated miRNAs. Upregulated miRNAs are commonly controlled by the most important genes, including IL1B, NEAT1, DICER1 enzyme and small molecules including estradiol, tamoxifen, estrogen, LPS, and epigallocatechin. Our study used results of next-generation sequencing to reveal key miRNAs as the main regulator of gene expression responses to a Gram-positive bacterial infection. Furthermore, by gene regulatory network (GRN) analysis, we can introduce the common upregulator transcription factor of these miRNAs. Such milk-based miRNA signature(s) would facilitate risk stratification for large-scale prevention programs and provide an opportunity for early diagnosis and therapeutic intervention.

MicroRNAs in kidney injury and disease

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression by degrading or repressing the translation of their target messenger RNAs. As miRNAs are critical regulators of cellular homeostasis, their dysregulation is a crucial component of cell and organ injury. A substantial body of evidence indicates that miRNAs are involved in the pathophysiology of acute kidney injury (AKI), chronic kidney disease and allograft damage. Different subsets of miRNAs are dysregulated during AKI, chronic kidney disease and allograft rejection, which could reflect differences in the physiopathology of these conditions. miRNAs that have been investigated in AKI include miR-21, which has an anti-apoptotic role, and miR-214 and miR-668, which regulate mitochondrial dynamics. Various miRNAs are downregulated in diabetic kidney disease, including the miR-30 family and miR-146a, which protect against inflammation and fibrosis. Other miRNAs such as miR-193 and miR-92a induce podocyte dedifferentiation in glomerulonephritis. In transplantation, miRNAs have been implicated in allograft rejection and injury. Further work is needed to identify and validate miRNAs as biomarkers of graft function and of kidney disease development and progression. Use of combinations of miRNAs together with other molecular markers could potentially improve diagnostic or predictive power and facilitate clinical translation. In addition, targeting specific miRNAs at different stages of disease could be a promising therapeutic strategy.

Immune responses in diabetic nephropathy: Pathogenic mechanisms and therapeutic target

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a chronic, inflammatory disease affecting millions of diabetic patients worldwide. DN is associated with proteinuria and progressive slowing of glomerular filtration, which often leads to end-stage kidney diseases. Due to the complexity of this metabolic disorder and lack of clarity about its pathogenesis, it is often more difficult to diagnose and treat than other kidney diseases. Recent studies have highlighted that the immune system can inadvertently contribute to DN pathogenesis. Cells involved in innate and adaptive immune responses can target the kidney due to increased expression of immune-related localization factors. Immune cells then activate a pro-inflammatory response involving the release of autocrine and paracrine factors, which further amplify inflammation and damage the kidney. Consequently, strategies to treat DN by targeting the immune responses are currently under study. In light of the steady rise in DN incidence, this timely review summarizes the latest findings about the role of the immune system in the pathogenesis of DN and discusses promising preclinical and clinical therapies.

Rack1 regulates pro-inflammatory cytokines by NF-κB in diabetic nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is one of the chronic microvascular diseases of diabetes. Studies revealed that inflammation is involved in the development of DN. However, its mechanisms are not fully clear. Here, we screened DN-related mRNAs by RNA sequencing in the renal tissues of db/db DN mice and normal control mice. The Swiss-Model, ZDOCK 3.0.2 and PyMOL 2.3.2 were applied for bioinformatics analysis. In total, we obtained 6,820 mRNAs that were dysexpressed in DN. Among them, Receptor for Activated C Kinase 1 (Rack1) was focused on for its high fold changes and high values of fragments per kilobase million (FPKM) in both two groups (FPKM >100). Moreover, Rack1 was highly expressed in DN in vivo and in vitro. Results displayed that the expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines Mcp-1 and Tnf-α were increased when Rack1 was overexpressed in cells cultured with low glucose while the expressions of Mcp-1 and Tnf-α were decreased when Rack1 was silenced in cells cultured with high glucose. Furthermore, results showed that the established DN inflammatory factor nuclear factor NF-kappa-B (NF-κB) was regulated by Rack1 via the direct interaction between Rack1 and NF-κB subunits P50 and P65. In summary, this identified Rack1 could play an important role in the inflammation of DN via NF-κB, which can provide new insight for DN research.

