The archaic roles of the lamprey NF-κB (lj-NF-κB) in innate immune responses

Stepwise neofunctionalization of the NF-κB family member Rel during vertebrate evolution

Adaptive immunity and the five vertebrate NF-κB family members first emerged in cartilaginous fish, suggesting that NF-κB family divergence helped to facilitate adaptive immunity. One specialized function of the NF-κB Rel protein in macrophages is activation of Il12b, which encodes a key regulator of T cell development. We found that Il12b exhibits much greater Rel dependence than inducible innate immunity genes in macrophages, with the unique function of Rel dimers depending on a heightened intrinsic DNA-binding affinity. Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing experiments defined differential DNA-binding preferences of NF-κB family members genome-wide, and X-ray crystallography revealed a key residue that supports the heightened DNA-binding affinity of Rel dimers. Unexpectedly, this residue, the heightened affinity of Rel dimers, and the portion of the Il12b promoter bound by Rel dimers were largely restricted to mammals. Our findings reveal major structural transitions in an NF-κB family member and one of its key target promoters at a late stage of vertebrate evolution that apparently contributed to immunoregulatory rewiring in mammalian species.

The role of largemouth bass NF-κB/p65: Inhibition of LMBV and activator of IL-18 promoter

Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)/p65, a vital signaling molecule in the NF-κB pathway, participates in diverse physiological functions and host-virus interactions. However, the involvement of NF-κB/p65 in fish virus infection remains poorly understood. In this study, we explored the role of the p65 in virus infection and its impact on IL-18 regulation in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Bioinformatics analysis showed that the ORF sequence of Msp65 spanned 1941 bp, encoding 646 amino acids with two conserved functional domains, including RHD and IPT domain. Msp65 mRNA was presented in various tissues, with higher levels detected in the liver and gill. After exposure to largemouth bass virus (LMBV), red grouper nervous necrosis virus, lipopolysaccharide and poly (I:C), Msp65 expression was activated in vivo. In addition, the antiviral role of Msp65 were explored. In vitro, Msp65 overexpression hindered LMBV replication and formation of viral assembly site. In vivo, we found that disruption of Msp65 by using maslinic acid (MA) notably promoted the infectivity of LMBV, indicating its antiviral capabilities in largemouth bass. Besides, the downregulation of Msp65 suppressed the expression of inflammatory and interferon signaling molecules. Conversely, Msp65 overexpression boosted the activities of IFN-I, IFN-III and ISRE promoters, suggesting the positive regulation of Msp65 on interferon immune pathway. Furthermore, to unveil the regulatory role of Msp65 on MsIL-18, a promoter investigation was conducted. The luciferase reporter assay demonstrated that Msp65 positively influenced the expression of MsIL-18. Subsequent analysis suggested that the putative binding sites for MsIL-18 could potentially reside within the -228 to -203 bp of the MsIL-18 promoter. These findings illustrated that Msp65 involved in LMBV infection by modulating immune responses, presenting a novel insight into the antiviral mechanisms of p65 in bony fish.

Potential roles of endothelial cells-related non-coding RNAs in cardiovascular diseases

Endothelial dysfunction is identified by a conversion of the endothelium toward decreased vasodilation and prothrombic features and is known as a primary pathogenic incident in cardiovascular diseases. An insight based on particular and promising biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction may possess vital clinical significances. Currently, non-coding RNAs due to their participation in critical cardiovascular processes like initiation and progression have gained much attention as possible diagnostic as well as prognostic biomarkers in cardiovascular diseases. Emerging line of proof has demonstrated that abnormal expression of non-coding RNAs is nearly correlated with the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. In the present review, we focus on the expression and functional effects of various kinds of non-coding RNAs in cardiovascular diseases and negotiate their possible clinical implications as diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers and curative targets.

