Perturbations in the p53/miR-34a/SIRT1 pathway in the R6/2 Huntington's disease model

Oligodendrocyte pathology in Huntington's disease: from mechanisms to therapeutics

Oligodendrocytes (OLGs), highly specialized glial cells that wrap axons with myelin sheaths, are critical for brain development and function. There is new recognition of the role of OLGs in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), including Huntington's disease (HD), a prototypic NDD caused by a polyglutamine tract expansion in huntingtin (HTT), which results in gain- and loss-of-function effects. Clinically, HD is characterized by a constellation of motor, cognitive, and psychiatric disturbances. White matter (WM) structures, representing myelin-rich regions of the brain, are profoundly affected in HD, and recent findings reveal oligodendroglia dysfunction as an early pathological event. Here, we focus on mechanisms that underlie oligodendroglial deficits and dysmyelination in the progression of the disease, highlighting the pathogenic contributions of mutant HTT (mHTT). We also discuss potential therapeutic implications involving these molecular pathways.

Comparison of Oncogenes, Tumor Suppressors, and MicroRNAs Between Schizophrenia and Glioma: The Balance of Power

The risk of cancer in schizophrenia has been controversial. Confounders of the issue are cigarette smoking in schizophrenia, and antiproliferative effects of antipsychotic medications. The author has previously suggested comparison of a specific cancer like glioma to schizophrenia might help determine a more accurate relationship between cancer and schizophrenia. To accomplish this goal, the author performed three comparisons of data; the first a comparison of conventional tumor suppressors and oncogenes between schizophrenia and cancer including glioma. This comparison determined schizophrenia has both tumor-suppressive and tumor-promoting characteristics. A second, larger comparison between brain-expressed microRNAs in schizophrenia with their expression in glioma was then performed. This identified a core carcinogenic group of miRNAs in schizophrenia offset by a larger group of tumor-suppressive miRNAs. This proposed "balance of power" between oncogenes and tumor suppressors could cause neuroinflammation. This was assessed by a third comparison between schizophrenia, glioma and inflammation in asbestos-related lung cancer and mesothelioma (ALRCM). This revealed that schizophrenia shares more oncogenic similarity to ALRCM than glioma.

miR-34a-5p as molecular hub of pathomechanisms in Huntington's disease

BACKGROUND

Although a pivotal role of microRNA (miRNA, miR) in the pathogenesis of Huntington's disease (HD) is increasingly recognized, the molecular functions of miRNAs in the pathomechanisms of HD await further elucidation. One of the miRNAs that have been associated with HD is miR-34a-5p, which was deregulated in the mouse R6/2 model and in human HD brain tissues.

METHODS

The aim of our study was to demonstrate interactions between miR-34a-5p and HD associated genes. By computational means we predicted 12 801 potential target genes of miR-34a-5p. An in-silico pathway analysis revealed 22 potential miR-34a-5p target genes in the KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) pathway "Huntington's disease".

RESULTS

Using our high-throughput miRNA interaction reporter assay (HiTmIR) we identified NDUFA9, TAF4B, NRF1, POLR2J2, DNALI1, HIP1, TGM2 and POLR2G as direct miR-34a-5p target genes. Direct binding of miR-34a-5p to target sites in the 3'UTRs of TAF4B, NDUFA9, HIP1 and NRF1 was verified by a mutagenesis HiTmIR assay and by determining endogenous protein levels for HIP1 and NDUFA9. STRING (Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins) analysis identified protein-protein interaction networks associated with HD like "Glutamine Receptor Signaling Pathway" and "Calcium Ion Transmembrane Import Into Cytosol".

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrates multiple interactions between miR-34a-5p and HD associated target genes and thereby lays the ground for future therapeutic interventions using this miRNA.

Shared miRNA landscapes of COVID-19 and neurodegeneration confirm neuroinflammation as an important overlapping feature

Introduction

Development and worsening of most common neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and multiple sclerosis, have been associated with COVID-19 However, the mechanisms associated with neurological symptoms in COVID-19 patients and neurodegenerative sequelae are not clear. The interplay between gene expression and metabolite production in CNS is driven by miRNAs. These small non-coding molecules are dysregulated in most common neurodegenerative diseases and COVID-19.

Methods

We have performed a thorough literature screening and database mining to search for shared miRNA landscapes of SARS-CoV-2 infection and neurodegeneration. Differentially expressed miRNAs in COVID-19 patients were searched using PubMed, while differentially expressed miRNAs in patients with five most common neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and multiple sclerosis) were searched using the Human microRNA Disease Database. Target genes of the overlapping miRNAs, identified with the miRTarBase, were used for the pathway enrichment analysis performed with Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes and Reactome.

Results

In total, 98 common miRNAs were found. Additionally, two of them (hsa-miR-34a and hsa-miR-132) were highlighted as promising biomarkers of neurodegeneration, as they are dysregulated in all five most common neurodegenerative diseases and COVID-19. Additionally, hsa-miR-155 was upregulated in four COVID-19 studies and found to be dysregulated in neurodegeneration processes as well. Screening for miRNA targets identified 746 unique genes with strong evidence for interaction. Target enrichment analysis highlighted most significant KEGG and Reactome pathways being involved in signaling, cancer, transcription and infection. However, the more specific identified pathways confirmed neuroinflammation as being the most important shared feature.

Discussion

Our pathway based approach has identified overlapping miRNAs in COVID-19 and neurodegenerative diseases that may have a valuable potential for neurodegeneration prediction in COVID-19 patients. Additionally, identified miRNAs can be further explored as potential drug targets or agents to modify signaling in shared pathways.

