Involvement of vesicular trafficking system in membrane targeting of the progeny influenza virus genome

Ribonucleoprotein transport in Negative Strand RNA viruses

Negative-sense, single-stranded RNA (-ssRNA) viruses comprise some of the deadliest human pathogens (Ebola, rabies, influenza A viruses etc.). Developing therapeutic tools relies on a better understanding of their multiplication cycle. For these viruses, the genome replication and transcription activities most-often segregate in membrane-less environments called inclusion bodies (IBs) or viral factories. These "organelles" usually locate far from the cell surface from where new virions are released, and -ssRNA viruses do not encode for transport factors. The efficient trafficking of the genome progeny toward the cell surface is most often ensured by mechanisms co-opting the cellular machineries. In this review, for each -ssRNA viral family, we cover the methods employed to characterize these host-virus interactions, the strategies used by the viruses to promote the virus genome transport, and the current gaps in the literature. Finally, we highlight how Rab11 has emerged as a target of choice for the intracellular transport of -ssRNA virus genomes.

ARHGAP1 Transported with Influenza Viral Genome Ensures Integrity of Viral Particle Surface through Efficient Budozone Formation

Influenza viral particles are assembled at the plasma membrane concomitantly with Rab11a-mediated endocytic transport of viral ribonucleoprotein complexes (vRNPs). The mechanism of spatiotemporal regulation of viral budozone formation and its regulatory molecules on the endocytic vesicles remain unclear. Here, we performed a proximity-based proteomics approach for Rab11a and found that ARHGAP1, a Rho GTPase-activating protein, is transported through the Rab11a-mediated apical transport of vRNP. ARHGAP1 stabilized actin filaments in infected cells for the lateral clustering of hemagglutinin (HA) molecules, a viral surface membrane protein, to the budozone. Disruption of the HA clustering results in the production of virions with low HA content, and such virions were less resistant to protease and had enhanced antigenicity, presumably because reduced clustering of viral membrane proteins exposes hidden surfaces. Collectively, these results demonstrate that Rab11a-mediated endocytic transport of ARHGAP1 with vRNPs stimulates budozone formation to ensure the integrity of virion surface required for viral survival.

Role of the Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factor GBF1 in the Replication of RNA Viruses

The guanine nucleotide exchange factor GBF1 is a well-known factor that can activate different ADP-ribosylation factor (Arf) proteins during the regulation of different cellular vesicular transport processes. In the last decade, it has become increasingly evident that GBF1 can also regulate different steps of the replication cycle of RNA viruses belonging to different virus families. GBF1 has been shown not only to facilitate the intracellular traffic of different viral and cellular elements during infection, but also to modulate the replication of viral RNA, the formation and maturation of viral replication complexes, and the processing of viral proteins through mechanisms that do not depend on its canonical role in intracellular transport. Here, we review the various roles that GBF1 plays during the replication of different RNA viruses.

Single-Virus Tracking: From Imaging Methodologies to Virological Applications

Uncovering the mechanisms of virus infection and assembly is crucial for preventing the spread of viruses and treating viral disease. The technique of single-virus tracking (SVT), also known as single-virus tracing, allows one to follow individual viruses at different parts of their life cycle and thereby provides dynamic insights into fundamental processes of viruses occurring in live cells. SVT is typically based on fluorescence imaging and reveals insights into previously unreported infection mechanisms. In this review article, we provide the readers a broad overview of the SVT technique. We first summarize recent advances in SVT, from the choice of fluorescent labels and labeling strategies to imaging implementation and analytical methodologies. We then describe representative applications in detail to elucidate how SVT serves as a valuable tool in virological research. Finally, we present our perspectives regarding the future possibilities and challenges of SVT.