Protective effect of Secukinumab on severe sepsis model rats by neutralizing IL-17A to inhibit IKBα/NFκB inflammatory signal pathway

Secukinumab is a specific neutralizing antibody for IL-17A. At present, numerous studies have confirmed the important role of IL-17A in sepsis, but the role of secukinumab in sepsis has not been studied. The present study explored the protective effect and underlying mechanism of secukinumab in severe sepsis model rats. We established a severe sepsis rat model using cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). The optimal dose of secukinumab was determined by observing the 7-day survival rate of severe sepsis model rats. The expression levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-17A in plasma and lung tissue were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The degree of pathological damage to lung tissue was evaluated by hematoxylin–eosin (H–E) staining and pathological damage scale. The expressions of IKBα/NFκB pathway proteins and downstream-related inflammatory factors were detected by western blotting and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Our results show that high-dose secukinumab can inhibit the activation of the IKBα/NFκB inflammatory pathway by neutralizing IL-17A and reducing the gene expression of pathway-related inflammatory cytokines, thereby reducing the levels of inflammatory cytokines in lung tissue and plasma, thereby reducing the damage of lung tissue in severe sepsis model rats and improving the systemic inflammatory response.

Dexmedetomidine post-conditioning protects blood-brain barrier integrity by modulating microglia/macrophage polarization via inhibiting NF-κB signaling pathway in intracerebral hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is one of the most devastating forms of stroke. Dexmedetomidine (DEX) has shown certain neuroprotective roles in ICH. Nevertheless, the details concerning the underlying molecular mechanism of DEX’s protective effects still need further elucidation. Herein, a model of ICH was established. The rats were randomly divided into the sham group, the ICH group, and the ICH + DEX group. Neurological outcomes, neuronal injury, and apoptosis were evaluated. Brain water content, Evans blue extravasation, and the expression of tight junction-associated proteins were also detected to assess the blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity. Subsequently, the microglia/macrophage polarization state and inflammatory cytokine levels were observed. To further explore the underlying mechanism, NF-κB signaling pathway-associated proteins were detected. The results showed that DEX exerted neuroprotective effects against ICH-induced neurological deficits. DEX significantly increased the numbers of the surviving neurons and ameliorated neuronal cell loss and apoptosis in ICH. The rats that received the DEX displayed a lower level of brain water content and EB extravasation, moreover, ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-5 were markedly increased by DEX. Additionally, DEX facilitated M2 microglia/macrophage polarization, the M1-associated markers were reduced by DEX, while the M2-associated identification significantly increased. We found that DEX dramatically diminished pro-inflammatory cytokines expression, simultaneously promoting anti-inflammatory cytokines expression. DEX inhibited nuclear translocation of NF-κB in ICH rats. Our data suggest that DEX post-conditioning protects BBB integrity by modulating microglia/macrophage polarization via inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway in ICH.

Effects of copper on non-specific immunity and antioxidant in the oriental river prawn (Macrobrachium nipponense)

The copper, as heavy metal has important impacts on the antioxidant and immune defense systems in aquatic organisms, and the toxic effects of copper can be accumulated and magnified with the food chain, thus posing a threat to food safety as well as ecosystems. This study explored the response of the antioxidant system and non-specific immunity in M. nipponense to copper stress. Low concentration of copper (0.05, 0.1 mg L^-1) had positive effects on the non-specific immunity in M. nipponense, while the non-specific immunity in M. nipponense could be affect negatively or even be inhibited by high copper concentration (0.15 mg L^-1). Even low concentrations of copper could cause oxidative stress, and high copper concentration (0.15 mg L^-1) could induce oxidative damage and even apoptosis, and thus causing damage to the antioxidant defense system in M. nipponense. Low concentration of copper could affect the gill and hepatopancreas structure in M. nipponense, but high level oxidative stress caused by high copper concentration could cause oxidative damage to these tissue, resulting in the destruction of gill and hepatopancreas. This study provides the safety concentration for using copper-containing fish drugs in the actual culture of M. nipponense and provides basic data for the toxicity mechanism of copper to M. nipponense.