Graphical Abstract

Tumor suppressor p53 regulates heat shock factor 1 protein degradation in Huntington's disease

p53 and HSF1 are two major transcription factors involved in cell proliferation and apoptosis, whose dysregulation contributes to cancer and neurodegeneration. Contrary to most cancers, p53 is increased in Huntington's disease (HD) and other neurodegenerative diseases, while HSF1 is decreased. p53 and HSF1 reciprocal regulation has been shown in different contexts, but their connection in neurodegeneration remains understudied. Using cellular and animal models of HD, we show that mutant HTT stabilized p53 by abrogating the interaction between p53 and E3 ligase MDM2. Stabilized p53 promotes protein kinase CK2 alpha prime and E3 ligase FBXW7 transcription, both of which are responsible for HSF1 degradation. Consequently, p53 deletion in striatal neurons of zQ175 HD mice restores HSF1 abundance and decrease HTT aggregation and striatal pathology. Our work shows the mechanism connecting p53 stabilization with HSF1 degradation and pathophysiology in HD and sheds light on the broader molecular differences and commonalities between cancer and neurodegeneration.

Gentamycin Rationally Repositioned to Inhibit miR-34a Ameliorates Oxidative Injury to PC12 Cells

Ischemic stroke accompanies oxidative stress and cell death in the cerebral tissue. The microRNA miR-34a plays a pivotal role in this molecular pathology. This study presents the rational repositioning of aminoglycosidic antibiotics as miR-34a antagonists in order to assess their efficiency in protecting the PC12 stroke model cells from oxidative stress occurring under cerebral ischemic conditions. A library of 29 amino-sugar compounds were screened against anticipated structural models of miR-34a through molecular docking. MiR-ligand interactions were mechanistically studied by molecular dynamics simulations and free-energy calculations. Cultured PC12 cells were treated by H₂O₂ alone or in combination with gentamycin and neomycin as selected drugs. Cell viability and apoptosis were detected by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazolyl-2)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and annexin V-FITC/propidium iodate (PI) double staining assays, respectively. The expression levels of key factors involved in cell proliferation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in treated PC12 cells were measured through a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and flow cytometric annexin V-FITC/PI double staining assays. A stable and energetically favorable binding was observed for miR-34a with gentamycin and neomycin. Gentamycin pretreatments followed by H₂O₂ oxidative injury led to increased cell viability and protected PC12 cells against H₂O₂-induced apoptotic events. This study will help in further understanding how the suppression of miR-34a in neural tissue affects the cell viability upon stroke.

Non-coding RNAs in human health and disease: potential function as biomarkers and therapeutic targets

Human diseases have been a critical threat from the beginning of human history. Knowing the origin, course of action and treatment of any disease state is essential. A microscopic approach to the molecular field is a more coherent and accurate way to explore the mechanism, progression, and therapy with the introduction and evolution of technology than a macroscopic approach. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) play increasingly important roles in detecting, developing, and treating all abnormalities related to physiology, pathology, genetics, epigenetics, cancer, and developmental diseases. Noncoding RNAs are becoming increasingly crucial as powerful, multipurpose regulators of all biological processes. Parallel to this, a rising amount of scientific information has revealed links between abnormal noncoding RNA expression and human disorders. Numerous non-coding transcripts with unknown functions have been found in addition to advancements in RNA-sequencing methods. Non-coding linear RNAs come in a variety of forms, including circular RNAs with a continuous closed loop (circRNA), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA), and microRNAs (miRNA). This comprises specific information on their biogenesis, mode of action, physiological function, and significance concerning disease (such as cancer or cardiovascular diseases and others). This study review focuses on non-coding RNA as specific biomarkers and novel therapeutic targets.

HSF1 and Its Role in Huntington's Disease Pathology

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Heat shock factor 1 (HSF1) is the master transcriptional regulator of the heat shock response (HSR) in mammalian cells and is a critical element in maintaining protein homeostasis. HSF1 functions at the center of many physiological processes like embryogenesis, metabolism, immune response, aging, cancer, and neurodegeneration. However, the mechanisms that allow HSF1 to control these different biological and pathophysiological processes are not fully understood. This review focuses on Huntington's disease (HD), a neurodegenerative disease characterized by severe protein aggregation of the huntingtin (HTT) protein. The aggregation of HTT, in turn, leads to a halt in the function of HSF1. Understanding the pathways that regulate HSF1 in different contexts like HD may hold the key to understanding the pathomechanisms underlying other proteinopathies. We provide the most current information on HSF1 structure, function, and regulation, emphasizing HD, and discussing its potential as a biological target for therapy.

DATA SOURCES

We performed PubMed search to find established and recent reports in HSF1, heat shock proteins (Hsp), HD, Hsp inhibitors, HSF1 activators, and HSF1 in aging, inflammation, cancer, brain development, mitochondria, synaptic plasticity, polyglutamine (polyQ) diseases, and HD.

STUDY SELECTIONS

Research and review articles that described the mechanisms of action of HSF1 were selected based on terms used in PubMed search.

RESULTS

HSF1 plays a crucial role in the progression of HD and other protein-misfolding related neurodegenerative diseases. Different animal models of HD, as well as postmortem brains of patients with HD, reveal a connection between the levels of HSF1 and HSF1 dysfunction to mutant HTT (mHTT)-induced toxicity and protein aggregation, dysregulation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and disruption of the structural and functional integrity of synaptic connections, which eventually leads to neuronal loss. These features are shared with other neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). Currently, several inhibitors against negative regulators of HSF1, as well as HSF1 activators, are developed and hold promise to prevent neurodegeneration in HD and other NDs.

