MicroRNA-223 regulates inflammation and brain injury via feedback to NLRP3 inflammasome after intracerebral hemorrhage

Novel insights into non-coding RNAs and their role in hydrocephalus

A large body of evidence has highlighted the role of non-coding RNAs in neurodevelopment and neuroinflammation. This evidence has led to increasing speculation that non-coding RNAs may be involved in the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying hydrocephalus, one of the most common neurological conditions worldwide. In this review, we first outline the basic concepts and incidence of hydrocephalus along with the limitations of existing treatments for this condition. Then, we outline the definition, classification, and biological role of non-coding RNAs. Subsequently, we analyze the roles of non-coding RNAs in the formation of hydrocephalus in detail. Specifically, we have focused on the potential significance of non-coding RNAs in the pathophysiology of hydrocephalus, including glymphatic pathways, neuroinflammatory processes, and neurological dysplasia, on the basis of the existing evidence. Lastly, we review the potential of non-coding RNAs as biomarkers of hydrocephalus and for the creation of innovative treatments.

NLRP3 inflammasome and gut microbiota-brain axis: A new perspective on white matter injury after intracerebral hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage is the most dangerous subtype of stroke, characterized by high mortality and morbidity rates, and frequently leads to significant secondary white matter injury. In recent decades, studies have revealed that gut microbiota can communicate bidirectionally with the brain through the gut microbiota-brain axis. This axis indicates that gut microbiota is closely related to the development and prognosis of intracerebral hemorrhage and its associated secondary white matter injury. The NACHT, LRR, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome plays a crucial role in this context. This review summarizes the dysbiosis of gut microbiota following intracerebral hemorrhage and explores the mechanisms by which this imbalance may promote the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. These mechanisms include metabolic pathways (involving short-chain fatty acids, lipopolysaccharides, lactic acid, bile acids, trimethylamine-N-oxide, and tryptophan), neural pathways (such as the vagus nerve and sympathetic nerve), and immune pathways (involving microglia and T cells). We then discuss the relationship between the activated NLRP3 inflammasome and secondary white matter injury after intracerebral hemorrhage. The activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome can exacerbate secondary white matter injury by disrupting the blood-brain barrier, inducing neuroinflammation, and interfering with nerve regeneration. Finally, we outline potential treatment strategies for intracerebral hemorrhage and its secondary white matter injury. Our review highlights the critical role of the gut microbiota-brain axis and the NLRP3 inflammasome in white matter injury following intracerebral hemorrhage, paving the way for exploring potential therapeutic approaches.

Evaluation of circulating microRNAs in plasma from horses with non-strangulating intestinal infarction and idiopathic peritonitis

Non-strangulating intestinal infarctions (NSII) associated with Strongylus vulgaris infection and idiopathic peritonitis (IP) share similar clinical presentation but require different treatment approaches. Horses with NSII need surgical intervention, while idiopathic peritonitis cases can be successfully treated with antimicrobials. A correct diagnosis is thus crucial, but because the two diseases overlap in clinicopathological features, differentiation is difficult in clinical practice. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are non-coding RNAs that exhibit measurable changes in abundance in tissues and circulation during disease. This study aimed to explore differences in plasma miRNA abundance between patients with NSII and IP. Plasma samples were collected from 43 horses, consisting of 21 with NSII and 22 with IP. A subset (n = 12) was submitted for deep small RNA sequencing to identify miRNAs differing between the groups. Next, a panel of nine miRNAs (two were potential normalizers) were selected for evaluation and confirmation by reverse transcription quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR). Small RNA sequencing detected 628 miRNAs in the blood samples, but no miRNAs were differentially abundant between the disease groups. This finding was confirmed by qPCR. In agreement with previous studies, the top abundant miRNAs in both groups included Eca-Mir-122-5p and Eca-Mir-486-5p, as well as Eca-Mir-223-3p, which has previously been associated with inflammation. Target prediction for the most abundant miRNAs additionally predicted targets in inflammatory pathways. Evaluation of clinicopathological parameters revealed differences between the groups in two measures (white blood cell count and blood neutrophil count), which aligns with findings from previous studies. The results demonstrate that NSII and IP elicit similar miRNA profiles in plasma and are characterized by systemic inflammation.

A Systematic Review of MicroRNAs in Hemorrhagic Neurovascular Disease: Cerebral Cavernous Malformations as a Paradigm

Hemorrhagic neurovascular diseases, with high mortality and poor outcomes, urge novel biomarker discovery and therapeutic targets. Micro-ribonucleic acids (miRNAs) are potent post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression. They have been studied in association with disease states and implicated in mechanistic gene interactions in various pathologies. Their presence and stability in circulating fluids also suggest a role as biomarkers. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge about miRNAs in the context of cerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs), a disease involving cerebrovascular dysmorphism and hemorrhage, with known genetic underpinnings. We also review common and distinct miRNAs of CCM compared to other diseases with brain vascular dysmorphism and hemorrhage. A systematic search, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guideline, queried all peer-reviewed articles published in English as of January 2025 and reported miRNAs associated with four hemorrhagic neurovascular diseases: CCM, arteriovenous malformations, moyamoya disease, and intracerebral hemorrhage. The PubMed systematic search retrieved 154 articles that met the inclusion criteria, reporting a total of 267 unique miRNAs identified in the literature on these four hemorrhagic neurovascular diseases. Of these 267 miRNAs, 164 were identified in preclinical studies, while 159 were identified in human subjects. Seventeen miRNAs were common to CCM and other hemorrhagic diseases. Common and unique disease-associated miRNAs in this systematic review motivate novel mechanistic hypotheses and have potential applications in diagnostic, predictive, prognostic, and therapeutic contexts of use. Much of current research can be considered hypothesis-generating, reflecting association rather than causation. Future areas of mechanistic investigation are proposed alongside approaches to analytic and clinical validations of contexts of use for biomarkers.

A new perspective on the regulation of neuroinflammation in intracerebral hemorrhage: mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome activation and therapeutic strategies

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), a specific subtype within the spectrum of stroke disorders, is characterized by its high mortality and significant risk of long-term disability. The initiation and progression of neuroinflammation play a central and critical role in the pathophysiology of ICH. The NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, a protein complex involved in initiating inflammation, is the central focus of this article. Microglia and astrocytes play critical roles in the inflammatory damage process associated with neuroinflammation. The NLRP3 inflammasome is expressed within both types of glial cells, and its activation drives these cells toward a pro-inflammatory phenotype, which exacerbates inflammatory damage in the brain. However, the regulatory relationship between these two cell types remains to be explored. Targeting NLRP3 inflammasomes in microglia or astrocytes may provide an effective approach to mitigate neuroinflammation following ICH. This article first provides an overview of the composition and activation mechanisms of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Subsequently, it summarizes recent research findings on novel signaling pathways that regulate NLRP3 inflammasome activity. Finally, we reviewed recent progress in NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitors, highlighting the clinical translation potential of certain candidates. These inhibitors hold promise as innovative strategies for managing inflammation following ICH.

ncRNAs-Mediated Pyroptosis in Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury: Pathophysiology, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Perspectives

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI) is a complex pathological process triggered by transient obstruction of blood flow and subsequent reperfusion, ultimately leading to intracellular disturbances such as oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and programmed cell death. Among the various types of cell death, pyroptosis (an inflammatory kind of regulated cell death) has received increasing attention due to its involvement in key neurovascular unit cells, including endothelial cells, neurons, microglia, and astrocytes. Intriguingly, accumulating evidence demonstrates that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including long non-coding RNAs, microRNAs, and circular RNAs, can modulate multiple stages of pyroptosis in CIRI. This review synthesizes recent findings on the ncRNAs-regulated pyroptosis in CIRI. We highlight the molecular underpinnings of pyroptotic activation following ischemic injury and discuss how ncRNAs shape these mechanisms. By elucidating the interactions between ncRNAs and pyroptosis-related pathways, we intend to present innovative viewpoints for early diagnosis and the development of potential therapeutic strategies to mitigate CIRI.