Polymorphisms of RIG-I-like receptor influence HBV clearance in Chinese Han population

Retinoic acid-inducible gene I-like receptors (RLRs) play an essential role in human innate immune, which may influence the spontaneous clearance of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. We aimed to investigate whether the SNPs in RLR family were associated with HBV spontaneous clearance. The current study included 82 participants with spontaneous clearance, 601 asymptomatic hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) carriers, and 168 participants with chronic hepatitis B (CHB). Six SNPs (DDX58 rs3824456, rs3205166, DHX58 rs2074160, rs2074158, IFIH1 rs2111485, rs3747517) were genotyped to explore their association with HBV spontaneous clearance. Patients carrying the mutant allele C at rs3824456 or A at rs2074160 were more likely to achieve spontaneous clearance compared with asymptomatic HBsAg carriers (additive model: odds ratio [OR] = 0.69, 95% confidence interval [CI] =  0.49-0.97; dominant model: OR = 0.54, 95% CI = 0.31-0.95, respectively). In addition, patients carrying the mutant allele G at rs2111485 were more likely to achieve spontaneous clearance compared with CHB (dominant model: OR = 0.47, 95% CI = 0.25-0.87). The mutations were protective factors for HBV spontaneous clearance. These results suggest the DDX58 rs3824456, DHX58 s2074160, IFIH1 rs2111485 were associated with spontaneous clearance of HBV, which may be predictive markers in the Chinese Han population of HBV.

Identification and evolution of transcription factors RHR gene family (NFAT and RBPJ) involving lamprey (Lethenteron reissneri) innate immunity

Nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) and recombination signal binding protein (RBP) belong to the family of Rel homology region (RHR) transcription factors which regulate the expression of genes involved in different aspects of the immune response. To gain insights into the evolution and characterisation of RHR genes in lampreys, a jawless vertebrate, four RHR genes, including nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) and recombination signal binding protein for immunoglobulin kappa J region (RBPJ), have been identified and cloned from the lamprey (Lethenteron reissneri) database. Evolutionary relationships of NFAT and RBPJ genes among different species were determined through molecular phylogenetic analysis. Motif, genetic structure, and tertiary structure analyses showed that NFATs and RBPJ are conserved and contain RHD and IPT domains. Moreover, synteny analysis showed that the neighbourhood genes of Lr-NFATs and Lr-RBPJ have undergone significant changes compared to jawed vertebrates. Real-time quantitative results demonstrated that the RHR gene family plays a significant role in immune defence. This study provides a new understanding of the origin and evolution of the RHR gene family in different species.

Genomic analysis and functional characterization of immune genes from the RIG-I- and MAVS-mediated antiviral signaling pathway in lamprey

Retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs) are well-known viral RNA sensors in the cytoplasm. RIG-I-mediated antiviral signals are activated by interacting with the adapter protein mitochondrial antiviral signaling (MAVS), which triggers interferon (IFN) responses via a signaling cascade. Although the complete RIG-I receptor signaling pathway has been traced back to teleosts, definitive evidence of its presence in lampreys is lacking. Here, we identified 13 pivotal molecules in the RIG-I signaling pathway in lamprey, and demonstrated that the original RIG-I/MAVS signaling pathway was activated and mediated the expression of unique immunity factors such as RRP4, to inhibit viral proliferation after viral infection in vivo and in vitro. This study confirmed the conservation of the RIG-I pathway, and the uniqueness of the RRP4 effector molecule in lamprey, and further clarified the evolutionary process of the RIG-I antiviral signaling pathway, providing evidence on the origins of innate antiviral immunity in vertebrates.

Suppression of microRNA-323-3p restrains vascular endothelial cell apoptosis via promoting sirtuin-1 expression in coronary heart disease

AIMS

Coronary heart disease (CHD), a chronic inflammatory condition of vascular endothelial cells (VECs), poses a serious threat to human health. Previous studies have found that microRNAs (miRNAs) are closely related to the occurrence and development of cardiac diseases. Therefore, this study focused on the regulation by miR-323-3p on the progression of CHD.

METHODS

Initially, we employed microarray-based gene expression profiling of CHD to identify differentially expressed miRNAs. Next, the expression of miR-323-3p and SIRT1 was detected by RT-qPCR in a rat model of CHD generated by feeding with a high-fat diet. The interaction between miR-323-3p and SIRT1 was identified using bioinformatics analysis and dual luciferase reporter gene assay. The expressions of miR-323-3p and SIRT1 were altered in CHD rats and vascular endothelial cells (VECs) to examine the specific effects on CHD.