CONCLUSION

Understanding the role of HSF1 during protein aggregation and neurodegeneration in HD may help to develop therapeutic strategies that could be effective across different NDs.

Mitochondrial dysfunctions, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation as therapeutic targets for neurodegenerative diseases: An update on current advances and impediments

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) such as Alzheimer disease (AD), Parkinson disease (PD), and Huntington disease (HD) represent a major socio-economic challenge in view of their high prevalence yet poor treatment outcomes affecting quality of life. The major challenge in drug development for these NDs is insufficient clarity about the mechanisms involved in pathogenesis and pathophysiology. Mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and inflammation are common pathways that are linked to neuronal abnormalities and initiation of these diseases. Thus, elucidating the shared initial molecular and cellular mechanisms is crucial for recognizing novel remedial targets, and developing therapeutics to impede or stop disease progression. In this context, use of multifunctional compounds at early stages of disease development unclogs new avenues as it acts on act on multiple targets in comparison to single target concept. In this review, we summarize overview of the major findings and advancements in recent years focusing on shared mechanisms for better understanding might become beneficial in searching more potent pharmacological interventions thereby reducing the onset or severity of various NDs.

Recent Advances in the Roles of MicroRNA and MicroRNA-Based Diagnosis in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases manifest as progressive loss of neuronal structures and their myelin sheaths and lead to substantial morbidity and mortality, especially in the elderly. Despite extensive research, there are few effective treatment options for the diseases. MicroRNAs have been shown to be involved in the developmental processes of the central nervous system. Mounting evidence suggest they play an important role in the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. However, there are few reviews regarding the roles of miRNAs in neurodegenerative diseases. This review summarizes the recent developments in the roles of microRNAs in neurodegenerative diseases and presents the application of microRNA-based methods in the early diagnosis of these diseases.

Role of MicroRNAs, Aptamers in Neuroinflammation and Neurodegenerative Disorders

Exploring the microRNAs and aptamers for their therapeutic role as biological drugs has expanded the horizon of its applicability against various human diseases, explicitly targeting the genetic materials. RNA-based therapeutics are widely being explored for the treatment and diagnosis of multiple diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders (NDD). Latter includes microRNA, aptamers, ribozymes, and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), which control the gene expression mainly at the transcriptional strata. One RNA transcript translates into different protein types; hence, therapies targeted at the transcriptional sphere may have prominent and more extensive effects than alternative therapeutics. Unlike conventional gene therapy, RNAs, upon delivery, can either altogether abolish or alter the synthesis of the protein of interest, therefore, regulating their activities in a controlled and diverse manner. NDDs like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, multiple sclerosis, Prion disease, and others are characterized by deposition of misfolded protein such as amyloid-ß, tau, α-synuclein, huntingtin and prion proteins. Neuroinflammation, one of the perquisites for neurodegeneration, is induced during neurodegenerative pathogenesis. In this review, we discuss microRNAs and aptamers' role as two different RNA-based approaches for their unique ability to regulate protein production at the transcription level, hence offering many advantages over other biologicals. The microRNA acts either by alleviating the malfunctioning RNA expression or by working as a replacement to lost microRNA. On the contrary, aptamer act as a chemical antibody and forms an aptamer-target complex.

The emerging role of long non-coding RNAs, microRNAs, and an accelerated epigenetic age in Huntington’s disease

Huntington’s disease (HD) is a dominantly inherited neurodegenerative disease with variable clinical manifestations. Recent studies highlighted the contribution of epigenetic alterations to HD progress and onset. The potential crosstalk between different epigenetic layers and players such as aberrant expression of non-coding RNAs and methylation alterations has been found to affect the pathogenesis of HD or mediate the effects of trinucleotide expansion in its pathophysiology. Also, microRNAs have been assessed for their roles in the modulation of HD manifestations, among them are miR-124, miR-128a, hsa-miR-323b-3p, miR-432, miR-146a, miR-19a, miR-27a, miR-101, miR-9*, miR-22, miR-132, and miR-214. Moreover, long non-coding RNAs such as DNM3OS, NEAT1, Meg3, and Abhd11os are suggested to be involved in the pathogenesis of HD. An accelerated DNA methylation age is another epigenetic signature reported recently for HD. The current literature search collected recent findings of dysregulation of miRNAs or lncRNAs as well as methylation changes and epigenetic age in HD.

Progressive Mitochondrial Dysfunction of Striatal Synapses in R6/2 Mouse Model of Huntington's Disease

BACKGROUND

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by synaptic dysfunction and loss of white matter volume especially in the striatum of the basal ganglia and to a lesser extent in the cerebral cortex. Studies investigating heterogeneity between synaptic and non-synaptic mitochondria have revealed a pronounced vulnerability of synaptic mitochondria, which may lead to synaptic dysfunction and loss.

OBJECTIVE

As mitochondrial dysfunction is a hallmark of HD pathogenesis, we investigated synaptic mitochondrial function from striatum and cortex of the transgenic R6/2 mouse model of HD.

METHODS

We assessed mitochondrial volume, ROS production, and antioxidant levels as well as mitochondrial respiration at different pathological stages.

RESULTS

Our results reveal that striatal synaptic mitochondria are more severely affected by HD pathology than those of the cortex. Striatal synaptosomes of R6/2 mice displayed a reduction in mitochondrial mass coinciding with increased ROS production and antioxidants levels indicating prolonged oxidative stress. Furthermore, synaptosomal oxygen consumption rates were significantly increased during depolarizing conditions, which was accompanied by a marked increase in mitochondrial proton leak of the striatal synaptosomes, indicating synaptic mitochondrial stress.