Microtubules in Influenza Virus Entry and Egress

Influenza viruses are respiratory pathogens that represent a significant threat to public health, despite the large-scale implementation of vaccination programs. It is necessary to understand the detailed and complex interactions between influenza virus and its host cells in order to identify successful strategies for therapeutic intervention. During viral entry, the cellular microenvironment presents invading pathogens with a series of obstacles that must be overcome to infect permissive cells. Influenza hijacks numerous host cell proteins and associated biological pathways during its journey into the cell, responding to environmental cues in order to successfully replicate. The cellular cytoskeleton and its constituent microtubules represent a heavily exploited network during viral infection. Cytoskeletal filaments provide a dynamic scaffold for subcellular viral trafficking, as well as virus-host interactions with cellular machineries that are essential for efficient uncoating, replication, and egress. In addition, influenza virus infection results in structural changes in the microtubule network, which itself has consequences for viral replication. Microtubules, their functional roles in normal cell biology, and their exploitation by influenza viruses will be the focus of this review.

Friend or Foe: The Role of the Cytoskeleton in Influenza A Virus Assembly

Influenza A Virus (IAV) is a respiratory virus that causes seasonal outbreaks annually and pandemics occasionally. The main targets of the virus are epithelial cells in the respiratory tract. Like many other viruses, IAV employs the host cell’s machinery to enter cells, synthesize new genomes and viral proteins, and assemble new virus particles. The cytoskeletal system is a major cellular machinery, which IAV exploits for its entry to and exit from the cell. However, in some cases, the cytoskeleton has a negative impact on efficient IAV growth. In this review, we highlight the role of cytoskeletal elements in cellular processes that are utilized by IAV in the host cell. We further provide an in-depth summary of the current literature on the roles the cytoskeleton plays in regulating specific steps during the assembly of progeny IAV particles.

A Comprehensive Review on the Interaction Between the Host GTPase Rab11 and Influenza A Virus

This year marks the 100th anniversary of one of the deadliest pandemic outbreaks, commonly referred as the Spanish Flu, that was caused by influenza A virus (IAV). Since then, IAV has been in governmental agendas worldwide, and a lot of effort has been put into understanding the pathogen's lifecycle, predict and mitigate the emergence of the strains that provoke yearly epidemics and pandemic events. Despite decades of research and seminal contributions there is still a lot to be investigated. In particular for this review, IAV lifecycle that takes place inside the host cell is not fully understood. Two steps that need clarification include genome transport to budding sites and genome assembly, the latter a complex process challenged by the nature of IAV genome that is divided into eight distinct parts. Assembly of such segmented genome is crucial to form fully infectious viral particles but is also critical for the emergence of viruses with pandemic potential that arise when avian and human IAV strains co-infect a host. The host GTPase Rab11 was separately implicated in both steps, and, interestingly these processes are beginning to emerge as being intimately related. Rab11 was initially proposed to be involved in the budding/release of IAV virions. It was subsequently shown to transport progeny genome, and later proposed to promote assembly of viral genome, but the underlying bridging mechanism the two is far from clear. For simplicity, this Rab11-centric review provides an initial separate account of Rab11 involvement in genome transport and in assembly. IAV genome assembly is a complicated molecular biology process, and therefore earned a dedicated section on how/if the viral genome forms a genomic supramolecular complex. Both topics present intricate challenges, outstanding questions, and unique controversies. At the end of the review, I will explore possible mechanisms intertwining IAV vRNP transport and genome assembly. Importantly, Rab11 has recently emerged as a key factor subverted by evolutionary unrelated viral families (Paramyxo, Bunya, and Orthomyxoviruses, among many others) and bacteria (Salmonella and Shigella) relevant to human health. This review provides a framework to identify common biological principles among the lifecycles of these pathogens.

Influenza A Virus NS1 Protein Suppresses JNK1-Dependent Autophagosome Formation Mediated by Rab11a Recycling Endosomes