MicroRNAs and their delivery in diabetic fibrosis

The global prevalence of diabetes mellitus was estimated to be 463 million people in 2019 and is predicted to rise to 700 million by 2045. The associated financial and societal costs of this burgeoning epidemic demand an understanding of the pathology of this disease, and its complications, that will inform treatment to enable improved patient outcomes. Nearly two decades after the sequencing of the human genome, the significance of noncoding RNA expression is still being assessed. The family of functional noncoding RNAs known as microRNAs regulates the expression of most genes encoded by the human genome. Altered microRNA expression profiles have been observed both in diabetes and in diabetic complications. These transcripts therefore have significant potential and novelty as targets for therapy, therapeutic agents and biomarkers.

β-Amyrin ameliorates diabetic nephropathy in mice and regulates the miR-181b-5p/HMGB2 axis in high glucose-stimulated HK-2 cells

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a diabetic complication that can cause renal failure. β-amyrin has been identified to possess anti-diabetic property. This study was designed to evaluate the potential role of β-amyrin in DN and its underlying mechanism. Streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice were used as the in vivo model, and high glucose (HG)-stimulated human proximal tubular HK-2 cells were utilized as the in vitro model. Renal histological changes in mice were assessed by hematoxylin-eosin and periodic acid-Schiff staining. HK-2 cell viability and apoptosis were detected by Cell Counting Kit-8 assay and flow cytometry analysis, respectively. β-amyrin was found to ameliorate kidney injury in DN mice and suppressed inflammatory response as well as apoptosis of HG-stimulated HK-2 cells. miR-181-5p expression in murine renal tissues and HK-2 cells was detected by in situ hybridization (ISH) and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). MiR-181b-5p, a previously identified target for diabetic kidney disease, was downregulated in renal tissues and HG stimulated HK-2 cells, and β-amyrin induced the upregulation of miR-181b-5p. Binding relationship between miR-181b-5p and high mobility group box 2 (HMGB2) was confirmed by luciferase reporter assay. MiR-181b-5p bound to 3' untranslated region of HMGB2 to suppress its expression. As shown by immunohistochemical staining and immunofluorescence staining, HMGB2 was upregulated in the in vivo and in vitro models of DN, and β-amyrin induced the downregulation of HMGB2. Moreover, HMGB2 overexpression neutralized the suppressive effects of miR-181b-5p elevation on the inflammatory response and apoptosis of HG-treated HK-2 cells. Overall, β-amyrin ameliorates DN in mice and suppresses inflammatory response and apoptosis of HG-stimulated HK-2 cells via the miR-181b-5p/HMGB2 axis.

Increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines at the fetal-maternal interface in bovine pregnancies produced by cloning

PROBLEM

A significant rate of spontaneous abortion is observed in cattle pregnancies produced by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). Major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) proteins are abnormally expressed on the surface of trophoblast cells from SCNT conceptuses.

METHOD OF STUDY

MHC-I homozygous compatible (n = 9), homozygous incompatible (n = 8), and heterozygous incompatible (n = 5) pregnancies were established by SCNT. Eight control pregnancies were established by artificial insemination. Uterine and trophoblast samples were collected on day 35 ±1 of pregnancy, the expression of immune-related genes was examined by qPCR, and the expression of trophoblast microRNAs was assessed by sequencing.

RESULTS

Compared to the control group, trophoblast from MHC-I heterozygous incompatible pregnancies expressed increased levels of CD28, CTLA4, CXCL8, IFNG, IL1A, IL2, IL10, IL12B, TBX21, and TNF, while GNLY expression was downregulated. The MHC-I homozygous incompatible treatment group expressed increased levels of IFNG, IL1A, and IL2 while the MHC-I homozygous compatible group did not differentially express any genes compared to the control group. In the endometrium, relative to the control group, MHC-I heterozygous incompatible pregnancies expressed increased levels of CD28, CTLA4, CXCL8, IFNG, IL10, IL12B, and TNF, while GATA3 expression was downregulated. The MHC-I homozygous incompatible group expressed decreased amounts of CSF2 transcripts compared with the control group but did not have abnormal expression of any other immune-related genes. MHC-I incompatible pregnancies had 40 deregulated miRNAs compared to control pregnancies and 62 deregulated microRNAs compared to MHC-I compatible pregnancies.

