New progress and prospects: The application of nanogel in drug delivery

Biocompatible Astragalus polysaccharide-based nanogels for oncology: synthesis, characterization, and therapeutic potential

In recent years, drug delivery systems have become an important platform for cancer diagnosis and treatment. However, developing a novel nanoplatform that synergistically integrates multimodal therapies for precision tumor treatment remains a significant challenge. To address this, we employed Astragalus polysaccharide (ASP) with immunomodulatory function as the framework to load podophyllotoxin (PPT) and IR780, and constructed a novel ROS/GSH/NIR triple-response nanoplatform (IR780@PPTASP). Under simulated tumor microenvironment conditions, IR780@PPTASP underwent controlled collapse and drug release. The loaded IR780 photosensitizer endowed IR780@PPTASP with exceptional photothermal and photodynamic properties. To further investigate the molecular mechanism of IR780@PPTASP on A549 cells, we conducted a series of experiments. The results demonstrated that IR780@PPTASP could significantly inhibit A549 cell proliferation and migration, induce the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and promote A549 cell apoptosis. Furthermore, in vivo experiments revealed that IR780@PPTASP could effectively inhibit the proliferation and metastasis of zebrafish transplanted tumors. Notably, IR780@PPTASP promoted the release of nitric oxide (NO), increased the expression of CD40, CD80, CD86, and MHC-II, thereby promoting macrophage maturation and activating T cell function. The developed ROS/GSH/NIR triple-response nanoplatform enables a synergistic approach to chemo-phototherapy-immunotherapy, offering significant promise for the precision treatment of tumors, effectively achieving multiple therapeutic effects simultaneously.

Biomedical Application of Nanogels: From Cancer to Wound Healing

Nanogels are polymer-based, crosslinked hydrogel particles on the nanometer scale. Nanogels developed from synthetic and natural polymers have gathered a great deal of attention in industry and scientific society due to having an increased surface area, softness, flexibility, absorption, and drug loading ability, as well as their mimicking the environment of a tissue. Nanogels having biocompatibility, nontoxic and biodegradable properties with exceptional design, fabrication, and coating facilities may be used for a variety of different biomedical applications, such as drug delivery and therapy, tissue engineering, and bioimaging. Nanogels fabricated by chemical crosslinking and physical self-assembly displayed the ability to encapsulate therapeutics, including hydrophobic, hydrophilic, and small molecules, proteins, peptides, RNA and DNA sequences, and even ultrasmall nanoparticles within their three-dimensional polymer networks. One of the many drug delivery methods being investigated as a practical option for targeted delivery of drugs for cancer treatment is nanogels. The delivery of DNA and anticancer drugs like doxorubicin, epirubicin, and paclitaxel has been eased by polymeric nanogels. Stimuli-responsive PEGylated nanogels have been reported as smart nanomedicines for cancer diagnostics and therapy. Another promising biomedical application of nanogels is wound healing. Wounds are injuries to living tissue caused by a cut, blow, or other impact. There are numerous nanogels having different polymer compositions that have been reported to enhance the wound healing process, such as hyaluronan, poly-L-lysine, and berberine. When antimicrobial resistance is present, wound healing becomes a complicated process. Researchers are looking for novel alternative approaches, as foreign microorganisms in wounds are becoming resistant to antibiotics. Silver nanogels have been reported as a popular antimicrobial choice, as silver has been used as an antimicrobial throughout a prolonged period. Lignin-incorporated nanogels and lidocaine nanogels have also been reported as an antioxidant wound-dressing material that can aid in wound healing. In this review, we will summarize recent progress in biomedical applications for various nanogels, with a prime focus on cancer and wound healing.

Nanogel-based delivery of dequalinium chloride: A novel approach for antimicrobial and controlled drug release

Dequalinium chloride (DQC) is a potent antimicrobial agent; however, its therapeutic application is limited due to poor solubility, rapid degradation, and short half-life. In this study, we developed a nanogel-based delivery system to provide stability, bioavailability, and controlled release of DQC, subsequently improving antimicrobial impact. Carbopol 940 and PEG 6000 were used for the synthesis of the nanogel, which was characterized for physicochemical properties, drug entrapment, and release kinetics. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) confirmed the successful encapsulation and amorphous nature, whereas Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) validated improved thermal stability. The nanogel showed a high entrapment efficiency of 90%, and the drug was released sustained according to a non-Fickian diffusion mechanism with 86.23% cumulative release in 24 h. As per antimicrobial activity, it was observed that the developed formulation showed better inhibition against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus than free drug solutions. Thus, the findings indicate that the developed nanogel formulation can be considered a worthy advanced antimicrobial delivery system with controlled drug release.

Ocular drug delivery systems based on nanotechnology: a comprehensive review for the treatment of eye diseases

Ocular drug delivery is a significant challenge due to the intricate anatomy of the eye and the various physiological barriers. Conventional therapeutic approaches, while effective to some extent, often fall short in effectively targeting ocular diseases, resulting in suboptimal therapeutic outcomes due to factors such as poor ocular bioavailability, frequent dosing requirements, systemic side effects, and limited penetration through ocular barriers. This review elucidates the eye's intricate anatomy and physiology, prevalent ocular diseases, traditional therapeutic modalities, and the inherent pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic limitations associated with these modalities. Subsequently, it delves into nanotechnology-based solutions, presenting breakthroughs in nanoformulations such as nanocrystals, liposomes, dendrimers, and nanoemulsions that have demonstrated enhanced drug stability, controlled release, and deeper ocular penetration. Additionally, it explores a range of nanosized carriers, including nano-structured lipid carriers, hydrogels, nanogels, nanoenzymes, microparticles, conjugates, exosomes, nanosuspensions, viral vectors, and polymeric nanoparticles, and their applications. Unique insights include emerging innovations such as nanowafers and transcorneal iontophoresis, which indicate paradigm shifts in non-invasive ocular drug delivery. Furthermore, it sheds light on the advantages and limitations of these nanotechnology-based platforms in addressing the challenges of ocular drug delivery. Though nano-based drug delivery systems are drawing increasing attention due to their potential to enhance bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy, the review ends up emphasizing the imperative need for further research to drive innovation and improve patient outcomes in ophthalmology.