Autophagy is an essential process for cellular metabolism and homeostasis, but also functions as one of innate immune responses against pathogen infection. However, in contrast to cellular metabolism and homeostasis pathways, less is known about how virus infection leads to autophagosome formation. Here, we showed that influenza A virus NS1 protein inhibits the formation of autophagosomes. The autophagosome formation was induced by infection with NS1 mutant virus lacking the dsRNA-binding activity for inhibition of innate immune responses (R38AK41A) or the activation of PI3K-Akt signaling pathway (Y89F). R38AK41A mutant infection induced phosphorylation of JNK1 and up-regulated the expression of autophagy-related genes which are downstream of JNK1 signaling pathway. We also found that the amount of phosphorylated TSC2, which activates mTOR, increased in wild type-infected cells but not in Y89F mutant-infected cells. These findings suggest that NS1 inhibits the autophagosome formation through both the inhibition of JNK1 and the activation of PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway. Further, viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) complexes were selectively sequestered into autophagosomes, and knockdown of Rab11a, which is responsible for the apical transport of vRNP complexes, impaired not only engulfment of vRNP complexes by autophagosomes but also the formation of autophagosomes in R38AK41A mutant-infected cells. This indicates that Rab11a-positive recycling endosomes function as a donor membrane for the phagophore elongation and an autophagic receptor for the selective engulfment of viral RNP complexes. Based on these results, we propose that NS1 inhibits JNK1-mediated autophagy induction and the sequestration of vRNP complexes into autophagosomes.

[Dynamics of the influenza virus genome regulated by cellular host factors]

For efficient replication of the influenza virus genome and its post-replicational processes, not only viral factors but also host-derived cellular factors (host factors) are required. The influenza virus genome exists as viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) complexes with viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases and nucleoprotein (NP). Using biochemical and proteomics approaches, we have identified host factors which are required for the vRNP replication and the progeny vRNP transport. We found that MCM complex, a cellular DNA replication licensing factor, is required for successful viral genome replication. In concert with the replication reaction, the nascent RNA chains are encapsidated with NP by cellular splicing factor UAP56. Further, after nuclear export of vRNP, we revealed that vRNP is transported to the plasma membrane using cholesterol-enriched recycling endosomes through cell cycle-independent activation of the centrosome by YB-1, which is a mitotic centrosomal protein. Depletion of YB-1 shows that the cholesterol-enriched endosomes are important for clustering of viral structural proteins at lipid rafts to assemble the virus particles concomitantly with the arrival of vRNP beneath the plasma membrane.

Cathepsin B plays a key role in optimal production of the influenza A virus

Background

Influenza A virus (IAV) is the etiologic agent of the febrile respiratory illness, commonly referred to as 'flu'. The lysosomal protease cathepsin B (CTSB) has shown to be involved in the lifecycle of various viruses. Here, we examined the role of CTSB in the IAV lifecycle.

Methods

CTSB-deficient (CTSB^-/-) macrophages and the human lung epithelial cell line A549 cells treated with CA-074Me were infected with the A/Puerto Rico/8/34 strain of IAV (IAV-PR8). Viral entry and propagation were measured through quantitative real-time RT-PCR; production and localization of hemagglutinin (HA) protein in the infected host cells were analysed by Western blots, flow cytometry and confocal microscopy; production of progeny viruses were measured by a hemagglutination assay.

Results

CTSB^-/- macrophages and CA-074Me-treated A549 cells had no defects in incorporating IAV-PR8 virions and permitting viral RNA synthesis. However, these cells produced significantly lower amounts of HA protein and progeny virions than wild-type or untreated cells.

Conclusion

These data indicate that CTSB is involved in the expression of IAV-PR8 HA protein and subsequent optimal production of IAV-PR8 progeny virions. Targeting CTSB can be a novel therapeutic strategy for treating IAV infection.

Influenza infection modulates vesicular trafficking and induces Golgi complex disruption

Influenza A virus (IFV) replicates its genome in the nucleus of infected cells and uses the cellular protein transport system for genome trafficking from the nucleus to the plasma membrane. However, many details of the mechanism of this process, and its relationship to subsequent cytoplasmic virus trafficking, have not been elucidated. We examined the effect of nuclear transport inhibitors Leptomycin B (LB), 5,6 dichloro-1-β-d-ribofuranosyl-benzimidazole (DRB), the vesicular transport inhibitor Brefeldin A (BFA), the caspase inhibitor ZWEHD, and microtubule inhibitor Nocodazole (NOC) on virus replication and intracellular trafficking of viral nucleoprotein (NP) from the nucleus to the ER and Golgi. Also, we carried out complementary studies to determine the effect of IFV on intracellular membranes. Inhibition of the CRM1 and TAP-P15 nuclear transport pathways by DRB and LB blocked completely the export of virus. Inhibition of vesicular trafficking by BFA, NOC, and ZWEHD also affected influenza infection. Interestingly, IFV infection induced fragmentation of the Golgi complex resulting in diffuse distribution of large and small vesicles throughout the cytoplasm. Live-cell microscopy revealed expansion of Golgi localization signals indicating progressive dispersion of Golgi positive structures, resulting in the disassembly of the Golgi ribbon structure. Other vesicular components (Rab1b, ARF1 and GBF1) were also found to be required for IFV infection. Furthermore, the exact step at which IFV infection disrupts vesicle trafficking was identified as the ER-Golgi intermediate compartment. These findings suggest that IFV NP is trafficked from the nucleus via the CRM1 and TAP pathways. IFV modulates vesicular trafficking inducing disruption of the Golgi complex. These studies provide insight on the ways in which IFV affects intracellular trafficking of different host proteins and will facilitate identification of useful pharmaceutical targets to abrogate virus replication.