Targeting NLRP3 Inflammasomes: A Trojan Horse Strategy for Intervention in Neurological Disorders

Recently, a growing focus has been on identifying critical mechanisms in neurological diseases that trigger a cascade of events, making it easier to target them effectively. One such mechanism is the inflammasome, an essential component of the immune response system that plays a crucial role in disease progression. The NLRP3 (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain containing 3) inflammasome is a subcellular multiprotein complex that is widely expressed in the central nervous system (CNS) and can be activated by a variety of external and internal stimuli. When activated, the NLRP3 inflammasome triggers the production of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-18 (IL-18) and facilitates rapid cell death by assembling the inflammasome. These cytokines initiate inflammatory responses through various downstream signaling pathways, leading to damage to neurons. Therefore, the NLRP3 inflammasome is considered a significant contributor to the development of neuroinflammation. To counter the damage caused by NLRP3 inflammasome activation, researchers have investigated various interventions such as small molecules, antibodies, and cellular and gene therapy to regulate inflammasome activity. For instance, recent studies indicate that substances like micro-RNAs (e.g., miR-29c and mR-190) and drugs such as melatonin can reduce neuronal damage and suppress neuroinflammation through NLRP3. Furthermore, the transplantation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells resulted in a significant reduction in the levels of pyroptosis-related proteins NLRP3, caspase-1, IL-1β, and IL-18. However, it would benefit future research to have an in-depth review of the pharmacological and biological interventions targeting inflammasome activity. Therefore, our review of current evidence demonstrates that targeting NLRP3 inflammasomes could be a pivotal approach for intervention in neurological disorders.

Zhongfeng Xingnao prescription alleviates injury of intracerebral hemorrhage via regulating the CaMKII/NF-κB p65/NLRP3/GSDMD signaling axis

Background and aim

The NLRP3 inflammasome can be activated after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), triggering an inflammatory response in the brain. Chinese herbal medicine Zhongfeng Xingnao Prescription (ZFXN) is commonly used in China for intracerebral hemorrhage treatment. However, the underlying treatment mechanism of it is unclear. The purpose of our study is to investigate whether ZFXN alleviates injury after intracerebral hemorrhage by blocking the activation of CaMKII/NF-κB p65/NLRP3/GSDMD signaling axis.

Experimental procedure

We evaluated the protective effect of ZFXN in a rat model of collagenase Ⅶ-induced ICH. The neurological deficit score, cerebral hematoma-injury ratio, pathology, and ultrastructure of tissue surrounding the hematoma were evaluated after 5 days of ZFXN treatment, CaMKII/NF-κB p65/NLRP3/GSDMD signaling axis-related protein expression around the hematoma was assessed by Western blot and immunohistochemistry. Meanwhile, ELISA measured the levels of IL-1β, IL-18, IL-6 and TNF-α in serum.

Results and conclusion

After 5 days of ZFXN treatment, the score of neurological deficit and hematoma damage ratio decreased, and the cell destruction such as edema and vacuole conditions around the hematoma improved. The mechanism investigation results showed that ZFXN down-regulated expressions of CaMKII/NF-κB p65/NLRP3/GSDMD signaling axis-related protein around the hematoma area. In addition, ZFXN could attenuate the inflammatory response by regulating the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome after ICH. For the first time, we found that the efficacy of ZFXN on ICH might be related to the regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome.

The molecular mechanisms by which the NLRP3 inflammasome regulates blood-brain barrier permeability following cryptococcal meningitis

Objective

To investigate the mechanism underlying the regulation of blood-brain barrier permeability changes during cryptococcal meningitis by NLRP3 and Vimentin.

Methods

Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with WT Cryptococcus neoformans (Cn) or CPS1-/- Cn. Neuronal apoptosis was assessed using TUNEL staining, and pathological changes were observed using electron microscopy and HE staining. The expressions of NLRP3, Vimentin, and NF-κB in the cerebral cortex and human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) were examined through Western blot and qRT-PCR. siNLRP3 and siVimentin were separately transfected into HBMECs, the expressions of specific factors were assessed. NF-κB and Vimentin levels were detected through immunofluorescence, apoptosis was measured using flow cytometry, and changes in the optical density (OD) of HRP were determined using ELISA.

Results

The expressions of NLRP3, Vimentin, and NF-κB were upregulated following intervention with WT Cn in vivo and in vitro. Electron microscopy revealed loose nuclear membranes in neurons and increased apoptosis in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus induced by WT Cn, accompanied by a reduction in the OD of HRP in vitro. siNLRP3 decreased the expressions of Vimentin, nuclear NF-κB, and β-Tubulin in HBMECs, while siVimentin downregulated total NLRP3 and nuclear NF-κB levels. Both siNLRP3 and siVimentin reduced cell apoptosis after WT Cn infection. HBMECs displayed a reduced monolayer permeability to HRP and improved cell structure arrangement.

Conclusion

Vimentin and the NLRP3 inflammasome are both implicated in the pathological process of cryptococcal meningitis. An interaction between Vimentin and the NLRP3 inflammasome is evident, likely mediated through the NF-κB signaling pathway.

Exploring the correlation between innate immune activation of inflammasome and regulation of pyroptosis after intracerebral hemorrhage: From mechanism to treatment

Stroke has emerged as the primary cause of disability and death globally in recent years. Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), a particularly severe kind of stroke, is occurring in an increasing number of people. The two main clinical treatments for ICH now in use are conservative pharmaceutical therapy and surgical intervention, both of which have risks and drawbacks. Consequently, it is crucial to look into the pathophysiology of ICH and consider cutting-edge therapeutic approaches. Recent research has revealed that pyroptosis is a newly identified type of cell death distinguished by the break of the cell membrane and the discharge of pro-inflammatory substances through different routes. Following ICH, glial cells experience pyroptosis, which worsens neuroinflammation. Hence, the onset and progression of ICH are strongly linked to pyroptosis, which is facilitated by different inflammasomes. It is essential to conduct a comprehensive investigation of ICH damage processes and uncover new targets for treatment. The impact and function of pyroptosis in ICH, as well as the activation and regulation of inflammasomes and their mediated pyroptosis pathways will be fully discussed in this review.

Significance of Melatonin in the Regulation of Circadian Rhythms and Disease Management

Melatonin, the 'hormone of darkness' is a neuronal hormone secreted by the pineal gland and other extra pineal sites. Responsible for the circadian rhythm and seasonal behaviour of vertebrates and mammals, melatonin is responsible for regulating various physiological conditions and the maintenance of sleep, body weight and the neuronal activities of the ocular sites. With its unique amphiphilic structure, melatonin can cross the cellular barriers and elucidate its activities in the subcellular components, including mitochondria. Melatonin is a potential scavenger of oxygen and nitrogen-reactive species and can directly obliterate the ROS and RNS by a receptor-independent mechanism. It can also regulate the pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in various pathological conditions and exhibit therapeutic activities against neurodegenerative, psychiatric disorders and cancer. Melatonin is also found to show its effects on major organs, particularly the brain, liver and heart, and also imparts a role in the modulation of the immune system. Thus, melatonin is a multifaceted candidate with immense therapeutic potential and is still considered an effective supplement on various therapies. This is primarily due to rectification of aberrant circadian rhythm by improvement of sleep quality associated with risk development of neurodegenerative, cognitive, cardiovascular and other metabolic disorders, thereby enhancing the quality of life.