CONCLUSION

Overall, our study provides new insight into the gradual changes of synaptic mitochondrial function in HD and suggests compensatory mitochondrial actions to maintain energy production in the HD brain, thereby supporting that mitochondrial dysfunction do indeed play a central role in early disease progression of HD.

MicroRNA Alteration, Application as Biomarkers, and Therapeutic Approaches in Neurodegenerative Diseases

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are essential post-transcriptional gene regulators involved in various neuronal and non-neuronal cell functions and play a key role in pathological conditions. Numerous studies have demonstrated that miRNAs are dysregulated in major neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or Huntington’s disease. Hence, in the present work, we constructed a comprehensive overview of individual microRNA alterations in various models of the above neurodegenerative diseases. We also provided evidence of miRNAs as promising biomarkers for prognostic and diagnostic approaches. In addition, we summarized data from the literature about miRNA-based therapeutic applications via inhibiting or promoting miRNA expression. We finally identified the overlapping miRNA signature across the diseases, including miR-128, miR-140-5p, miR-206, miR-326, and miR-155, associated with multiple etiological cellular mechanisms. However, it remains to be established whether and to what extent miRNA-based therapies could be safely exploited in the future as effective symptomatic or disease-modifying approaches in the different human neurodegenerative disorders.

Non-coding RNAs: New players in mitophagy and neurodegeneration

Mitophagy controls mitochondrial quality to maintain cellular homeostasis, while aberrations in this process are responsible for neurodegenerative diseases. Mitophagy is initiated through the recruitment of autophagosomes in a ubiquitin-dependent or ubiquitin-independent manner under different stress conditions. Although the detailed molecular mechanisms of how mitophagy processes influence neurodegeneration remain largely uncharacterized, there is mounting evidence indicating that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), a variety of endogenous regulators, including microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs, extensively participate in mitophagy processes and play pivotal roles in the aging process and neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we reviewed the major mitophagy pathways modulated by some classical and newly found ncRNAs and summarized the diverse mechanisms in a regulatory network. We also discussed the generalizability of ncRNAs in the development of common neurodegenerative diseases related to proteotoxicity and the importance of mitophagy in the pathogenesis of these diseases. In summary, we propose that ncRNAs act as linkers between mitophagy and neurodegeneration, showing the potential therapeutic application of mitophagy regulation mediated by ncRNAs in neurodegenerative diseases.

Altered microRNA expression in animal models of Huntington's disease and potential therapeutic strategies

A review of recent animal models of Huntington's disease showed many microRNAs had altered expression levels in the striatum and cerebral cortex, and which were mostly downregulated. Among the altered microRNAs were miR-9/9*, miR-29b, miR-124a, miR-132, miR-128, miR-139, miR-122, miR-138, miR-23b, miR-135b, miR-181 (all downregulated) and miR-448 (upregulated), and similar changes had been previously found in Huntington's disease patients. In the animal cell studies, the altered microRNAs included miR-9, miR-9*, miR-135b, miR-222 (all downregulated) and miR-214 (upregulated). In the animal models, overexpression of miR-155 and miR-196a caused a decrease in mutant huntingtin mRNA and protein level, lowered the mutant huntingtin aggregates in striatum and cortex, and improved performance in behavioral tests. Improved performance in behavioral tests also occurred with overexpression of miR-132 and miR-124. In the animal cell models, overexpression of miR-22 increased the viability of rat primary cortical and striatal neurons infected with mutant huntingtin and decreased huntingtin -enriched foci of ≥ 2 µm. Also, overexpression of miR-22 enhanced the survival of rat primary striatal neurons treated with 3-nitropropionic acid. Exogenous expression of miR-214, miR-146a, miR-150, and miR-125b decreased endogenous expression of huntingtin mRNA and protein in Hdh^Q111/Hdh^Q111 cells. Further studies with animal models of Huntington's disease are warranted to validate these findings and identify specific microRNAs whose overexpression inhibits the production of mutant huntingtin protein and other harmful processes and may provide a more effective means of treating Huntington's disease in patients and slowing its progression.

MicroRNAs in Huntington's Disease: Diagnostic Biomarkers or Therapeutic Agents?

MicroRNA (miRNA) is a non-coding single-stranded small molecule of approximately 21 nucleotides. It degrades or inhibits the translation of RNA by targeting the 3′-UTR. The miRNA plays an important role in the growth, development, differentiation, and functional execution of the nervous system. Dysregulated miRNA expression has been associated with several pathological processes of neurodegenerative disorders, including Huntington’s disease (HD). Recent studies have suggested promising roles of miRNAs as biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for HD. Here, we review the emerging role of dysregulated miRNAs in HD and describe general biology of miRNAs, their pathophysiological implications, and their potential roles as biomarkers and therapeutic agents.

Resveratrol Relieves Hyperoxia-Induced Brain Injury in Neonatal Rats by Activating Sirt1

OBJECTIVE

Neonatal rats with hyperoxia-induced brain injury were treated with resveratrol to investigate its protective effects through analyzing changes in reactive oxygen species (ROS), Sirt1, p53, and acetylated p53 levels.

STUDY DESIGN

Neonatal rats were randomly divided into hyperoxia and resveratrol intervened groups. Rats in both groups were placed in a hyperoxia chamber for 7 days to induce hyperoxia-induced brain injury. The rats in the resveratrol intervened group were administered resveratrol 60 μg/g body weight daily, whereas those in the hyperoxia group were administered a dimethyl sulfoxide-based solvent. Brain tissues were collected, and hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and TUNEL staining, ROS measurements, real time-polymerase chain reaction, and western blotting were performed.