RESULTS

miR-323-3p was observed to be highly-expressed in blood samples from patients with CHD or with mild atherosclerosis and in the rat model of CHD. SIRT1 was a target gene of miR-323-3p, which could downregulate SIRT1 expression. miR-323-3p overexpression or SIRT1 inhibition resulted in increased apoptosis of VECs, elevated ac-p65 protein expression and ratio of ac-p65/p65, and upregulated expression of NF-κB signaling pathway-related proteins. Besides, miR-323-3p inhibition or SIRT1 upregulation in the CHD rat model was found to significantly alleviate symptoms and decrease levels of proteins related to the ac-p65 and NF-κB signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the experimental data provide evidence that miR-323-3p suppression may restrain VEC apoptosis and prevent the resultant CHD progression via SIRT1-inactivatedNF-κB signaling pathway.

Lamprey VLRB participates in pathogen detection, VLRB/L-BLNK/L-NF-κB (B-like cells) signal transduction, and development

In jawed vertebrates, B cell receptors (BCR) are primary pathogen detectors that activate downstream signaling pathways to express adaptive immune effectors. In jawless vertebrates, the variable lymphocyte receptors (VLR) B positive lymphocytes can express and secrete specific VLRB molecules in an analogous manner to that of immunoglobulins by B cells in jawed vertebrates. Our study is the first to demonstrate the possibility of incubation of fertilized eggs and artificial breeding of Lampetra morii larvae throughout their life cycle under laboratory condition. We also found that VLRB, lamprey B-cell linker (L-BLNK), and lamprey nuclear factor-kappa B (L-NF-κB) play key roles in early larval development. Aeromonas hydrophila was found to be a lethal pathogen of L. morii larvae causing rapid infection at a concentration of 10⁷ cfu/mL qRT-PCR results revealed that gene expression levels of VLRB, L-BLNK, and L-NF-κB were up-regulated significantly. Ten-day infection trials showed that VLRB, L-BLNK, and L-NF-κB are crucial for lamprey immune response. Furthermore, the expression levels of L-BLNK and L-NF-κB were down-regulated drastically both at mRNA and protein levels after bacterial infection than in the naive group of VLRB morphants. A similar expression pattern of VLRB and L-BLNK was found in L-NF-κB morphants post bacterial infection. The results were strikingly different in the other two morphants. The VLRB and L-NF-κB expression levels were found to be down-regulated at mRNA and protein levels by less than 30% and 45%, respectively, in L-BLNK morphants compared to those in the naive group. These results indicate that L-BLNK and L-NF-κB might participate in VLRB-mediated immune response. Additionally, in VLRB morphants, the mRNA expression levels of some genes, especially the ones expressed in VLRB⁺ lymphocytes but not in VLRA⁺ lymphocytes, were found to be affected. Therefore, these findings of B-like lymphocytes in lamprey offer key evidence with regard to the evolution of adaptive immunity.

Molecular Characterization and Chemotactic Function of CXCL8 in Northeast Chinese Lamprey (Lethenteron morii)

Chemokine-induced chemotaxis of leukocytes is an important part of the innate immunity and has been shown to mediate inflammation in all groups of jawed vertebrates. For jawless vertebrates, hagfish leukocytes are known to show chemotaxis toward mammalian complement anaphylotoxin and Gram-negative bacteria lipopolysaccharide. However, whether chemokines mediate chemotaxis of leukocytes in jawless vertebrates has not been conclusively examined. Here, we show C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 8 (CXCL8, also named interleukin 8) of the Northeast Chinese lamprey (Lethenteron morii) (designated as LmCXCL8) induces chemotaxis in its leukocytes. We identified LmCXCL8 and found it possesses the characteristic N-terminal cysteine residues and GGR (Gly-Gly-Arg) motif. The Lmcxcl8 gene was found to be expressed in all examined tissues, and its expression was inducible in the lamprey challenged by an infectious bacterium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A recombinant LmCXCL8 protein elicited concentration-dependent chemotaxis in peripheral blood leukocytes isolated from the Northeast Chinese lamprey. Based on these results, we conclude that LmCXCL8 is a constitutive and inducible acute-phase cytokine that mediates immune defense and trace the chemotactic function of chemokine to basal vertebrates.