Molecular Pathogenesis of Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Strokes: Background and Therapeutic Approaches

Stroke represents one of the neurological diseases most responsible for death and permanent disability in the world. Different factors, such as thrombus, emboli and atherosclerosis, take part in the intricate pathophysiology of stroke. Comprehending the molecular processes involved in this mechanism is crucial to developing new, specific and efficient treatments. Some common mechanisms are excitotoxicity and calcium overload, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Furthermore, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are critical in pathophysiology and recovery after cerebral ischemia. ncRNAs, particularly microRNAs, and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are essential for angiogenesis and neuroprotection, and they have been suggested to be therapeutic, diagnostic and prognostic tools in cerebrovascular diseases, including stroke. This review summarizes the intricate molecular mechanisms underlying ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke and delves into the function of miRNAs in the development of brain damage. Furthermore, we will analyze new perspectives on treatment based on molecular mechanisms in addition to traditional stroke therapies.

NLRP3 Inflammasome Inhibitors for Antiepileptogenic Drug Discovery and Development

Epilepsy is one of the most prevalent and serious brain disorders and affects over 70 million people globally. Antiseizure medications (ASMs) relieve symptoms and prevent the occurrence of future seizures in epileptic patients but have a limited effect on epileptogenesis. Addressing the multifaceted nature of epileptogenesis and its association with the Nod-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation requires a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms of these medications for the development of targeted therapeutic strategies beyond conventional antiseizure treatments. Several types of NLRP3 inhibitors have been developed and their effect has been validated both in in vitro and in vivo models of epileptogenesis. In this review, we discuss the advances in understanding the regulatory mechanisms of NLRP3 activation as well as progress made, and challenges faced in the development of NLRP3 inhibitors for the treatment of epilepsy.

New Insights on NLRP3 Inflammasome: Mechanisms of Activation, Inhibition, and Epigenetic Regulation

Inflammasomes are important modulators of inflammation. Dysregulation of inflammasomes can enhance vulnerability to conditions such as neurodegenerative diseases, autoinflammatory diseases, and metabolic disorders. Among various inflammasomes, Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain leucine-rich repeat and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) is the best-characterized inflammasome related to inflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases. NLRP3 is an intracellular sensor that recognizes pathogen-associated molecular patterns and damage-associated patterns resulting in the assembly and activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. The NLRP3 inflammasome includes sensor NLRP3, adaptor apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC), and effector cysteine protease procaspase-1 that plays an imperative role in caspase-1 stimulation which further initiates a secondary inflammatory response. Regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome ameliorates NLRP3-mediated diseases. Much effort has been invested in studying the activation, and exploration of specific inhibitors and epigenetic mechanisms controlling NLRP3 inflammasome. This review gives an overview of the established NLRP3 inflammasome assembly, its brief molecular mechanistic activations as well as a current update on specific and non-specific NLRP3 inhibitors that could be used in NLRP3-mediated diseases. We also focused on the recently discovered epigenetic mechanisms mediated by DNA methylation, histone alterations, and microRNAs in regulating the activation and expression of NLRP3 inflammasome, which has resulted in a novel method of gaining insight into the mechanisms that modulate NLRP3 inflammasome activity and introducing potential therapeutic strategies for CNS disorders.

Improving quantitative susceptibility mapping for the identification of traumatic brain injury neurodegeneration at the individual level

BACKGROUND

Emerging evidence suggests that traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major risk factor for developing neurodegenerative disease later in life. Quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) has been used by an increasing number of studies in investigations of pathophysiological changes in TBI. However, generating artefact-free quantitative susceptibility maps in brains with large focal lesions, as in the case of moderate-to-severe TBI (ms-TBI), is particularly challenging. To address this issue, we utilized a novel two-pass masking technique and reconstruction procedure (two-pass QSM) to generate quantitative susceptibility maps (QSMxT; Stewart et al., 2022, Magn Reson Med.) in combination with the recently developed virtual brain grafting (VBG) procedure for brain repair (Radwan et al., 2021, NeuroImage) to improve automated delineation of brain areas. We used QSMxT and VBG to generate personalised QSM profiles of individual patients with reference to a sample of healthy controls.

METHODS

Chronic ms-TBI patients (N = 8) and healthy controls (N = 12) underwent (multi-echo) GRE, and anatomical MRI (MPRAGE) on a 3T Siemens PRISMA scanner. We reconstructed the magnetic susceptibility maps using two-pass QSM from QSMxT. We then extracted values of magnetic susceptibility in grey matter (GM) regions (following brain repair via VBG) across the whole brain and determined if they deviate from a reference healthy control group [Z-score < -3.43 or > 3.43, relative to the control mean], with the aim of obtaining personalised QSM profiles.

RESULTS

Using two-pass QSM, we achieved susceptibility maps with a substantial increase in quality and reduction in artefacts irrespective of the presence of large focal lesions, compared to single-pass QSM. In addition, VBG minimised the loss of GM regions and exclusion of patients due to failures in the region delineation step. Our findings revealed deviations in magnetic susceptibility measures from the HC group that differed across individual TBI patients. These changes included both increases and decreases in magnetic susceptibility values in multiple GM regions across the brain.

CONCLUSIONS

We illustrate how to obtain magnetic susceptibility values at the individual level and to build personalised QSM profiles in ms-TBI patients. Our approach opens the door for QSM investigations in more severely injured patients. Such profiles are also critical to overcome the inherent heterogeneity of clinical populations, such as ms-TBI, and to characterize the underlying mechanisms of neurodegeneration at the individual level more precisely. Moreover, this new personalised QSM profiling could in the future assist clinicians in assessing recovery and formulating a neuroscience-guided integrative rehabilitation program tailored to individual TBI patients.

Role of NLRP3 Inflammasome in Stroke Pathobiology: Current Therapeutic Avenues and Future Perspective

Neuroinflammation is a key pathophysiological feature of stroke-associated brain injury. A local innate immune response triggers neuroinflammation following a stroke via activating inflammasomes. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain leucine-rich repeat and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome has been heavily implicated in stroke pathobiology. Following a stroke, several stimuli have been suggested to trigger the assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Recent studies have advanced the understanding and revealed several new players regulating NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation. This article discussed recent advancements in NLRP3 assembly and highlighted stroke-induced mitochondrial dysfunction as a major checkpoint to regulating NLRP3 activation. The NLRP3 inflammasome activation leads to caspase-1-dependent maturation and release of IL-1β, IL-18, and gasdermin D. In addition, genetic or pharmacological inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome activation and downstream signaling has been shown to attenuate brain infarction and improve the neurological outcome in experimental models of stroke. Several drug-like small molecules targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome are in different phases of development as novel therapeutics for various inflammatory conditions, including stroke. Understanding how these molecules interfere with NLRP3 inflammasome assembly is paramount for their better optimization and/or development of newer NLRP3 inhibitors. In this review, we summarized the assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome and discussed the recent advances in understanding the upstream regulators of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation following stroke. Additionally, we critically examined the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated signaling in stroke pathophysiology and the development of therapeutic modalities to target the NLRP3 inflammasome-related signaling for stroke treatment.

Effects of miR-722 on gene expression and alternative splicing in the liver of half-smooth tongue sole after infection with Vibrio anguillarum

MicroRNAs play crucial roles in various biological processes, including but not limited to differentiation, development, disease, and immunity. However, their immunoregulatory roles in half-smooth tongue sole are lacking. Our previous studies indicated that miR-722 could target C5aR1 to modulate the complement pathway to alleviate inflammatory response and even affect the mortality after the bacterial infection with Vibrio anguillarum. Driven by the purpose of revealing the underlying mechanisms, in this study, we investigated the effects of miR-722 on the gene expression and alternative splicing (AS) in the liver of half-smooth tongue sole after Vibrio anguillarum infection, with the approach of miR-722 overexpression/silencing and subsequent RNA-seq. Among the different comparisons, the I group (miR-722 inhibitor and V. anguillarum) versus blank control (PBS) exhibited the highest number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs), suggesting that the immune response was overactivated after inhibiting the miR-722. In addition, enrichment analyses were performed to reveal the functions of DEGs and differential AS (DAS) genes, reflecting the enrichment of RNA splicing and immune-related pathways including NF-κB and T cell receptor signaling pathway. Comparing the M group (miR-722 mimic and V. anguillarum) with the negative control (random sequence and V. anguillarum), two immune-related genes, cd48 and mapk8, were differentially expressed, of which mapk8 was also differentially spliced, indicating their importance in the immune response. Furthermore, representative gene analysis was performed, suggesting their corresponding functional changes due to AS. To verify the RNA-seq data, quantitative real-time PCR was employed with twenty pairs of primers for DEGs and DAS events. Overall, our results demonstrated that miR-722 could mediate the transcriptome-wide changes of gene expression and AS in half-smooth tongue sole, and provided insights into the regulatory role of miR-722 in immune responses, laying the foundation for further functional analyses and practical applications in aquaculture.