Late stages of the influenza A virus replication cycle-a tight interplay between virus and host

After successful infection and replication of its genome in the nucleus of the host cell, influenza A virus faces several challenges before newly assembled viral particles can bud off from the plasma membrane, giving rise to a new infectious virus. The viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) complexes need to exit from the nucleus and be transported to the virus assembly sites at the plasma membrane. Moreover, they need to be bundled to ensure the incorporation of precisely one of each of the eight viral genome segments into newly formed viral particles. Similarly, viral envelope glycoproteins and other viral structural proteins need to be targeted to virus assembly sites for viral particles to form and bud off from the plasma membrane. During all these steps influenza A virus heavily relies on a tight interplay with its host, exploiting host-cell proteins for its own purposes. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on late stages of the influenza virus replication cycle, focusing on the role of host-cell proteins involved in this process.

Replication-Competent Influenza A Viruses Expressing Reporter Genes

Influenza A viruses (IAV) cause annual seasonal human respiratory disease epidemics. In addition, IAV have been implicated in occasional pandemics with inordinate health and economic consequences. Studying IAV, in vitro or in vivo, requires the use of laborious secondary methodologies to identify virus-infected cells. To circumvent this requirement, replication-competent IAV expressing an easily traceable reporter protein can be used. Here we discuss the development and applications of recombinant replication-competent IAV harboring diverse fluorescent or bioluminescent reporter genes in different locations of the viral genome. These viruses have been employed for in vitro and in vivo studies, such as the screening of neutralizing antibodies or antiviral compounds, the identification of host factors involved in viral replication, cell tropism, the development of vaccines, or the assessment of viral infection dynamics. In summary, reporter-expressing, replicating-competent IAV represent a powerful tool for the study of IAV both in vitro and in vivo.

Influenza Virus Induces Cholesterol-Enriched Endocytic Recycling Compartments for Budozone Formation via Cell Cycle-Independent Centrosome Maturation

Influenza virus particles are assembled at the plasma membrane in concert with incorporation of the virus genome, but the details of its spatio-temporal regulation are not understood. Here we showed that influenza virus infection induces the assembly of pericentrosomal endocytic recycling compartment (ERC) through the activation of Rab11a GTPase and cell cycle-independent maturation of centrosome by YB-1, a multifunctional protein that is involved in mitotic division, RNA metabolism and tumorigenesis. YB-1 is recruited to the centrosome in infected cells and is required for anchoring microtubules to the centrosome. We also found that viral infection accumulates cholesterol in ERC and is dependent on YB-1. Depletion of YB-1 shows reduced cholesterol-enriched ERC and prevented budozone formation at the plasma membrane. These results suggest that cholesterol in recycling endosomes, which are emanated from ERC, may trigger the virus assembly concomitantly with the packaging of the virus genome. We propose that the virus genome is transported to the plasma membrane by cholesterol-enriched recycling endosomes through cell cycle-independent activation of the centrosome by YB-1.