CONCLUSIONS

MHC-I compatibility between the dam and fetus prevented an exacerbated maternal immune response from being mounted against fetal antigens.

TLR9 regulates NLRP3 inflammasome activation via the NF-kB signaling pathway in diabetic nephropathy

BACKGROUND

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are critical sensors for the conservation of bacterial molecules and play a key role in host defense against pathogens. The effect of TLRs on the maintenance of diabetic nephropathy (DN) and resistance to infection has been investigated; however, the detailed effects of TLR9 on DN development remain elusive.

METHODS

We performed quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and western blotting to detect TLR9 expression levels in the kidneys of experimental mice (db/db) and high-glucose-treated mouse mesangial cell strains (MCs).

RESULTS

TLR9 expression was found to be remarkably upregulated in the kidneys of experimental mice (db/db) and MCs cultivated under hyperglycemic conditions. Moreover, knockdown of TLR9 could restrain NF-kB viability and downregulate the NLRP3 inflammasome in high glucose-treated MCs. TLR9 inhibition also alleviated inflammation and apoptosis, which was reversed by the addition of the NF-κB activator, betulinic acid. Furthermore, depleted TLR9 levels restrained NF-κB viability and NLRP3 expression and reduced kidney inflammation, microalbuminuria discharge, blood sugar level, and glomerular damage in experimental mice (db/db) kidneys. Conclusions These findings offer novel insights into the regulation of TLR9 via the nuclear factor-kB/NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 inflammasome inflammation pathways in DN progression.

MicroRNAs miR-451a and Let-7i-5p Profiles in Circulating Exosomes Vary among Individuals with Different Sickle Hemoglobin Genotypes and Malaria

Sickle cell disease (SCD) occurs when two alleles of mutated hemoglobin (HbS or HbC) are inherited (HbSS and HbSC) rather than one (HbAS or HbAC), which indicates a person carries the sickle cell trait. The high prevalence of these two alleles in Africa have been associated with reduced malaria susceptibility. Recent in vitro research has been shown that microRNAs (miRNAs) miR-451a and let-7i-5p are differentially expressed in HbSS erythrocytes compared to healthy controls (HbAA) and are overexpressed in Plasmodium-infected malaria erythrocytes. However, these miRNAs have not been fully examined in the plasma of people with different sickle hemoglobin genotypes. Plasma circulating miRNAs are commonly encapsulated in extracellular vesicles, such as exosomes, and are thought to play a role in disease development. Circulating exosomal miR-451a and let-7i-5p were quantified from individuals with various hemoglobin genotypes (HbAA, HbAS, HbAC, HbSS, HbSC, and HbCC) with (+) and without (-) malaria. The results showed a higher level of exosomal let-7i-5p and miR-451a in HbSS-. Exosomal let-7i-5p and miR-451a levels were lower in HbSS+ compared to other genotypes. Based on the area under the curve (AUC) of the Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROCs), both exosomal miRNAs may be useful disease biomarkers for SCD with malaria. Finally, miR-451a and let-7i-5p modulate genes involved in inflammation, making them potential biomarkers of pathogenesis for both diseases.