Regulatory mechanism of miR-722 on C5aR1 and its functions against bacterial inflammation in half-smooth tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis)

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs involved in various biological processes, including immunity. Previously, we investigated the miRNAs of half-smooth tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis) and found that miR-722 (designated Cse-miR-722) was significantly differentially expressed after infection with Vibrio anguillarum, reflecting its importance in immune response. Our preliminary bioinformatic analysis suggested that Cse-miR-722 could target C5aR1 (designated CsC5aR1), which was known to play crucial roles in complement activation and inflammatory response, as a receptor of C5a. However, the underlying mechanisms of their interactions and specific functions in inflammatory and immune response are still enigmas. In this study, we successfully cloned the precursor sequence of Cse-miR-722 (94 bp) and the full length of CsC5aR1 (1541 bp, protein molecular weight 39 kDa). The target gene of Cse-miR-722 was verified as CsC5aR1 by a dual luciferase reporter assay, and Cse-miR-722 was confirmed to regulate CsC5aR1 at the protein level using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blotting. The expression of CsC5aR1 and Cse-miR-722 in liver cells and four immune tissues of half-smooth tongue sole changed significantly after LPS stimulation and infection with V. anguillarum. To explore the functional role of Cse-miR-722 in half-smooth tongue sole, we performed both in vitro and in vivo experiments. Cse-miR-722 was observed to affect phagocytosis and respiratory burst activity of macrophages by regulating CsC5aR1 in half-smooth tongue sole. Furthermore, we found that Cse-miR-722 regulated the expression of CsC5aR1, CsC5a, and the inflammatory factors CsIL1-β, CsIL6, CsIL8, and CsTNF-α both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, Cse-miR-722 reduced mortality and pathological damage. This study clarified the regulatory mechanism of Cse-miR-722 on CsC5aR1 and provided insight into the regulatory roles of Cse-miR-722 in immune responses, laying a theoretical foundation for the feasibility of using miR-722 to prevent and control bacterial diseases in teleost.

Research progress on pyroptosis and its effect on the central nervous system

Pyroptosis is an inflammatory and lysis type of programmed cell death. In the canonical pyroptosis signaling pathway, the NLRP3 inflammasome activates inflammatory caspase-1, which then shears cut the executor protein GSDMD. The N domains of GSDMD move to heterogeneous membranes, form pores, and release inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18, causing cell membrane swelling and rupture. Pyroptosis is mainly regulated by the key proteins in the signaling pathway, including inflammasome, caspase-1, GSDMD, IL-1β, and IL-18, as well as their agonists and inhibitors. Appropriate pyroptosis can improve host defense mechanisms, while excessive pyroptosis would derive pathological effects on central nervous system, leding to neuroinflammatory response, blood-brain barrier damage, and cognitive disfunction.

Natural products modulate NLRP3 in ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a clinically common, progressive, devastating, chronic inflammatory disease of the intestine that is recurrent and difficult to treat. Nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) is a protein complex composed of multiple proteins whose formation activates cysteine aspartate protease-1 (caspase-1) to induce the maturation and secretion of inflammatory mediators such as interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, promoting the development of inflammatory responses. Recent studies have shown that NLRP3 is associated with UC susceptibility, and that it maintains a stable intestinal environment by responding to a wide range of pathogenic microorganisms. The mainstay of treatment for UC is to control inflammation and relieve symptoms. Despite a certain curative effect, there are problems such as easy recurrence after drug withdrawal and many side effects associated with long-term medication. NLRP3 serves as a core link in the inflammatory response. If the relationship between NLRP3 and gut microbes and inflammation-associated factors can be analyzed concerning its related inflammatory signaling pathways, its expression status as well as specific mechanism in the course of IBD can be elucidated and further considered for clinical diagnosis and treatment of IBD, it is expected that the development of lead compounds targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome can be developed for the treatment of IBD. Research into the prevention and treatment of UC, which has become a hotbed of research in recent years, has shown that natural products are rich in therapeutic means, and multi-targets, with fewer adverse effects. Natural products have shown promise in treating UC in numerous basic and clinical trials over the past few years. This paper describes the regulatory role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in UC and the mechanism of recent natural products targeting NLRP3 against UC, which provides a reference for the clinical treatment of this disease.

Role and regulatory mechanism of microRNA mediated neuroinflammation in neuronal system diseases

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs with the unique ability to degrade or block specific RNAs and regulate many cellular processes. Neuroinflammation plays the pivotal role in the occurrence and development of multiple central nervous system (CNS) diseases. The ability of miRNAs to enhance or restrict neuroinflammatory signaling pathways in CNS diseases is an emerging and important research area, including neurodegenerative diseases, stroke, and traumatic brain injury (TBI). In this review, we summarize the roles and regulatory mechanisms of recently identified miRNAs involved in neuroinflammation-mediated CNS diseases, aiming to explore and provide a better understanding and direction for the treatment of CNS diseases.

The Potential of NLRP3 Inflammasome as a Therapeutic Target in Neurological Diseases

NLRP3 (NLRP3: NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3) inflammasome is the best-described inflammasome that plays a crucial role in the innate immune system and a wide range of diseases. The intimate association of NLRP3 with neurological disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases and strokes, further emphasizes its prominence as a clinical target for pharmacological intervention. However, after decades of exploration, the mechanism of NLRP3 activation remains indefinite. This review highlights recent advances and gaps in our insights into the regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Furthermore, we present several emerging pharmacological approaches of clinical translational potential targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome in neurological diseases. More importantly, despite small-molecule inhibitors of the NLRP3 inflammasome, we have focused explicitly on Chinese herbal medicine and botanical ingredients, which may be splendid therapeutics by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome for central nervous system disorders. We expect that we can contribute new perspectives to the treatment of neurological diseases.

Transplantation of Exercise-Induced Extracellular Vesicles as a Promising Therapeutic Approach in Ischemic Stroke

Clinical evidence affirms physical exercise is effective in preventive and rehabilitation approaches for ischemic stroke. This sustainable efficacy is independent of cardiovascular risk factors and associates substantial reprogramming in circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs). The intricate journey of pluripotent exercise-induced EVs from parental cells to the whole-body and infiltration to cerebrovascular entity offers several mechanisms to reduce stroke incidence and injury or accelerate the subsequent recovery. This review delineates the potential roles of EVs as prospective effectors of exercise. The candidate miRNA and peptide cargo of exercise-induced EVs with both atheroprotective and neuroprotective characteristics are discussed, along with their presumed targets and pathway interactions. The existing literature provides solid ground to hypothesize that the rich vesicles link exercise to stroke prevention and rehabilitation. However, there are several open questions about the exercise stressors which may optimally regulate EVs kinetic and boost brain mitochondrial adaptations. This review represents a novel perspective on achieving brain fitness against stroke through transplantation of multi-potential EVs generated by multi-parental cells, which is exceptionally reachable in an exercising body.

Intracranial hemorrhage management in the multi-omics era

Intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating disorder. Neuroprotective strategies that prevent tissue injury and improve functional outcomes have been identified in multiple animal models of ICH. However, these potential interventions in clinical trials produced generally disappointing results. With progress in omics, studies of omics data, including genomics, transcriptomics, epigenetics, proteomics, metabolomics, and the gut microbiome, may help promote precision medicine. In this review, we focused on introducing the applications of all omics in ICH and shed light on all of the considerable advantages to systematically analyze the necessity and importance of multiple omics technology in ICH.