RESULTS

H&E and TUNEL staining revealed increased cell damage and apoptosis in brain tissue from hyperoxia-exposed animals compared with the findings in animals in the resveratrol intervened group. Real time-polymerase chain reaction and western blotting identified increases in Sirt1 expression and decreases in p53 expression in the resveratrol intervened group. In addition, acetylated p53 protein expression was lower in the intervened group than in the hyperoxia group.

CONCLUSION

Resveratrol alleviated brain apoptosis induced by hyperoxia in neonatal rats by upregulating Sirt1-mediated pathways, suggesting its potentially beneficial role in the treatment of brain injury induced by hyperoxia.

Differential expression of microRNAs associated with neurodegenerative diseases and diabetic nephropathy in protein l-isoaspartyl methyltransferase-deficient mice

Protein l-isoaspartyl methyltransferase (PIMT/PCMT1), an enzyme repairing isoaspartate residues in peptides and proteins that result from the spontaneous decomposition of normal l-aspartyl and l-asparaginyl residues during aging, has been revealed to be involved in neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) and diabetes. However, the molecular mechanisms for a putative association of PIMT dysfunction with these diseases have not been clarified. Our study aimed to identify differentially expressed microRNAs (miRNAs) in the brain and kidneys of PIMT-deficient mice and uncover the epigenetic mechanism of PIMT-involved NDDs and diabetic nephropathy (DN). Differentially expressed miRNAs by sequencing underwent target prediction and enrichment analysis in the brain and kidney of PIMT knockout (KO) mice and age-matched wild-type (WT) littermates. Sequence analysis revealed 40 differentially expressed miRNAs in the PIMT KO mouse brain including 25 upregulated miRNAs and 15 downregulated miRNAs. In the PIMT KO mouse kidney, there were 80 differentially expressed miRNAs including 40 upregulated miRNAs and 40 downregulated miRNAs. Enrichment analysis and a systematic literature review of differentially expressed miRNAs indicated the involvement of PIMT deficiency in the pathogenesis in NDDs and DN. Some overlapped differentially expressed miRNAs between the brain and kidney were quantitatively assessed in the brain, kidney, and serum-derived exosomes, respectively. Despite being preliminary, these results may aid in investigating the pathological hallmarks and identify the potential therapeutic targets and biomarkers for PIMT dysfunction-related NDDs and DN.

Withaferin A Induces Heat Shock Response and Ameliorates Disease Progression in a Mouse Model of Huntington's Disease

Impairment of proteostasis network is one of the characteristic features of many age-related neurodegenerative disorders including autosomal dominantly inherited Huntington's disease (HD). In HD, N-terminal portion of mutant huntingtin protein containing expanded polyglutamine repeats accumulates as inclusion bodies and leads to progressive deterioration of various cellular functioning including proteostasis network. Here we report that Withaferin A (a small bioactive molecule derived from Indian medicinal plant, Withania somnifera) partially rescues defective proteostasis by activating heat shock response (HSR) and delays the disease progression in a HD mouse model. Exposure of Withaferin A activates HSF1 and induces the expression of HSP70 chaperones in an in vitro cell culture system and also suppresses mutant huntingtin aggregation in a cellular model of HD. Withaferin A treatment to HD mice considerably increased their lifespan as well as restored progressive motor behavioral deficits and declined body weight. Biochemical studies confirmed the activation of HSR and global decrease in mutant huntingtin aggregates load accompanied with improvement of striatal function in Withaferin A-treated HD mouse brain. Withaferin A-treated HD mice also exhibit significant decrease in inflammatory processes as evident from the decreased microglial activation. These results indicate immense potential of Withaferin A for the treatment of HD and related neurodegenerative disorders involving protein misfolding and aggregation.

Tantalizing role of p53 molecular pathways and its coherent medications in neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases are incongruous, commonly age-related disorders characterized by progressive neuronal loss, comprising the most prevalent being Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease. Perilous health states are anticipated following the neurodegeneration. Their etiology remains largely ambiguous, while various mechanisms are ascribed to their pathogenesis. A recommended conception is regarding the role of p53, as a transcription factor regulating numerous cellular pathways comprising apoptosis. Neuronal fates are a feasible occurrence that contributes to all neurodegenerative diseases. In this work, we review the research investigated the potential role of p53 in the pathogenesis of these diseases. We put special emphasis on intricate We not only describe aberrant changes in p53 level/activity observed in CNS regions affected by particular diseases but, most importantly, put special attention to the complicated reciprocal tuning connections prevailing between p53 and molecules considered in pathological hallmarks of these disorders. Natural and synthetic medications regulating p53 expression are regarded as well.