The Dynamics and Plasticity of Epigenetics in Diabetic Kidney Disease: Therapeutic Applications Vis-à-Vis

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) refers to the phenomenon of progressive decline in the glomerular filtration rate accompanied by adverse consequences, including fluid retention, electrolyte imbalance, and an increased cardiovascular risk compared to those with normal renal function. The triggers for the irreversible renal function deterioration are multifactorial, and diabetes mellitus serves as a major contributor to the development of CKD, namely diabetic kidney disease (DKD). Recently, epigenetic dysregulation emerged as a pivotal player steering the progression of DKD, partly resulting from hyperglycemia-associated metabolic disturbances, rising oxidative stress, and/or uncontrolled inflammation. In this review, we describe the major epigenetic molecular mechanisms, followed by summarizing current understandings of the epigenetic alterations pertaining to DKD. We highlight the epigenetic regulatory processes involved in several crucial renal cell types: Mesangial cells, podocytes, tubular epithelia, and glomerular endothelial cells. Finally, we highlight epigenetic biomarkers and related therapeutic candidates that hold promising potential for the early detection of DKD and the amelioration of its progression.

Systems biology and machine learning approaches identify drug targets in diabetic nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy (DN), the leading cause of end-stage renal disease, has become a massive global health burden. Despite considerable efforts, the underlying mechanisms have not yet been comprehensively understood. In this study, a systematic approach was utilized to identify the microRNA signature in DN and to introduce novel drug targets (DTs) in DN. Using microarray profiling followed by qPCR confirmation, 13 and 6 differentially expressed (DE) microRNAs were identified in the kidney cortex and medulla, respectively. The microRNA-target interaction networks for each anatomical compartment were constructed and central nodes were identified. Moreover, enrichment analysis was performed to identify key signaling pathways. To develop a strategy for DT prediction, the human proteome was annotated with 65 biochemical characteristics and 23 network topology parameters. Furthermore, all proteins targeted by at least one FDA-approved drug were identified. Next, mGMDH-AFS, a high-performance machine learning algorithm capable of tolerating massive imbalanced size of the classes, was developed to classify DT and non-DT proteins. The sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and precision of the proposed method were 90%, 86%, 88%, and 89%, respectively. Moreover, it significantly outperformed the state-of-the-art (P-value ≤ 0.05) and showed very good diagnostic accuracy and high agreement between predicted and observed class labels. The cortex and medulla networks were then analyzed with this validated machine to identify potential DTs. Among the high-rank DT candidates are Egfr, Prkce, clic5, Kit, and Agtr1a which is a current well-known target in DN. In conclusion, a combination of experimental and computational approaches was exploited to provide a holistic insight into the disorder for introducing novel therapeutic targets.

Role of microRNAs in Obesity-Related Kidney Disease

Obesity is a major global health problem and is associated with a significant risk of renal function decline. Obesity-related nephropathy, as one of the complications of obesity, is characterized by a structural and functional damage of the kidney and represents one of the important contributors to the morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite increasing data linking hyperlipidemia and lipotoxicity to kidney injury, the apprehension of molecular mechanisms leading to a development of kidney damage is scarce. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenously produced small noncoding RNA molecules with an important function in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. miRNAs have been demonstrated to be important regulators of a vast array of physiological and pathological processes in many organs, kidney being one of them. In this review, we present an overview of miRNAs, focusing on their functional role in the pathogenesis of obesity-associated renal pathologies. We explain novel findings regarding miRNA-mediated signaling in obesity-related nephropathies and highlight advantages and future perspectives of the therapeutic application of miRNAs in renal diseases.

Long noncoding RNA MIAT inhibits the progression of diabetic nephropathy and the activation of NF-κB pathway in high glucose-treated renal tubular epithelial cells by the miR-182-5p/GPRC5A axis

Background

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a common diabetic complication. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been identified as essential regulators in DN progression. This study is devoted to the research of lncRNA-myocardial infarction-associated transcript (MIAT) in DN.

Methods

DN cell model was established by high glucose (HG) treatment for human renal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2). Cell viability and colonizing capacity were analyzed by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) and colony formation assay. Apoptosis was assessed via caspase-3 detection and flow cytometry. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used for evaluating inflammation. The protein determination was completed using western blot. MIAT, microRNA-182-5p (miR-182-5p), and G protein-coupled receptor class C group 5 member A (GPRC5A) levels were all examined via reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Intergenic binding was verified using dual-luciferase reporter, RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP), and RNA pull-down assays.