Ozanimod-Dependent Activation of SIRT3/NF-κB/AIM2 Pathway Attenuates Secondary Injury After Intracerebral Hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is characterized by poor prognosis and high mortality rates. To date, satisfactory therapeutic approaches for ICH remain limited, so it is urgently needed to develop a safer and more effective prescription. Secondary inflammatory response has been acknowledged as an aggravating factor to neurological deterioration after ICH. As a component of inflammasome sensors, absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) plays an important role in the neuroinflammation process. Here, ozanimod, a novel selective sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor modulator, has gained much attention, which alleviates the resultant neuroinflammation and improves functional recovery derived from ICH. In this study, ozanimod improved neurological functions of ICH mice via reduction of hematoma size. Furthermore, both microglial and AIM2 inflammasome activations were reversed by ozanimod, which are confirmed by the downregulation of related inflammatory proteins and cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α), coupled with the upregulation of SIRT3, by leveraging the Western blot and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Additionally, we find that ozanimod decreases nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) expression. Notably, in vitro cell experiments induced by lipopolysaccharide confirms that the anti-inflammatory effect of ozanimod could be abolished by the SIRT3 inhibitor. In conclusion, these results indicate that ozanimod mitigates ICH-induced secondary inflammatory responses by modulating AIM2 inflammasome mediated by SIRT3/NF-κB/AIM2 pathway. This demonstrates ozanimod orchestrates ICH-induced neuroinflammation and could be a targeted therapy for improving prognosis of ICH.

Real-Time PCR Quantification of 87 miRNAs from Cerebrospinal Fluid: miRNA Dynamics and Association with Extracellular Vesicles after Severe Traumatic Brain Injury

Severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI) is an intracranial damage triggered by external force, most commonly due to falls and traffic accidents. The initial brain injury can progress into a secondary injury involving numerous pathophysiological processes. The resulting sTBI dynamics makes the treatment challenging and prompts the improved understanding of underlying intracranial processes. Here, we analysed how extracellular microRNAs (miRNAs) are affected by sTBI. We collected thirty-five cerebrospinal fluids (CSF) from five sTBI patients during twelve days (d) after the injury and combined them into d1-2, d3-4, d5-6 and d7-12 CSF pools. After miRNA isolation and cDNA synthesis with added quantification spike-ins, we applied a real-time PCR-array targeting 87 miRNAs. We detected all of the targeted miRNAs, with totals ranging from several nanograms to less than a femtogram, with the highest levels found at d1-2 followed by decreasing levels in later CSF pools. The most abundant miRNAs were miR-451a, miR-16-5p, miR-144-3p, miR-20a-5p, let-7b-5p, miR-15a-5p, and miR-21-5p. After separating CSF by size-exclusion chromatography, most miRNAs were associated with free proteins, while miR-142-3p, miR-204-5p, and miR-223-3p were identified as the cargo of CD81-enriched extracellular vesicles, as characterised by immunodetection and tunable resistive pulse sensing. Our results indicate that miRNAs might be informative about both brain tissue damage and recovery after sTBI.

Emerging Targets for Modulation of Immune Response and Inflammation in Stroke

The inflammatory and immunological responses play a significant role after stroke. The innate immune activation stimulated by microglia during stroke results in the migration of macrophages and lymphocytes into the brain and are responsible for tissue damage. The immune response and inflammation following stroke have no defined targets, and the intricacies of the immunological and inflammatory processes are only partially understood. Innate immune cells enter the brain and meninges during the acute phase, which can cause ischemia damage. Activation of systemic immunity is caused by danger signals sent into the bloodstream by injured brain cells, which is followed by a significant immunodepression that encourages life-threatening infections. Neuropsychiatric sequelae, a major source of post-stroke morbidity, may be induced by an adaptive immune response that is initiated by antigen presentation during the chronic period and is directed against the brain. Thus, the current review discusses the role of immune response and inflammation in stroke pathogenesis, their role in the progression of injury during the stroke, and the emerging targets for the modulation of the mechanism of immune response and inflammation that may have possible therapeutic benefits against stroke.

Noncoding RNAs: Novel Targets for Opioid Tolerance

As a global health problem, chronic pain is one of the leading causes of disability, and it imposes a huge economic and public health burden on families and society. Opioids represent the cornerstone of analgesic drugs. However, opioid tolerance caused by long-term application of opioids is a major factor leading to drug withdrawal, serious side effects caused by dose increases, and even the death of patients, placing an increasing burden on individuals, medicine, and society. Despite efforts to develop methods to prevent and treat opioid tolerance, no effective treatment has yet been found. Therefore, understanding the mechanism underlying opioid tolerance is crucial for finding new prevention and treatment strategies. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are important parts of mammalian gene transcriptomes, and there are thousands of unique noncoding RNA sequences in cells. With the rapid development of high-throughput genome technology, research on ncRNAs has become a hot topic in biomedical research. In recent years, studies have shown that ncRNAs mediate physiological and pathological processes, including chromatin remodeling, transcription, posttranscriptional modification and signal transduction, which are key regulators of physiological processes in developmental and disease environments and have become biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for various diseases. An increasing number of studies have found that ncRNAs are closely related to the development of opioid tolerance. In this review, we have summarized the evidence that ncRNAs play an important role in opioid tolerance and that ncRNAs may be novel targets for opioid tolerance.

mRNA and lncRNA co-expression network in mice of acute intracerebral hemorrhage

Background

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a severe subtype of stroke lacking effective pharmacological targets. Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) has been confirmed to participate in the pathophysiological progress of various neurological disorders. However, how lncRNA affects ICH outcomes in the acute phase is not completely clear. In this study, we aimed to reveal the relationship of lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA following ICH.

Method

We conducted the autologous blood injection ICH model and extracted total RNAs on day 7. Microarray scanning was used to obtain mRNA and lncRNA profiles, which were validated by RT-qPCR. GO/KEGG analysis of differentially expressed mRNAs was performed using the Metascape platform. We calculated the Pearson correlation coefficients (PCCs) of lncRNA-mRNA for co-expression network construction. A competitive endogenous (Ce-RNA) network was established based on DIANALncBase and miRDB database. Finally, the Ce-RNA network was visualized and analyzed by Cytoscape.

Results

In total, 570 differentially expressed mRNAs and 313 differentially expressed lncRNAs were identified (FC ≥ 2 and value of p <0.05). The function of differentially expressed mRNAs was mainly enriched in immune response, inflammation, apoptosis, ferroptosis, and other typical pathways. The lncRNA-mRNA co-expression network contained 57 nodes (21 lncRNAs and 36 mRNAs) and 38 lncRNA-mRNA pairs. The ce-RNA network was generated with 303 nodes (29 lncRNAs, 163 mRNAs, and 111 miRNAs) and 906 edges. Three hub clusters were selected to indicate the most significant lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA interactions.

Conclusion

Our study suggests that the top differentially expressed RNA molecules may be the biomarker of acute ICH. Furthermore, the hub lncRNA-mRNA pairs and lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA correlations may provide new clues for ICH treatment.