Cerebellar Predominant Increase in mRNA Expression Levels of Sirt1 and Sirt3 Isoforms in a Transgenic Mouse Model of Huntington's Disease

The potential role of Sirt1 and Sirt2 subtypes of Sirtuins (class III NAD⁺-dependent deacetylases) in the pathogenesis of Huntington’s disease (HD) has been extensively studied yielding some controversial results. However, data regarding the involvement of Sirt3 and their variants in HD are considerably limited. The aim of this study was to assess the expression pattern of Sirt1 and three Sirt3 mRNA isoforms (Sirt3-M1/2/3) in the striatum, cortex and cerebellum in respect of the effect of gender, age and the presence of the transgene using the N171-82Q transgenic mouse model of HD. Striatal, cortical and cerebellar Sirt1-Fl and Sirt3-M1/2/3 mRNA levels were measured in 8, 12 and 16 weeks old N171-82Q transgenic mice and in their wild-type littermates. Regarding the striatum and cortex, the presence of the transgene resulted in a significant increase in Sirt3-M3 and Sirt1 mRNA levels, respectively, whereas in case of the cerebellum the transgene resulted in increased expression of all the assessed subtypes and isoforms. Aging exerted minor influence on Sirt mRNA expression levels, both in transgene carriers and in their wild-type littermates, and there was no interaction between the presence of the transgene and aging. Furthermore, there was no difference between genders. The unequivocal cerebellar Sirtuin activation with presumed compensatory role suggests that the cerebellum might be another key player in HD in addition to the most severely affected striatum. The mitochondrially acting Sirt3 may serve as an interesting novel therapeutic target in this deleterious condition.

Functional roles and networks of non-coding RNAs in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases

Recent transcriptome analyses have revealed that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are broadly expressed in mammalian cells and abundant in the CNS, with tissue and cell type-specific expression patterns. Moreover, ncRNAs have been found to intricately and dynamically regulate various signaling pathways in neurodegeneration. As such, some antisense transcripts and microRNAs are known to directly affect neurodegeneration in disease contexts. The functions of ncRNAs in pathogenesis are unique for each disorder, as are the pertinent networks of ncRNA/miRNA/mRNA that mediate these functions. Thus, further understanding of ncRNA biogenesis and effects might aid the discovery of diagnostic biomarkers or development of effective therapeutics for neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we review the ncRNAs that have so far been identified in major neurodegenerative disease etiology and the mechanisms that link ncRNAs with disease-specific phenotypes, such as HTT aggregation in HD, α-synuclein in PD, and Aβ plaques and hyperphosphorylated Tau in AD. We also summarize the known lncRNA/miRNA/mRNA networks that participate in neurodegenerative diseases, and we discuss ncRNA-related treatments shown to delay disease onset and prolong lifespan in rodent models.

Regulation of microRNAs by IRE1α in apoptosis: implications for the pathomechanism of neurodegenerative diseases

Although there are large differences in clinical and pathological features, age-related neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) share common pathogenetic mechanisms involving aggregation and deposition of misfolded proteins, which leads to progressive dysfunction and death of neurons. Up to now, it seems that apoptosis is one major form of neuronal cell death. This review provides an overview of recent progress in unfolded protein response (UPR) during apoptosis induced by abnormal protein aggregation and emphasizes on the potential role of inositol requiring enzyme 1 alpha (IRE1α)-microRNAs (miRNAs) mediated apoptosis in NDs, which will provide new insights in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases and novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of NDs.

miR-34a promotes liver fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis via mediating Sirt1/p53 signaling pathway

PURPOSE

This research aimed to explore the correlation between miR-34a expression in peripheral blood and clinical characteristics of patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC) as well as the diagnostic and prognostic values of serum miR-34a in CHC.

METHODS

Serum samples of 41 CHC patients and 18 normal participants were collected to examine the expression levels of miR-34a using qRT-PCR. The changes of serum TBA, liver enzyme AST and ALT were also determined by enzyme colorimetry and rate method. The levels of serum fibrotic markers hyaluronic acid (HA), type III procollagen (PCIII), type IV collagen (IV-C) and laminin (LN) were detected by radioimmunoassay. Degree of liver fibrosis was examined by liver biopsy. Western blot analysis was used to investigate the expression of ac-p53, p53 and Sirt1 in the liver tissues of CHC patients.

RESULTS

MiR-34a was significantly increased in the serum of CHC patients than that in healthy participants, and serum miR-34a was correlated with liver fibrosis index. Serum TBA, AST and ALT levels, and AST/ALT ratios in patients with CHC were increased with increasing degree of fibrosis, and were positively associated with serum miR-34a. Furthermore, the liver tissues of CHC patients showed low Sirt1 protein expression and highly ac-p53 protein expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum miR-34a in patients with CHC could promote liver fibrosis through mediating the Sirt1/p53 pathway and might function as pivotal biomarker on the prognosis and diagnosis of CHC patients.

Epigenetic mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases and acute brain injury

Epigenetic modifications are emerging as major players in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders and susceptibility to acute brain injury. DNA and histone modifications act together with non-coding RNAs to form a complex gene expression machinery that adapts the brain to environmental stressors and injury response. These modifications influence cell-level operations like neurogenesis and DNA repair to large, intricate processes such as brain patterning, memory formation, motor function and cognition. Thus, epigenetic imbalance has been shown to influence the progression of many neurological disorders independent of aberrations in the genetic code. This review aims to highlight ways in which epigenetics applies to several commonly researched neurodegenerative diseases and forms of acute brain injury as well as shed light on the benefits of epigenetics-based treatments.

Integrative Characterization of the R6/2 Mouse Model of Huntington's Disease Reveals Dysfunctional Astrocyte Metabolism

Huntington's disease is a fatal neurodegenerative disease, where dysfunction and loss of striatal and cortical neurons are central to the pathogenesis of the disease. Here, we integrated quantitative studies to investigate the underlying mechanisms behind HD pathology in a systems-wide manner. To this end, we used state-of-the-art mass spectrometry to establish a spatial brain proteome from late-stage R6/2 mice and compared this with wild-type littermates. We observed altered expression of proteins in pathways related to energy metabolism, synapse function, and neurotransmitter homeostasis. To support these findings, metabolic ¹³C labeling studies confirmed a compromised astrocytic metabolism and regulation of glutamate-GABA-glutamine cycling, resulting in impaired release of glutamine and GABA synthesis. In recent years, increasing attention has been focused on the role of astrocytes in HD, and our data support that therapeutic strategies to improve astrocytic glutamine homeostasis may help ameliorate symptoms in HD.