The Mechanisms Involved in Mesenchymal Stem Cell Alleviation of Sepsis-Induced Acute Lung Injury in Mice: A Pilot Study

Background

Acute lung injury is a common complication of sepsis in intensive care unit patients. Inflammation is among the main mechanisms of sepsis. Therefore, suppression of inflammation is an important mechanism for sepsis treatment. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been reported to exhibit antimicrobial properties.

Objective

The present study investigated the effects of MSCs on sepsis-induced acute lung injury.

Methods

Male C57BL/6 mice underwent a cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) operation to induce sepsis and then received either normal saline or MSCs (1 × 10⁶ cells intravenously) at 3 hours after surgery. Survival after surgery was assessed. Lung injury was assessed by histology score, the presence of lung edema, vascular permeability, inflammatory cell infiltration, and cytokine levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Finally, we tested nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells activation in lung tissue.

Results

As expected, CLP caused lung injury as indicated by significant increases in the histopathology score, lung wet to dry weight ratio, and total protein concentration. However, mice treated with MSCs had amelioration of the lung histopathologic changes, lung wet to dry weight ratio, and total protein concentration. The levels of cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 6, interleukin 1β, and interleukin 17 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were dramatically decreased after MSCs treatment. In contrast, expression of interleukin 10 was increased after MSCs treatment. Moreover, mice treated with MSCs had a higher survival rate than the CLP group. Neutrophil infiltration into bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was attenuated after MSCs injection, but the amounts of macrophages observed in the MSC group showed no significant differences compared with the CLP group. In addition, MSCs treatment significantly reduced nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells activation in lung tissue.

Conclusions

Based on the above findings, treatment with MSCs dampened the inflammatory response and inhibited nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells activation in the mouse CLP model. Thus, MSCs may be a potential new agent for the treatment of sepsis-induced acute lung injury. (Curr Ther Res Clin Exp. 2020; 81:XXX-XXX).

Chanling Gao Attenuates Bone Cancer Pain in Rats by the IKKβ/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Cancer pain is one of the most common and serious symptoms of cancer patients. At present, the agents used for the prevention or treatment of cancer pain do not act with optimal safety and efficacy. The nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway and its downstream inflammatory factors interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) play an important regulatory role in the developmental process of cancer pain. IKKβ is a key molecule of the IκB (IKK) kinase that propagates cellular responses to inflammation. Previous studies have shown that phosphorylation and degradation of the IκBα protein promotes the activation of NF-κB and the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, participating in the formation and development of cancer pain. Chanling Gao (CLG) is a compound preparation of traditional Chinese medicine. It contains specific functions, namely nourishing Yin, activating blood circulation and relieving pain and dysfunction syndrome. It is used in the treatment of a variety of pain disorders including cancer-induced bone pain (CIBP), which has a certain relief effect. However, its mechanism of action still remains unclear. In the present study, a rat model of tibia CIBP was successfully established using the Walker 256 breast cancer cell line. The IKKβ/NF-κB signaling pathway and its related factors TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 were used as the entry points to explore the effect of CLG on CIBP and their possible mechanisms of action. The results indicated that CLG improved the body mass of the CIBP rat model and increased the pain threshold in rats. CLG significantly inhibited the degradation of IκBα and the levels of p-IκBα, p-IKKβ, and p-p65 NF-κB proteins in the spinal cord of CIBP rats, inhibiting the contents of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. Therefore, we conclude that the analgesic effect of CLG in this rat model of CIBP may be related to the inhibition of the IKKβ/NF-κB signaling pathway and the reduction of synthesis and release of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6.