Secondary White Matter Injury Mediated by Neuroinflammation after Intracerebral Hemorrhage and Promising Therapeutic Strategies of Targeting the NLRP3 Inflammasome

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a neurological disease with high mortality and disability. Recent studies showed that white matter injury (WMI) plays an important role in motor dysfunction after ICH. WMI includes WMI proximal to the lesion and WMI distal to the lesion, such as corticospinal tract injury located at the cervical enlargement of the spinal cord after ICH. Previous studies have tended to focus only on gray matter (GM) injury after ICH, and fewer studies have paid attention to WMI, which may be one of the reasons for the poor outcome of previous drug treatments. Microglia and astrocyte-mediated neuroinflammation are significant mechanisms responsible for secondary WMI following ICH. The NOD-like receptor family, pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation, has been shown to exacerbate neuroinflammation and brain injury after ICH. Moreover, NLRP3 inflammasome is activated in microglia and astrocytes and exerts a vital role in microglia and astrocytes-mediated neuroinflammation. We speculate that NLRP3 inflammasome activation is closely related to the polarization of microglia and astrocytes and that NLRP3 inflammasome activation may exacerbate WMI by polarizing microglia and astrocytes to the pro-inflammatory phenotype after ICH, while NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition may attenuate WMI by polarizing microglia and astrocytes to the anti-inflammatory phenotype following ICH. Therefore, NLRP3 inflammasome may act as leveraged regulatory fulcrums for microglia and astrocytes polarization to modulate WMI and WM repair after ICH. This review summarized the possible mechanisms by which neuroinflammation mediated by NLRP3 inflammasome exacerbates secondary WMI after ICH and discussed the potential therapeutic targets.

Therapeutic strategies for intracerebral hemorrhage

Stroke is the second highest cause of death globally, with an increasing incidence in developing countries. Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) accounts for 10-15% of all strokes. ICH is associated with poor neurological outcomes and high mortality due to the combination of primary and secondary injury. Fortunately, experimental therapies are available that may improve functional outcomes in patients with ICH. These therapies targeting secondary brain injury have attracted substantial attention in their translational potential. Here, we summarize recent advances in therapeutic strategies and directions for ICH and discuss the barriers and issues that need to be overcome to improve ICH prognosis.

MicroRNAs modulate neuroinflammation after intracerebral hemorrhage: Prospects for new therapy

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is the most common subtype of hemorrhagic stroke. After ICH, blood components extravasate from vessels into the brain, activating immune cells and causing them to release a series of inflammatory mediators. Immune cells, together with inflammatory mediators, lead to neuroinflammation in the perihematomal region and the whole brain, and neuroinflammation is closely related to secondary brain injury as well as functional recovery of the brain. Despite recent progress in understanding the pathophysiology of ICH, there is still no effective treatment for this disease. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are non-coding RNAs 17-25 nucleotides in length that are generated naturally in the human body. They bind complementarily to messenger RNAs and suppress translation, thus regulating gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. They have been found to regulate the pathophysiological process of ICH, particularly the neuroinflammatory cascade. Multiple preclinical studies have shown that manipulating the expression and activity of miRNAs can modulate immune cell activities, influence neuroinflammatory responses, and ultimately affect neurological functions after ICH. This implicates the potentially crucial roles of miRNAs in post-ICH neuroinflammation and indicates the possibility of applying miRNA-based therapeutics for this disease. Thus, this review aims to address the pathophysiological roles and molecular underpinnings of miRNAs in the regulation of neuroinflammation after ICH. With a more sophisticated understanding of ICH and miRNAs, it is possible to translate these findings into new pharmacological therapies for ICH.

Minor Changes for a Major Impact: A Review of Epigenetic Modifications in Cell-Based Therapies for Stroke

Epigenetic changes in stroke may revolutionize cell-based therapies aimed at reducing ischemic stroke risk and damage. Epigenetic changes are a novel therapeutic target due to their specificity and potential for reversal. Possible targets for epigenetic modification include DNA methylation and demethylation, post-translational histone modification, and the actions of non-coding RNAs such as microRNAs. Many of these epigenetic modifications have been reported to modulate atherosclerosis development and progression, ultimately contributing to stroke pathogenesis. Furthermore, epigenetics may play a major role in inflammatory responses following stroke. Stem cells for stroke have demonstrated safety in clinical trials for stroke and show therapeutic benefit in pre-clinical studies. The efficacy of these cell-based interventions may be amplified with adjunctive epigenetic modifications. This review advances the role of epigenetics in atherosclerosis and inflammation in the context of stroke, followed by a discussion on current stem cell studies modulating epigenetics to ameliorate stroke damage.

Secondary brain injury after polystyrene microplastic-induced intracerebral hemorrhage is associated with inflammation and pyroptosis

Unlike regular environmental pollutants, microplastics cannot dissolve in liquids. Physical contact of microplastic (MPs) with tissue can damage tissue structure, and it is unclear how this physical secondary injury affects brain tissue. Through CTD database analysis, it was determined that cerebral ischemia may be one of the main ways of brain tissue damage caused by MPs, and inflammatory response may play a key role in it. In the present study, PS-MPs (L-PS group:1 mg/L, M - PS group:10 mg/L, H-PS group: 100 mg/L in water) were assessed to brain tissue damage in chicken after six weeks of continuous exposure. Exposure to PS-MPs caused cerebral hemorrhage as well as generation of microthrombi and loss of Purkinje cells. Intracerebral hemorrhage caused a strong infiltration of inflammatory cells and activated the ASC-NLRP3-GSDMD signaling pathway to induce pyroptosis. Disruption of mitochondrial dynamics by PS-MPs exposure disrupts mitochondrial function and activates AMPK signaling. In conclusion, this study explored the mechanism regulation of subsequent brain injury from the perspective of physical injury (cerebral hemorrhage) of PS-MPs. To provide a reference for elucidating the neurotoxicity induced by microplastic exposure.

Perspectives on the mechanism of pyroptosis after intracerebral hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a highly harmful neurological disorder with high rates of mortality, disability, and recurrence. However, effective therapies are not currently available. Secondary immune injury and cell death are the leading causes of brain injury and a poor prognosis. Pyroptosis is a recently discovered form of programmed cell death that differs from apoptosis and necrosis and is mediated by gasdermin proteins. Pyroptosis is caused by multiple pathways that eventually form pores in the cell membrane, facilitating the release of inflammatory substances and causing the cell to rupture and die. Pyroptosis occurs in neurons, glial cells, and endothelial cells after ICH. Furthermore, pyroptosis causes cell death and releases inflammatory factors such as interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, leading to a secondary immune-inflammatory response and further brain damage. The NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3)/caspase-1/gasdermin D (GSDMD) pathway plays the most critical role in pyroptosis after ICH. Pyroptosis can be inhibited by directly targeting NLRP3 or its upstream molecules, or directly interfering with caspase-1 expression and GSDMD formation, thus significantly improving the prognosis of ICH. The present review discusses key pathological pathways and regulatory mechanisms of pyroptosis after ICH and suggests possible intervention strategies to mitigate pyroptosis and brain dysfunction after ICH.

MicroRNA-223 Attenuates Stretch-Injury-Induced Apoptosis in Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells by Regulating RhoB Expression

MiR-223 is a miRNA with important functions in apoptosis, carcinogenesis, and inflammation, and it was demonstrated to be over-expressed in brain tissue after traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, few studies have focused on its role in protecting brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs). This study evaluated the protective effect of miR-223 on BMECs after stretch injury (SI). bEnd.3 cells (BMECs of mouse) were transfected with overexpressing and blocking lentivirus of miR-223, then were subjected to SI. After immunofluorescence assay, it was demonstrated that miR-223 overexpression significantly rescued the SI-induced loss of ZO-1 (Zonula Occludens 1, tight junction protein) (p < 0.01), while miR-223 blocking exacerbated the loss of ZO-1 (p < 0.05). Flow cytometry confirmed a significant increase in the proportion of apoptotic bEnd.3 cells after SI, and miR-223 overexpression reduced this proportion (p < 0.001). The result of Western blot revealed that miR-223 overexpression significantly reduced the expression of cleaved caspase-3 (cl-caspase 3) (p < 0.05) and RhoB (p < 0.01), while miR-223 blocking increased the expression of these proteins (p < 0.05, p < 0.001). Additionally, knockdown of RhoB significantly reduced the expression of cl-caspase 3 (p < 0.001). These findings suggested that miR-223 can alleviate SI-induced apoptosis of BMECs, and this anti-apoptotic effect is at least partially achieved by inhibiting the expression of RhoB. Moreover, miR-223 may play a role in maintaining the integrity of BBB during TBI.