Results

HG induced the inhibition of cell growth, but accelerated apoptosis and inflammation as well as the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway. MIAT reestablishment prevented the HG-induced cell damages and NF-κB signal activation. Mechanistically, MIAT was proved as a miR-182-5p sponge and regulated the expression of GPRC5A that was a miR-182-5p target. The rescued experiments demonstrated that MIAT downregulation or miR-182-5p upregulation aggravated the HG-induced cell damages and activated the NF-κB pathway via the respective regulation of miR-182-5p or GPRC5A.

Conclusion

Taken together, MIAT functioned as an inhibitory factor in the pathogenesis to impede the development of DN and inactivate the NF-κB pathway via regulating the miR-182-5p/GPRC5A axis.

Pyroptosis in diabetic nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy (DN), a sterile inflammatory disease, is a serious complication of diabetes mellitus. However, recent evidence indicates that pyroptosis, a new term for pro-inflammatory cell death featured by gasdermin D (GSDMD)-stimulated plasma membrane pore generation, cell expansion and rapid lysis with the extensive secretion of pro-inflammatory factors, including interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and -18 (IL-18) may be involved in DN. Caspase-1-induced canonical and caspase-4/5/11-induced non-canonical inflammasome-signaling pathways are mainly believed to participate in pyroptosis-mediated cell death. Further research has uncovered that activation of the caspase-3/8 signaling pathway may also activate pyroptosis. Accumulating evidence has shown that NLRP3 inflammasome activation plays a critical role in promoting the pathogenesis of DN. In addition, current studies have suggested that pyroptosis-induced cell death promotes several diabetic complications that include DN. Our present study briefs the cellular mechanisms of pyroptosis-related signaling pathways and their impact on the promotion of DN. In this review, several investigational compounds suppressing pyroptosis-mediated cell death are explored as promising therapeutics in DN.

Emodin alleviates high glucose-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and extracellular matrix accumulation of mesangial cells by the circ_0000064/miR-30c-5p/Lmp7 axis

Emodin has been shown to exert a renoprotective effect in diabetic nephropathy (DN). In this paper, we investigated whether circular RNAs (circRNAs) might be involved in the renoprotective mechanism of emodin in DN. The levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide dismutase (SOD), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were measured using the corresponding assay kits. The expression levels of circ_0000064, microRNA (miR)-30c-5p, large multifunctional protease 7 (Lmp7), fibronectin (FN), and collagen type I (Col.1) were gauged by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) or western blot. Subcellular localization assay was used to assess the cellular localization of circ_0000064. Targeted relationships among circ_0000064, miR-30c-5p and Lmp7 were confirmed by dual-luciferase reporter, RNA pull-down and RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) assays. Our data showed the alleviative effect of emodin on HG-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and extracellular matrix (ECM) accumulation in SV-MES13 cells. Circ_0000064 was an importantly downstream effector of emodin function in HG-induced SV40-MES13 cells. Moreover, circ_0000064 directly targeted miR-30c-5p, and circ_0000064 modulated Lmp7 expression through miR-30c-5p. Circ_0000064 silencing alleviated HG-induced cell oxidative stress, inflammation and ECM accumulation via up-regulating miR-30c-5p. The enforced expression of miR-30c-5p attenuated HG-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and ECM accumulation in SV40-MES13 cells by targeting Lmp7. Our findings identified that emodin alleviated HG-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and ECM accumulation in SV40-MES13 cells at least partially by the regulation of the circ_0000064/miR-30c-5p/Lmp7 axis.

An Overview of the Posttranslational Modifications and Related Molecular Mechanisms in Diabetic Nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy (DN), a common diabetic microvascular complication, is characterized by its complex pathogenesis, higher risk of mortality, and the lack of effective diagnosis and treatment methods. Many studies focus on the diagnosis and treatment of diabetes mellitus (DM) and have reported that the pathophysiology of DN is very complex, involving many molecules and abnormal cellular activities. Given the respective pivotal roles of NF-κB, Nrf2, and TGF-β in inflammation, oxidative stress, and fibrosis during DN, we first review the effect of posttranslational modifications on these vital molecules in DN. Then, we describe the relationship between these molecules and related abnormal cellular activities in DN. Finally, we discuss some potential directions for DN treatment and diagnosis. The information reviewed here may be significant in the design of further studies to identify valuable therapeutic targets for DN.