Chromatin accessibility and transcription dynamics during in vitro astrocyte differentiation of Huntington's Disease Monkey pluripotent stem cells

BACKGROUND

Huntington's Disease (HD) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG repeat expansion, resulting in a mutant huntingtin protein. While it is now clear that astrocytes are affected by HD and significantly contribute to neuronal dysfunction and pathogenesis, the alterations in the transcriptional and epigenetic profiles in HD astrocytes have yet to be characterized. Here, we examine global transcription and chromatin accessibility dynamics during in vitro astrocyte differentiation in a transgenic non-human primate model of HD.

RESULTS

We found global changes in accessibility and transcription across different stages of HD pluripotent stem cell differentiation, with distinct trends first observed in neural progenitor cells (NPCs), once cells have committed to a neural lineage. Transcription of p53 signaling and cell cycle pathway genes was highly impacted during differentiation, with depletion in HD NPCs and upregulation in HD astrocytes. E2F target genes also displayed this inverse expression pattern, and strong associations between E2F target gene expression and accessibility at nearby putative enhancers were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that chromatin accessibility and transcription are altered throughout in vitro HD astrocyte differentiation and provide evidence that E2F dysregulation contributes to aberrant cell-cycle re-entry and apoptosis throughout the progression from NPCs to astrocytes.

AAV5-miHTT Lowers Huntingtin mRNA and Protein without Off-Target Effects in Patient-Derived Neuronal Cultures and Astrocytes

Huntington disease (HD) is a fatal neurodegenerative genetic disorder, thought to reflect a toxic gain of function in huntingtin (Htt) protein. Adeno-associated viral vector serotype 5 (AAV5)- microRNA targeting huntingtin (miHTT) is a HD gene-therapy candidate that efficiently lowers HTT using RNAi. This study analyzed the efficacy and potential for off-target effects with AAV5-miHTT in neuronal and astrocyte cell cultures differentiated from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from two individuals with HD (HD71 and HD180). One-time AAV5-miHTT treatment significantly reduced human HTT mRNA by 57% and Htt protein by 68% in neurons. Small RNA sequencing showed that mature miHTT was processed correctly without off-target passenger strand. No cellular microRNAs were dysregulated, indicating that endogenous RNAi machinery was unaffected by miHTT overexpression. qPCR validation of in silico-predicted off-target transcripts, next-generation sequencing, and pathway analysis confirmed absence of dysregulated genes due to sequence homology or seed-sequence activity of miHTT. Minor effects on gene expression were observed in both AAV5-miHTT and AAV5-GFP-treated samples, suggesting that they were due to viral transduction rather than miHTT. This study confirms the efficacy of AAV5-miHTT in HD patient iPSC-derived neuronal cultures and lack of off-target effects in gene expression and regulation in neuronal cells and astrocytes.

HIV-1 Tat-mediated microglial inflammation involves a novel miRNA-34a-NLRC5-NFκB signaling axis

While the advent of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) has dramatically increased the lifespan of people living with HIV-1 paradoxically, the prevalence of NeuroHIV in people treated with cART is on the rise. It has been well documented that despite the effectiveness of cART in suppressing viremia, CNS continues to harbor viral reservoirs with persistent low-level virus replication. This, in turn, leads to the presence and accumulation of early viral protein - HIV-1 Tat, that is a well-established cytotoxic agent. In the current study, we demonstrated that exposure of mouse microglia to HIV-1 Tat resulted both in a dose- and time-dependent upregulation of miRNA-34a, with concomitant downregulation of NLRC5 (a negative regulator of NFκB signaling) expression. Using bioinformatics analyses and Argonaute immunoprecipitation assay NLRC5 was identified as a novel target of miRNA-34a. Transfection of mouse primary microglia with miRNA-34a mimic significantly downregulated NLRC5 expression, resulting in increased expression of NFκB p65. In contrast, transfection of cells with miRNA-34a inhibitor upregulated NLRC5 levels. Using pharmacological approaches, our findings showed that HIV-1 Tat-mediated microglial activation involved miRNA-34a-mediated downregulation of NLRC5 with concomitant activation of NFκB signaling. Reciprocally, inhibition of miRNA-34a blocked HIV-1 Tat-mediated microglial activation. In summary, our findings identify yet another novel mechanism of HIV-1 Tat-mediated activation of microglia involving the miRNA-34a-NLRC5-NFκB axis. These in vitro findings were also validated in the medial prefrontal cortices of HIV-1 transgenic rats as well as in SIV-infected rhesus macaques. Overall, these findings reveal the involvement of miRNA-34a-NLRC5-NFκB signaling axis in HIV-1 Tat-mediated microglial inflammation.