Some miRNA expressions and their targets in ischemic stroke

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a global health challenge leading to life-long disabilities or the deaths of patients. IS is a complex disease where genetic and environmental factors are both concerned with the pathophysiology of the condition. Here, we aimed to investigate various microRNA (miRNA) expressions and their targets in IS. A rapid and accurate diagnosis of acute IS is important to perform appropriate treatment. Therefore, there is a need for a more rapid and simple tool to carry out an acute diagnosis of IS. miRNAs are small RNA molecules serving as precious biomarkers due to their easy detection and stability in blood samples. The present systematic review aimed to summarize previous studies investigating several miRNA expressions and their targets in IS.

Inhibiting Microglia-Derived NLRP3 Alleviates Subependymal Edema and Cognitive Dysfunction in Posthemorrhagic Hydrocephalus after Intracerebral Hemorrhage via AMPK/Beclin-1 Pathway

For posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus (PHH) patients, whether occur subependymal edema indicates poor outcomes, partially manifested as cognitive impairment. In the brain, NLRP3 inflammasome mainly derived from microglia/macrophages is involved in proinflammatory and neurodeficits after hemorrhage, and autophagy is vital for neuronal homeostasis and functions. Accumulating evidence suggest that NLRP3 inflammasome and autophagy played an essential role after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). We aimed to dissect the mechanisms underlying subependymal edema formation and cognitive dysfunction. Here, based on the hydrocephalus secondary to ICH break into ventricular (ICH-IVH) in rats, this study investigated whether microglia/macrophage-derived NLRP3 induced subependymal edema formation and neuron apoptosis in subventricular zones (SVZ). In the acute phase of ICH-IVH, both the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome of microglia/macrophages and the autophagy of neurons were upregulated. The activated NLRP3 in microglia/macrophages promoted the release of IL-1beta to extracellular, which contributed to excessive autophagy, leading to neurons apoptosis both in vivo and in vitro through the AMPK/Beclin-1 pathway combined with transcriptomics. Administration of MCC950 (NLRP3 inflammasome specific inhibitor) after ICH-IVH significantly reduced edema formation and improved cognitive dysfunction. Thus, inhibiting NLRP3 activation in SVZ may be a promising therapeutic strategy for PHH patients that warrants further investigation.

Caspase-1: A Promising Target for Preserving Blood–Brain Barrier Integrity in Acute Stroke

The blood–brain barrier (BBB) acts as a physical and biochemical barrier that plays a fundamental role in regulating the blood-to-brain influx of endogenous and exogenous components and maintaining the homeostatic microenvironment of the central nervous system (CNS). Acute stroke leads to BBB disruption, blood substances extravasation into the brain parenchyma, and the consequence of brain edema formation with neurological impairment afterward. Caspase-1, one of the evolutionary conserved families of cysteine proteases, which is upregulated in acute stroke, mainly mediates pyroptosis and compromises BBB integrity via lytic cellular death and inflammatory cytokines release. Nowadays, targeting caspase-1 has been proven to be effective in decreasing the occurrence of hemorrhagic transformation (HT) and in attenuating brain edema and secondary damages during acute stroke. However, the underlying interactions among caspase-1, BBB, and stroke still remain ill-defined. Hence, in this review, we are concerned about the roles of caspase-1 activation and its associated mechanisms in stroke-induced BBB damage, aiming at providing insights into the significance of caspase-1 inhibition on stroke treatment in the near future.

Revisiting Minocycline in Intracerebral Hemorrhage: Mechanisms and Clinical Translation

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is an important subtype of stroke with an unsatisfactory prognosis of high mortality and disability. Although many pre-clinical studies and clinical trials have been performed in the past decades, effective therapy that meaningfully improve prognosis and outcomes of ICH patients is still lacking. An active area of research is towards alleviating secondary brain injury after ICH through neuroprotective pharmaceuticals and in which minocycline is a promising candidate. Here, we will first discuss new insights into the protective mechanisms of minocycline for ICH including reducing iron-related toxicity, maintenance of blood-brain barrier, and alleviating different types of cell death from preclinical data, then consider its shortcomings. Finally, we will review clinical trial perspectives for minocycline in ICH. We hope that this summary and discussion about updated information on minocycline as a viable treatment for ICH can facilitate further investigations.

TI: NLRP3 Inflammasome-Dependent Pyroptosis in CNS Trauma: A Potential Therapeutic Target

Central nervous system (CNS) trauma, including traumatic brain injury (TBI) and traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI), is characterized by high morbidity, disability, and mortality. TBI and SCI have similar pathophysiological mechanisms and are often accompanied by serious inflammatory responses. Pyroptosis, an inflammation-dependent programmed cell death, is becoming a major problem in CNS post-traumatic injury. Notably, the pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a key protein in the pyroptosis signaling pathway. Therefore, underlying mechanism of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the development of CNS trauma has attracted much attention. In this review, we briefly summarize the molecular mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome in pyroptosis signaling pathway, including its prime and activation. Moreover, the dynamic expression pattern, and roles of the NLRP3 inflammasome in CNS post-traumatic injury are summarized. The therapeutic applications of NLRP3 inflammasome activation inhibitors are also discussed.

Icariin inhibits the expression of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α induced by OGD/R through the IRE1/XBP1s pathway in microglia

CONTEXT

Icariin (ICA), a flavonol glycoside extracted from Epimedium brevicornum Maxim (Berberidaceae), has been proven to inhibit inflammatory response in ischaemic rats in our laboratory's previous work. However, its underlying mechanism is still unclear.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigates the effects of ICA on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress mediated inflammation induced by cerebral ischaemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury in vitro.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The primary cultured microglia were treated with oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) for 2 h followed by a 24 h reoxygenation. ICA (0.37, 0.74 and 1.48 μmol/L) administration was performed 1 h prior OGD and acting through 2 h OGD. The control group was cultured in normal conditions. At 24 h after reoxygenation, the expression of IRE1α, XBP1u, XBP1s, NLRP3 and caspase-1 was detected by western blotting (WB) and quantitative real-time (qRT) PCR; the expression of p-IRE1α was examined by WB; the expression of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α was measured by WB and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

ICA (0.37, 0.74 and 1.48 μmol/L) reduced the ratio of p-IRE1α/IRE1α, the mRNA level of IRE1α, the expression of XBP1u, XBP1s, NLRP3, caspase-1 at both the mRNA and protein level expression of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in OGD/R injured microglia. Overexpression of IRE1 significantly reversed the effects of ICA.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

These results suggested that ICA might decrease the expression of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α by inhibiting IRE1/XBP1s pathway. The anti-inflammatory effect of ICA may provide a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of brain injury after stroke.

MST4 attenuates NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation and affects the prognosis after intracerebral hemorrhage in mice

BACKGROUND

The kinase MST4 limits inflammatory responses through direct phosphorylation of the adaptor TRAF6. TRAF6 interacts with NLRP3 to promote the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. However, the role of MST4 in neuroinflammation after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and how it interacts with NLRP3 inflammasome remain unclear.

METHODS

Mice were administered MST4 AAV four weeks before collagenase-induced ICH. ICH mice received either hesperadin (MST4 selective inhibitor), or MCC950 (NLRP3 inflammasome selective inhibitor). Neurological deficits and brain water content were assessed. Western blot and immunofluorescence were performed to evaluate the proteins content and localization in MST4/NLRP3 signaling pathway.

RESULTS

The expression of endogenous MST4 and NLRP3 was increased after ICH compared to sham group. MST4 and NLRP3 were respectively colocalized in microglia. Upregulation of MST4 gene inhibited the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, the release of IL-1β and TNF-α, and significantly improved brain edema and neurological deficits. Hesperadin pretreatment inhibited the expression of MST4 and increased the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated proteins, which aggravated neurological deficits and cerebral edema. MCC950 markedly alleviated neurological deficits and brain edema but had no effect on the expression of MST4 protein.