Epigenetics and Inflammation in Diabetic Nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) leads to high morbidity and disability. Inflammation plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of DN, which involves renal cells and immune cells, the microenvironment, as well as extrinsic factors, such as hyperglycemia, chemokines, cytokines, and growth factors. Epigenetic modifications usually regulate gene expression via DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNAs without altering the DNA sequence. During the past years, numerous studies have been published to reveal the mechanisms of epigenetic modifications that regulate inflammation in DN. This review aimed to summarize the latest evidence on the interplay of epigenetics and inflammation in DN, and highlight the potential targets for treatment and diagnosis of DN.

lncRNA MALAT1 Promotes Renal Fibrosis in Diabetic Nephropathy by Targeting the miR-2355-3p/IL6ST Axis

Long noncoding RNA (lncRNAs) metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 (MALAT1) has been reported in diabetic nephropathy (DN) about its effect on podocyte function and cell heat shock induced by hyperglycemia. However, the biological mechanism of MALAT1 regulating DN fibrosis needs further study. In this study, SD rats were administrated with streptozotocin (STZ) to establish a diabetes model. In vitro, human renal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2 and 293T) were treated with high glucose (HG). Here, we found that MALAT1 was upregulated in renal tissues of diabetic rats and HG-treated cells, and HG treatment promoted cell proliferation and invasion. MALAT1 overexpression aggravated protein levels of collagen I (col I), collagen IV (col IV), fibronectin (FN), and laminin (LN) in HK-2 cells, while MALAT1 knockdown exerted the opposite effect. Moreover, the luciferase reporter gene and pull-down assays demonstrated that MALAT1 interacted with miR-2355-3p. The miR-2355-3p level was downregulated in diabetic rats and HG-treated cells, and MALAT1 overexpression inhibited the miR-2355-3p level. Bioinformatics prediction and luciferase reporter gene assay revealed that interleukin 6 signal transducer (IL6ST) was a target of miR-2355-3p. In addition, miR-2355-3p overexpression attenuated fibrosis-related gene levels in HG-treated cells by inhibiting IL6ST expression and inactivating the recombinant signal transducer and activator of the transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway. Knockdown of miR-2355-3p reversed the inhibitory effect of MALAT1 knockdown on IL6ST, col I, col IV, FN, and LN protein levels in HG-induced cells. Overexpression of MALAT1 aggravated cell damage in HG-induced cells via the miR-2355-3p/IL6ST/STAT3 signaling pathway. Finally, enhanced renal fibrosis and kidney tissue damage were observed in diabetic rats. In conclusion, MALAT1 overexpression may enhance renal fibrosis in diabetic rats and cell damage in HG-induced HK-2 cells via the miR-2355-3p/IL6ST axis, which provides a new perspective of DN treatment.

RNA-Seq analysis reveals critical transcriptome changes caused by sodium butyrate in DN mouse models