Influenza virus particles are assembled at the plasma membrane in concert with incorporation of the virus genome, but the details of its spatiotemporal regulation are unknown. We found that the virus genome is transported to the plasma membrane using cholesterol-enriched recycling endosomes through cell cycle-independent activation of the centrosome by recruiting YB-1, which is a mitotic centrosomal protein. We also revealed that the cholesterol-enriched endosomes are important for clustering of viral structural proteins at lipid rafts to assemble the virus particles. These results suggest that local accumulation of cholesterol, via fusion of endosomes to the plasma membrane, is one of the triggers for the virus assembly concomitantly with arrival of the virus genome beneath the plasma membrane.

The nuclear export protein of H5N1 influenza A viruses recruits Matrix 1 (M1) protein to the viral ribonucleoprotein to mediate nuclear export

In influenza A virus-infected cells, replication and transcription of the viral genome occurs in the nucleus. To be packaged into viral particles at the plasma membrane, encapsidated viral genomes must be exported from the nucleus. Intriguingly, the nuclear export protein (NEP) is involved in both processes. Although NEP stimulates viral RNA synthesis by binding to the viral polymerase, its function during nuclear export implicates interaction with viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP)-associated M1. The observation that both interactions are mediated by the C-terminal moiety of NEP raised the question whether these two features of NEP are linked functionally. Here we provide evidence that the interaction between M1 and the vRNP depends on the NEP C terminus and its polymerase activity-enhancing property for the nuclear export of vRNPs. This suggests that these features of NEP are linked functionally. Furthermore, our data suggest that the N-terminal domain of NEP interferes with the stability of the vRNP-M1-NEP nuclear export complex, probably mediated by its highly flexible intramolecular interaction with the NEP C terminus. On the basis of our data, we propose a new model for the assembly of the nuclear export complex of Influenza A vRNPs.

Transport of the influenza virus genome from nucleus to nucleus

The segmented genome of an influenza virus is encapsidated into ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs). Unusually among RNA viruses, influenza viruses replicate in the nucleus of an infected cell, and their RNPs must therefore recruit host factors to ensure transport across a number of cellular compartments during the course of an infection. Recent studies have shed new light on many of these processes, including the regulation of nuclear export, genome packaging, mechanisms of virion assembly and viral entry and, in particular, the identification of Rab11 on recycling endosomes as a key mediator of RNP transport and genome assembly. This review uses these recent gains in understanding to describe in detail the journey of an influenza A virus RNP from its synthesis in the nucleus through to its entry into the nucleus of a new host cell.

Intracellular transport of the measles virus ribonucleoprotein complex is mediated by Rab11A-positive recycling endosomes and drives virus release from the apical membrane of polarized epithelial cells

Many viruses use the host trafficking system at a variety of their replication steps. Measles virus (MV) possesses a nonsegmented negative-strand RNA genome that encodes three components of the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex (N, P, and L), two surface glycoproteins, a matrix protein, and two nonstructural proteins. A subset of immune cells and polarized epithelial cells are in vivo targets of MV, and MV is selectively released from the apical membrane of polarized epithelial cells. However, the molecular mechanisms for the apical release of MV remain largely unknown. In the present study, the localization and trafficking mechanisms of the RNP complex of MV were analyzed in detail using recombinant MVs expressing fluorescent protein-tagged L proteins. Live cell imaging analyses demonstrated that the MV RNP complex was transported in a manner dependent on the microtubule network and together with Rab11A-containing recycling endosomes. The RNP complex was accumulated at the apical membrane and the apical recycling compartment. The accumulation and shedding of infectious virions were severely impaired by expression of a dominant negative form of Rab11A. On the other hand, recycling endosome-mediated RNP transport was totally dispensable for virus production in nonpolarized cells. These data provide the first demonstration of the regulated intracellular trafficking events of the MV RNP complex that define the directional viral release from polarized epithelial cells.