Integration of the Deacetylase SIRT1 in the Response to Nucleolar Stress: Metabolic Implications for Neurodegenerative Diseases

Understanding underlying mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases is fundamental to develop effective therapeutic intervention. Yet they remain largely elusive, but metabolic, and transcriptional dysregulation are common events. Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) is a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺)-dependent lysine deacetylase, regulating transcription, and critical for the cellular adaptations to metabolic stress. SIRT1 regulates the transcription of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), connecting the energetic state with cell growth and function. The activity of the transcription initiation factor-IA (TIF-IA) is important for the transcriptional regulation of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) genes in the nucleolus, and is also sensitive to changes in the cellular energetic state. Moreover, TIF-IA is responsive to nutrient-deprivation, neurotrophic stimulation, and oxidative stress. Hence, both SIRT1 and TIF-IA connect changes in cellular stress with transcriptional regulation and metabolic adaptation. Moreover, they finely tune the activity of the transcription factor p53, maintain mitochondrial function, and oxidative stress responses. Here we reviewed and discussed evidence that SIRT1 and TIF-IA are regulated by shared pathways and their activities preserve neuronal homeostasis in response to metabolic stressors. We provide evidence that loss of rDNA transcription due to altered TIF-IA function alters SIRT1 expression and propose a model of interdependent feedback mechanisms. An imbalance of this signaling might be a critical common event in neurodegenerative diseases. In conclusion, we provide a novel perspective for the prediction of the therapeutic benefits of the modulation of SIRT1- and nucleolar-dependent pathways in metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases.

The Role of Ceramide and Sphingosine-1-Phosphate in Alzheimer's Disease and Other Neurodegenerative Disorders

Bioactive sphingolipids-ceramide, sphingosine, and their respective 1-phosphates (C1P and S1P)-are signaling molecules serving as intracellular second messengers. Moreover, S1P acts through G protein-coupled receptors in the plasma membrane. Accumulating evidence points to sphingolipids' engagement in brain aging and in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's diseases and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Metabolic alterations observed in the course of neurodegeneration favor ceramide-dependent pro-apoptotic signaling, while the levels of the neuroprotective S1P are reduced. These trends are observed early in the diseases' development, suggesting causal relationship. Mechanistic evidence has shown links between altered ceramide/S1P rheostat and the production, secretion, and aggregation of amyloid β/α-synuclein as well as signaling pathways of critical importance for the pathomechanism of protein conformation diseases. Sphingolipids influence multiple aspects of Akt/protein kinase B signaling, a pathway that regulates metabolism, stress response, and Bcl-2 family proteins. The cross-talk between sphingolipids and transcription factors including NF-κB, FOXOs, and AP-1 may be also important for immune regulation and cell survival/death. Sphingolipids regulate exosomes and other secretion mechanisms that can contribute to either the spread of neurotoxic proteins between brain cells, or their clearance. Recent discoveries also suggest the importance of intracellular and exosomal pools of small regulatory RNAs in the creation of disturbed signaling environment in the diseased brain. The identified interactions of bioactive sphingolipids urge for their evaluation as potential therapeutic targets. Moreover, the early disturbances in sphingolipid metabolism may deliver easily accessible biomarkers of neurodegenerative disorders.

MicroRNAs in Major Depressive Disorder

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a severe and chronic psychiatric disorder with a high prevalence in the population. Although our understanding of its pathophysiological mechanisms has significantly increased over the years, available treatments still present several limitations and are not effective to all MDD patients. Epigenetic mechanisms have recently been suggested to play key roles in MDD pathogenesis and treatment, including the effects of small noncoding RNAs known as microRNAs (miRNAs). miRNAs can modulate gene expression posttranscriptionally by interfering with the stability and translation of messenger RNA molecules and are also known to cross-talk with other epigenetic mechanisms. In this review, we will summarize and discuss recent findings of alterations in miRNAs in tissues of patients with MDD and evidence of treatment-induced effects in these molecules.

Brain SIRT1 Mediates Metabolic Homeostasis and Neuroprotection

Sirtuins are evolutionarily conserved proteins that use nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) as a co-substrate in their enzymatic reactions. There are seven proteins (SIRT1-7) in the human sirtuin family, among which SIRT1 is the most conserved and characterized. SIRT1 in the brain, in particular, within the hypothalamus, plays crucial roles in regulating systemic energy homeostasis and circadian rhythm. Apart from this, SIRT1 has also been found to mediate beneficial effects in neurological diseases. In this review, we will first summarize how SIRT1 in the brain relates to obesity, type 2 diabetes, and circadian synchronization, and then we discuss the neuroprotective roles of brain SIRT1 in the context of cerebral ischemia and neurodegenerative disorders.

SIRT1 is increased in affected brain regions and hypothalamic metabolic pathways are altered in Huntington disease

AIMS

Metabolic dysfunction is involved in modulating the disease process in Huntington disease (HD) but the underlying mechanisms are not known. The aim of this study was to investigate if the metabolic regulators sirtuins are affected in HD.

METHODS

Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reactions were used to assess levels of SIRT1-3 and downstream targets in post mortem brain tissue from HD patients and control cases as well as after selective hypothalamic expression of mutant huntingtin (HTT) using recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors in mice.

RESULTS

We show that mRNA levels of the metabolic regulator SIRT1 are increased in the striatum and the cerebral cortex but not in the less affected cerebellum in post mortem HD brains. Levels of SIRT2 are only increased in the striatum and SIRT3 is not affected in HD. Interestingly, mRNA levels of SIRT1 are selectively increased in the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) in HD. Further analyses of the LHA and VMH confirmed pathological changes in these regions including effects on SIRT1 downstream targets and reduced mRNA levels of orexin (hypocretin), prodynorphin and melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) in the LHA and of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the VMH. Analyses after selective hypothalamic expression of mutant HTT suggest that effects on BDNF, orexin, dynorphin and MCH are early and direct, whereas changes in SIRT1 require more widespread expression of mutant HTT.

CONCLUSIONS

We show that SIRT1 expression is increased in HD-affected brain regions and that metabolic pathways are altered in the HD hypothalamus.