Diurnal rhythm expression of transcription factor NF-κB subunit p65 in Pelteobagrus vachellii

The pleiotropic transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) has important functions in viral resistance. In the present study, we isolated a p65 subunit of NF-κB cDNA from Pelteobagrus vachellii (termed Pvp65) and characterized it. The full-length p65 cDNA comprised 3651 bp, including a 148-bp 5'-untranslated region (UTR), a 106-bp 3'-UTR, and an open reading frame encoding a 1067-amino acid putative protein. The protein sequence comprised a DNA binding motif, a Rel-homology domain, a Rel protein signature, a putative transcription activation domain, a nuclear localization signal, and a transcription initiation factor IIA domain. The expression of Pvp65 displayed a daily rhythm, with an acrophase at approximately at 15:32 h in the liver, 11:34 h in the spleen, and 16:45 h in the head kidney. In addition, infection with Aeromonas hydrophila caused Pvp65 expression to increase significantly (P < 0.05), and peaking at 12 h post infection in the spleen, at 24 in the head kidney, and at 12 h in the liver. Thus, NF-κB expression might be under light/dark cycle control in P. vachellii, and may be involved in the immune response to A. hydrophila.

Taking a holistic view of PEST-containing nuclear protein (PCNP) in cancer biology

Polypeptide sequences enriched with proline (P), glutamic acid (E), aspartic acid (D) and serine (S)/ threonine (T) (PEST) have been reported to be the most abundant and frequently distributed at the cellular level. There is growing evidence that PEST sequences act as proteolytic recognition signals for degradation of residual proteins which is critical for activation or deactivation of regulatory proteins involved in cellular signaling pathways of cell growth, differentiation, stress responses and physiological death. A PEST containing nuclear protein (PCNP) was demonstrated as a tumor suppressor in a neuroblastoma cancer model and tumor promoter in lung adenocarcinoma cancer model. Its unique properties like ubiquitination by NIRF, co‐localization with NIRF in nucleus and tumor progression attract the attention of researchers. PCNP was reported to be ubiquitinated by ring finger protein NIRF in E3 ligase manner and as modulator of MAPK and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathways. In this review, we summarize PCNP linked DNA damage response, Post translational modifications, and transportation to address initiation, prognosis, and resistance of tumor cells in terms of cell cycle regulation, transcription and apoptosis. Hence, we demonstrate PCNP as a novel target in cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Determination of the Role and Active Sites of PKC-Delta-Like from Lamprey in Innate Immunity

Protein kinase C-δ (PKC-δ) is an important protein in the immune system of higher vertebrates. Lampreys, as the most primitive vertebrates, have a uniquevariable lymphocyte receptor (VLR) immune system. PKC-δ-like is a crucial functional gene in lampreys and is highly expressed in their immune organs. In this study, lampreys were stimulated with different immunogens, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was found to increase the expression of PKC-δ-like. Overexpression of PKC-δ-like could also effectively activate the innate immune response. We further demonstrated that PKC-δ-like-CF, a catalytic fragment of PKC-δ-like, is responsible for activating the innate immune response, and Thr-211, which is Thr-419 of PKC-δ-like, was confirmed to be the key site affecting PKC-δ-like-CF activity. These results indicated that PKC-δ-like from lamprey may have an important role in the innate immune response.

NF-κB Signaling in Macrophages: Dynamics, Crosstalk, and Signal Integration

The nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway is one of the best understood immune-related pathways thanks to almost four decades of intense research. NF-κB signaling is activated by numerous discrete stimuli and is a master regulator of the inflammatory response to pathogens and cancerous cells, as well as a key regulator of autoimmune diseases. In this regard, the role of NF-κB signaling in immunity is not unlike that of the macrophage. The dynamics by which NF-κB proteins shuttle between the cytoplasm and the nucleus to initiate transcription have been studied rigorously in fibroblasts and other non-hematopoietic cells, but many questions remain as to how current models of NF-κB signaling and dynamics can be translated to innate immune cells such as macrophages. In this review, we will present recent research on the dynamics of NF-κB signaling and focus especially on how these dynamics vary in different cell types, while discussing why these characteristics may be important. We will end by looking ahead to how new techniques and technologies should allow us to analyze these signaling processes with greater clarity, bringing us closer to a more complete understanding of inflammatory transcription factor dynamics and how different cellular contexts might allow for appropriate control of innate immune responses.