Critical role of an antiviral stress granule containing RIG-I and PKR in viral detection and innate immunity

Retinoic acid inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs) function as cytoplasmic sensors for viral RNA to initiate antiviral responses including type I interferon (IFN) production. It has been unclear how RIG-I encounters and senses viral RNA. To address this issue, we examined intracellular localization of RIG-I in response to viral infection using newly generated anti-RIG-I antibody. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that RLRs localized in virus-induced granules containing stress granule (SG) markers together with viral RNA and antiviral proteins. Because of similarity in morphology and components, we termed these aggregates antiviral stress granules (avSGs). Influenza A virus (IAV) deficient in non-structural protein 1 (NS1) efficiently generated avSGs as well as IFN, however IAV encoding NS1 produced little. Inhibition of avSGs formation by removal of either the SG component or double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-dependent protein kinase (PKR) resulted in diminished IFN production and concomitant enhancement of viral replication. Furthermore, we observed that transfection of dsRNA resulted in IFN production in an avSGs-dependent manner. These results strongly suggest that the avSG is the locus for non-self RNA sensing and the orchestration of multiple proteins is critical in the triggering of antiviral responses.

YB-1 functions as a porter to lead influenza virus ribonucleoprotein complexes to microtubules

De novo-synthesized RNAs are under the regulation of multiple posttranscriptional processes by a variety of RNA-binding proteins. The influenza virus genome consists of single-stranded RNAs and exists as viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) complexes. After the replication of vRNP in the nucleus, it is exported to the cytoplasm and then reaches the budding site beneath the cell surface in a process mediated by Rab11a-positive recycling endosomes along microtubules. However, the regulatory mechanisms of the postreplicational processes of vRNP are largely unknown. Here we identified, as a novel vRNP-interacting protein, Y-box-binding protein 1 (YB-1), a cellular protein that is involved in regulation of cellular transcription and translation. YB-1 translocated to the nucleus from the cytoplasm and accumulated in PML nuclear bodies in response to influenza virus infection. vRNP assembled into the exporting complexes with YB-1 at PML nuclear bodies. After nuclear export, using YB-1 knockdown cells and in vitro reconstituted systems, YB-1 was shown to be required for the interaction of vRNP exported from the nucleus with microtubules around the microtubule-organizing center (MTOC), where Rab11a-positive recycling endosomes were located. Further, we also found that YB-1 overexpression stimulates the production of progeny virions in an Rab11a-dependent manner. Taking these findings together, we propose that YB-1 is a porter that leads vRNP to microtubules from the nucleus and puts it into the vesicular trafficking system.

Interaction of influenza A virus matrix protein with RACK1 is required for virus release

The mechanism of budding of influenza A virus revealed important deviation from the consensus mechanism of budding of retroviruses and of a growing number of negative-strand RNA viruses. This study is focused on the role of the influenza A virus matrix protein M1 in virus release. We found that a mutation of the proline residue at position 16 of the matrix protein induces inhibition of virus detachment from cells. Depletion of the M1-binding protein RACK1 also impairs virus release and RACK1 binding requires the proline residue at position 16 of M1. The impaired M1-RACK1 interaction does not affect the plasma membrane binding of M1; in contrast, RACK1 is recruited to detergent-resistant membranes in a M1-proline-16-dependent manner. The proline-16 mutation in M1 and depletion of RACK1 impairs the pinching-off of the budding virus particles. These findings reveal the active role of the viral matrix protein in the release of influenza A virus particles that involves a cross-talk with a RACK1-mediated pathway.

Replication-competent influenza A virus that encodes a split-green fluorescent protein-tagged PB2 polymerase subunit allows live-cell imaging of the virus life cycle

Studies on the intracellular trafficking of influenza virus ribonucleoproteins are currently limited by the lack of a method enabling their visualization during infection in single cells. This is largely due to the difficulty of encoding fluorescent fusion proteins within the viral genome. To circumvent this limitation, we used the split-green fluorescent protein (split-GFP) system (S. Cabantous, T. C. Terwilliger, and G. S. Waldo, Nat. Biotechnol. 23:102-107, 2005) to produce a quasi-wild-type recombinant A/WSN/33/influenza virus which allows expression of individually fluorescent PB2 polymerase subunits in infected cells. The viral PB2 proteins were fused to the 16 C-terminal amino acids of the GFP, whereas the large transcomplementing GFP fragment was supplied by transient or stable expression in cultured cells that were permissive to infection. This system was used to characterize the intranuclear dynamics of PB2 by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and to visualize the trafficking of viral ribonucleoproteins (vRNPs) by dynamic light microscopy in live infected cells. Following nuclear export, vRNPs showed a transient pericentriolar accumulation and intermittent rapid (∼1 μm/s), directional movements in the cytoplasm, dependent on both microtubules and actin filaments. Our data establish the potential of split-GFP-based recombinant viruses for the tracking of viral proteins during a quasi-wild-type infection. This new virus, or adaptations of it, will be of use in elucidating many aspects of influenza virus host cell interactions as well as in screening for new antiviral compounds. Furthermore, the existence of cell lines stably expressing the complementing GFP fragment will facilitate applications to many other viral and nonviral systems.