CONCLUSIONS

MST4 alleviates inflammatory progression and brain injury in ICH mice possibly by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

Targeting NLRP3 Inflammasome in Translational Treatment of Nervous System Diseases: An Update

Neuroinflammatory response is the immune response mechanism of the innate immune system of the central nervous system. Both primary and secondary injury can activate neuroinflammatory response. Among them, the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome plays a key role in the inflammatory response of the central system. Inflammasome is a type of pattern recognition receptor, a cytoplasmic polyprotein complex composed of members of the Nod-like receptor (NLR) family and members of the pyrin and HIN domain (PYHIN) family, which can be affected by a variety of pathogen-related molecular patterns or damage-related molecular patterns are activated. As one of the research hotspots in the field of medical research in recent years, there are increasing researches on immune function abnormalities in the onset of neurological diseases such as depression, AD, ischemic brain injury and cerebral infarction, the NLRP3 inflammasome causes the activated caspase-1 to cleave pre-interleukin-1β and pre-interleukin-18 into mature interleukin-1β and interleukin-18, in turn, a large number of inflammatory factors are produced, which participate in the occurrence and development of the above-mentioned diseases. Targeted inhibition of the activation of inflammasomes can reduce the inflammatory response, promote the survival of nerve cells, and achieve neuroprotective effects. This article reviews NLRP3 inflammasome's role in neurological diseases and related regulatory mechanisms, which providing references for future research in this field.

Neonatal encephalopathy: Focus on epidemiology and underexplored aspects of etiology

Neonatal Encephalopathy (NE) is a neurologic syndrome in term and near-term infants who have depressed consciousness, difficulty initiating and maintaining respiration, and often abnormal tone, reflexes and neonatal seizures in varying combinations. Moderate/severe NE affects 0.5-3/1000 live births in high-income countries, more in low- and middle-income countries, and carries high risk of mortality or disability, including cerebral palsy. Reduced blood flow and/or oxygenation around the time of birth, as with ruptured uterus, placental abruption or umbilical cord prolapse can cause NE. This subset of NE, with accompanying low Apgar scores and acidemia, is termed Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy. Other causes of NE that can present similarly, include infections, inflammation, toxins, metabolic disease, stroke, placental disease, and genetic disorders. Aberrant fetal growth and congenital anomalies are strongly associated with NE, suggesting a major role for maldevelopment. As new tools for differential diagnosis emerge, their application for prevention, individualized treatment and prognostication will require further systematic studies of etiology of NE.

Dysregulation of microRNA and Intracerebral Hemorrhage: Roles in Neuroinflammation

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a major public health problem and devastating subtype of stroke with high morbidity and mortality. Notably, there is no effective treatment for ICH. Neuroinflammation, a pathological hallmark of ICH, contributes to both brain injury and repair and hence, it is regarded as a potential target for therapeutic intervention. Recent studies document that microRNAs, small non-coding RNA molecules, can regulate inflammatory brain response after ICH and are viable molecular targets to alter brain function. Therefore, there is an escalating interest in studying the role of microRNAs in the pathophysiology of ICH. Herein, we provide, for the first time, an overview of the microRNAs that play roles in ICH-induced neuroinflammation and identify the critical knowledge gap in the field, as it would help design future studies.

α-Lipoic Acid Alleviates Hepatic Lipid Deposition by Inhibiting FASN Expression via miR-3548 in Rats

Excessive liver lipid deposition is a vital risk factor for the development of many diseases. Here, we fed Sprague-Dawley rats with a control or α-lipoic acid-supplemented diet (0.2%) for 5 weeks to elucidate the effects of α-lipoic acid on preventive ability, hepatic lipid metabolism-related gene expression, and the involved regulatory mechanisms. In the current study, α-lipoic acid supplementation lowered plasma triglyceride level and hepatic triglyceride content. Reduced hepatic lipid deposition was closely associated with inhibiting fatty acid-binding protein 1 and fatty acid synthase expression, as well as increasing phosphorylated hormone-sensitive lipase expression at the protein level in α-lipoic acid-exposed rats. Hepatic miRNA sequencing revealed increased expression of miR-3548 targeting the 3'untranslated region of Fasn mRNA, and the direct regulatory link between miRNA-3548 and FASN was verified by dual-luciferase reporter assay. Taken together, α-lipoic acid lowered hepatic lipid accumulation, which involved changes in miRNA-mediated lipogenic genes.

Relevant mediators involved in and therapies targeting the inflammatory response induced by activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in ischemic stroke

The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a member of the NLR family of inherent immune cell sensors. The NLRP3 inflammasome can detect tissue damage and pathogen invasion through innate immune cell sensor components commonly known as pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). PRRs promote activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathways and the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, thus increasing the transcription of genes encoding proteins related to the NLRP3 inflammasome. The NLRP3 inflammasome is a complex with multiple components, including an NAIP, CIITA, HET-E, and TP1 (NACHT) domain; apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC); and a leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain. After ischemic stroke, the NLRP3 inflammasome can produce numerous proinflammatory cytokines, mediating nerve cell dysfunction and brain edema and ultimately leading to nerve cell death once activated. Ischemic stroke is a disease with high rates of mortality and disability worldwide and is being observed in increasingly younger populations. To date, there are no clearly effective therapeutic strategies for the clinical treatment of ischemic stroke. Understanding the NLRP3 inflammasome may provide novel ideas and approaches because targeting of upstream and downstream molecules in the NLRP3 pathway shows promise for ischemic stroke therapy. In this manuscript, we summarize the existing evidence regarding the composition and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, the molecules involved in inflammatory pathways, and corresponding drugs or molecules that exert effects after cerebral ischemia. This evidence may provide possible targets or new strategies for ischemic stroke therapy.

The Role of NLRP3 Inflammasome in Cerebrovascular Diseases Pathology and Possible Therapeutic Targets

Cerebrovascular diseases are pathological conditions involving impaired blood flow in the brain, primarily including ischaemic stroke, intracranial haemorrhage, and subarachnoid haemorrhage. The nucleotide-binding and oligomerisation (NOD) domain-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain (PYD)-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a protein complex and a vital component of the immune system. Emerging evidence has indicated that the NLRP3 inflammasome plays an important role in cerebrovascular diseases. The function of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathogenesis of cerebrovascular diseases remains an interesting field of research. In this review, we first summarised the pathological mechanism of cerebrovascular diseases and the pathological mechanism of the NLRP3 inflammasome in aggravating atherosclerosis and cerebrovascular diseases. Second, we outlined signalling pathways through which the NLRP3 inflammasome participates in aggravating or mitigating cerebrovascular diseases. Reactive oxygen species (ROS)/nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), ROS/thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) and purinergic receptor-7 (P2X7R) signalling pathways can activate the NLRP3 inflammasome; activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome can aggravate cerebrovascular diseases by mediating apoptosis and pyroptosis. Autophagy/mitochondrial autophagy, nuclear factor E2-related factor-2 (Nrf2), interferon (IFN)-β, sirtuin (SIRT), and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) reportedly alleviate cerebrovascular diseases by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Finally, we explored specific inhibitors of the NLRP3 inflammasome based on the two-step activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, which can be developed as new drugs to treat cerebrovascular diseases.

New epigenetic players in stroke pathogenesis: From non-coding RNAs to exosomal non-coding RNAs

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have critical role in the pathophysiology as well as recovery after ischemic stroke. ncRNAs, particularly microRNAs, and the long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are critical for angiogenesis and neuroprotection, and they have been suggested to be therapeutic, diagnostic and prognostic tools in cerebrovascular diseases, including stroke. Moreover, exosomes have been considered as nanocarriers capable of transferring various cargos, such as lncRNAs and miRNAs to recipient cells, with prominent inter-cellular roles in the mediation of neuro-restorative events following strokes and neural injuries. In this review, we summarize the pathogenic role of ncRNAs and exosomal ncRNAs in the stroke.