Diabetic nephropathy (DN)—a common complication of diabetes—is the primary cause of end-stage renal disease. Sodium butyrate (NaB) is a short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) that is a metabolic product of intestinal bacterium, and its protective effect on the kidney has been reported in cases of DN. However, its underlying mechanism remains unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of NaB on globe transcriptome changes in DN. In our study, 8-week-old male db/db mice suffering from DN were randomly divided into two groups: the DN+NaB group (DN mice treated with NaB, 5 g/kg/day) and the DN group (DN mice treated with saline). Further, normal db/m mice were used as the normal control (NC) group. The blood glucose, body weight, urinary microalbumin and urinary creatinine of mice were measured for all three groups. Whole-transcriptome analysis was performed by RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) to evaluate the profiling of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Bioinformatics analysis was performed to predict the potential NaB-related lncRNAs and genes in DN. The expressions of lncRNAs and mRNAs were tested using the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reactions (qRT-PCRs) in renal tissues and mesangial cells treated with NaB. The results of the present study demonstrated that NaB ameliorated renal dysfunction in DN mice. Moreover, RNA-Seq results identified that some lncRNAs and mRNAs were reversely changed in the DN+NaB group in comparison to those in the DN group. Additionally, the integrated co-expression networks of NaB-related lncRNAs revealed that these lncRNAs interacted with 155 key mRNAs. Furthermore, the co-expression network of inflammation-related lncRNAs and mRNAs demonstrated that those reversed lncRNAs and mRNAs also play essential roles in the inflammatory response. In summary, the present study suggests that NaB ameliorates diabetes-induced renal dysfunction and regulates transcriptome changes in DN.

The microRNA let-7b-5p Is Negatively Associated with Inflammation and Disease Severity in Multiple Sclerosis

The identification of microRNAs in biological fluids for diagnosis and prognosis is receiving great attention in the field of multiple sclerosis (MS) research but it is still in its infancy. In the present study, we observed in a large sample of MS patients that let-7b-5p levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were highly correlated with a number of microRNAs implicated in MS, as well as with a variety of inflammation-related protein factors, showing specific expression patterns coherent with let-7b-5p-mediated regulation. Additionally, we found that the CSF let-7b-5p levels were significantly reduced in patients with the progressive MS compared to patients with relapsing-remitting MS and were negatively correlated with characteristic hallmark processes of the two phases of the disease. Indeed, in the non-progressive phase, let-7b-5p inversely associated with both central and peripheral inflammation; whereas, in progressive MS, the CSF levels of let-7b-5p negatively correlated with clinical disability at disease onset and after a follow-up period. Overall, our results uncovered, by the means of a multidisciplinary approach and multiple statistical analyses, a new possible pleiotropic action of let-7b-5p in MS, with potential utility as a biomarker of MS course.

HDAC6-Selective Inhibitor Overcomes Bortezomib Resistance in Multiple Myeloma

Although multiple myeloma (MM) patients benefit from standard bortezomib (BTZ) chemotherapy, they develop drug resistance, resulting in relapse. We investigated whether histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) inhibitor A452 overcomes bortezomib resistance in MM. We show that HDAC6-selective inhibitor A452 significantly decreases the activation of BTZ-resistant markers, such as extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), in acquired BTZ-resistant MM cells. Combination treatment of A452 and BTZ or carfilzomib (CFZ) synergistically reduces BTZ-resistant markers. Additionally, A452 synergizes with BTZ or CFZ to inhibit the activation of NF-κB and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), resulting in decreased expressions of low-molecular-mass polypeptide 2 (LMP2) and LMP7. Furthermore, combining A452 with BTZ or CFZ leads to synergistic cancer cell growth inhibition, viability decreases, and apoptosis induction in the BTZ-resistant MM cells. Overall, the synergistic effect of A452 with CFZ is more potent than that of A452 with BTZ in BTZ-resistant U266 cells. Thus, our findings reveal the HDAC6-selective inhibitor as a promising therapy for BTZ-chemoresistant MM.

Non-Coding RNAs as Biomarkers and Therapeutic Targets for Diabetic Kidney Disease

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is the most common diabetic complication and is a leading cause of end-stage kidney disease. Increasing evidence shows that DKD is regulated not only by many classical signaling pathways but also by epigenetic mechanisms involving chromatin histone modifications, DNA methylation, and non-coding RNA (ncRNAs). In this review, we focus on our current understanding of the role and mechanisms of ncRNAs, including microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in the pathogenesis of DKD. Of them, the regulatory role of TGF-β/Smad3-dependent miRNAs and lncRNAs in DKD is highlighted. Importantly, miRNAs and lncRNAs as biomarkers and therapeutic targets for DKD are also described, and the perspective of ncRNAs as a novel therapeutic approach for combating diabetic nephropathy is also discussed.