Apical transport of influenza A virus ribonucleoprotein requires Rab11-positive recycling endosome

Influenza A virus RNA genome exists as eight-segmented ribonucleoprotein complexes containing viral RNA polymerase and nucleoprotein (vRNPs). Packaging of vRNPs and virus budding take place at the apical plasma membrane (APM). However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms of apical transport of newly synthesized vRNP. Transfection of fluorescent-labeled antibody and subsequent live cell imaging revealed that punctate vRNP signals moved along microtubules rapidly but intermittently in both directions, suggestive of vesicle trafficking. Using a series of Rab family protein, we demonstrated that progeny vRNP localized to recycling endosome (RE) in an active/GTP-bound Rab11-dependent manner. The vRNP interacted with Rab11 through viral RNA polymerase. The localization of vRNP to RE and subsequent accumulation to the APM were impaired by overexpression of Rab binding domains (RBD) of Rab11 family interacting proteins (Rab11-FIPs). Similarly, no APM accumulation was observed by overexpression of class II Rab11-FIP mutants lacking RBD. These results suggest that the progeny vRNP makes use of Rab11-dependent RE machinery for APM trafficking.

A Rab11- and microtubule-dependent mechanism for cytoplasmic transport of influenza A virus viral RNA

The viral RNA (vRNA) genome of influenza A virus is replicated in the nucleus, exported to the cytoplasm as ribonucleoproteins (RNPs), and trafficked to the plasma membrane through uncertain means. Using fluorescent in situ hybridization to detect vRNA as well as the live cell imaging of fluorescently labeled RNPs, we show that an early event in vRNA cytoplasmic trafficking involves accumulation near the microtubule organizing center in multiple cell types and viral strains. Here, RNPs colocalized with Rab11, a pericentriolar recycling endosome marker. Cytoplasmic RNP localization was perturbed by inhibitors of vesicular trafficking, microtubules, or the short interfering RNA-mediated depletion of Rab11. Green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged RNPs in living cells demonstrated rapid, bidirectional, and saltatory movement, which is characteristic of microtubule-based transport, and also cotrafficked with fluorescent Rab11. Coprecipitation experiments showed an interaction between RNPs and the GTP-bound form of Rab11, potentially mediated via the PB2 subunit of the polymerase. We propose that influenza virus RNPs are routed from the nucleus to the pericentriolar recycling endosome (RE), where they access a Rab11-dependent vesicular transport pathway to the cell periphery.

RAB11A is essential for transport of the influenza virus genome to the plasma membrane

Influenza A virus assembly is a complex process that requires the intersection of pathways involved in transporting viral glycoproteins, the matrix protein, and viral genomes, incorporated in the viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) complex, to plasma membrane sites of virion formation. Among these virion components, the mechanism of vRNP delivery is the most incompletely understood. Here, we reveal a functional relationship between the cellular Rab11 GTPase isoform, RAB11A, and vRNPs and show that RAB11A is indispensable for proper vRNP transport to the plasma membrane. Using an immunofluorescence-based assay with a monoclonal antibody that recognizes nucleoprotein in the form of vRNP, we demonstrate association between RAB11A and vRNPs at all stages of vRNP cytoplasmic transport. Abrogation of RAB11A expression through small interfering RNA (siRNA) treatment or disruption of RAB11A function by overexpression of dominant negative or constitutively active proteins caused aberrant vRNP intracellular accumulation, retention in the perinuclear region, and lack of accumulation at the plasma membrane. Complex formation between RAB11A and vRNPs was further established biochemically. Our results uncover a critical host factor with an essential contribution to influenza virus genome delivery and reveal a potential role for RAB11A in the transport of ribonucleoprotein cargo.