Protein-based nanocarriers for paclitaxel (PTX) delivery in cancer treatment: A review

Paclitaxel (PTX) is recognized as one of the most potent chemotherapy agents and is widely used to treat various cancers, including ovarian, lung, breast, head, and neck cancer. Due to the limited solubility and high toxicity of PTX, its use in cancer treatment is challenging and limited. Hence, strategies have been devised to improve the solubility and bioavailability of paclitaxel. In recent years, biocompatible nanocarriers have garnered attention due to their desirable properties, including increased permeability, targeted delivery, extended circulatory half-life, and biological drug delivery for the delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs. Protein nanostructures have been widely studied for the delivery of paclitaxel due to their significant advantages, such as safety, low toxicity, availability, and relatively easy preparation. This review article reviews recent advances in the development of protein-based drug delivery systems for loading and releasing paclitaxel. These nanocarriers have great potential to improve paclitaxel's antitumor properties and efficacy. Therefore, in the future, the integration of the pharmaceutical industry and artificial intelligence techniques will provide more opportunities for research and development in the pharmaceutical field.

Molecular insights into the antineoplastic potential of apigenin and its derivatives: paving the way for nanotherapeutic innovations

INTRODUCTION

Apigenin, a widely distributed bioactive flavonoid, has recently gained excellent attention among researchers as an effective anticancer drug that can alternate cancer-signaling pathways, induce programmed cell death, and reduce tumor growth in various cancer types. Despite its impressive anti-neoplastic activity, high hydrophobicity, and nonspecific biodistribution make apigenin difficult for pharmaceutical applications.

AREAS COVERED

We highlighted the therapeutic potential of apigenin and its derivatives in different cancer types, along with their mechanism of action. Nanoengineered drug delivery systems have remarkable applications in minimizing drug degradation and enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of drugs with sustained release, prolonged blood retention time, and reduced off-target toxicities. This review has evaluated and explored the molecular interactions of this novel flavonoid in various cancer signaling pathways to selectively inhibit neoplastic development in multiple cancer types. To ensure the complete coverage of the explored research area, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Web of Science were used to find not only the most relevant but also connected and similar articles.

EXPERT OPINION

A comprehensive overview of apigenin nanotherapy in cancer treatment can establish a platform to overcome its difficulties for pharmaceutical applications and efficient clinical translation from bench to bedside.

The efficacy of methylprednisolone acetate nanogel in treating patients with sudden sensorineural hearing loss

Intratympanic injection of methylprednisolone acetate is considered to be one of the effective drugs in the treatment of sudden sensorineural hearing loss. In this study, the efficacy of intratympanic injection of methylprednisolone acetate nanogel in patients with sudden sensorineural hearing loss was investigated. It is a double-blind randomized clinical trial in one of Iran's hospitals. 96 patients diagnosed with sudden sensorineural hearing loss were examined. The intervention group (40 patients) was treated with intratympanic nanogel form of methylprednisolone acetate (four times, one day in between) along with oral prednisolone, and the control group (56 patients) was treated with the usual ampoule form of methylprednisolone acetate along with oral prednisolone. The patients were followed up two weeks and two months after the treatment by checking the audiometric findings. 22.9% of all patients had complete response to treatment and 58.3% partial response to treatment. Complete response to treatment was more common in patients of the intervention group, and non-response to treatment was more common in the control group. The frequency of tinnitus two months after the start of treatment was significantly lower in the intervention group, but the frequency of dizziness was not significantly different between the two groups. In both groups, a significant improvement in audiometric findings was observed after treatment compared to before treatment (p < 0.0001). In both groups, a significant improvement in audiometric findings was observed after treatment compared to before treatment (p < 0.0001), and this improvement rate was slightly higher in the intervention group than in the control group. Combined treatment of systemic steroid with both nanogel and or conventional intratympanic methylprednisolone acetate can be effective in the treatment of sudden sensorineural hearing loss, but the effectiveness of the nanogel form of the drug is slightly higher. Therefore, drug transfer based on nanogels can be considered to achieve better treatment results.

Nanomaterials for targeted therapy of kidney diseases: Strategies and advances

The treatment and management of kidney diseases pose a significant global burden. Due to the presence of blood circulation barriers and glomerular filtration barriers, drug therapy for kidney diseases faces challenges such as poor renal targeting, short half-life, and severe systemic side effects, severely hindering therapeutic progress. Therefore, the research and development of kidney-targeted therapeutic agents is of great clinical significance. In recent years, the application of nanotechnology in the field of nephrology has shown potential for revolutionizing the diagnosis and treatment of kidney diseases. Carefully designed nanomaterials can exhibit optimal biological characteristics, influencing various aspects such as circulation, retention, targeting, and excretion. Rationally designing and modifying nanomaterials based on the anatomical structure and pathophysiological environment of the kidney to achieve highly specific kidney-targeted nanomaterials or nanodrug delivery systems is both feasible and promising. Based on the targeted therapy of kidney diseases, this review discusses the advantages and limitations of current nanomedicine in the targeted therapy of kidney diseases, and summarizes the application and challenges of current renal active/passive targeting strategies, in order to further promote the development of kidney-targeted nanomedicine through a preliminary summary of previous studies and future prospects.

Recent advances in ruthenium (III) complex-loaded nanomaterial for enhanced cancer therapy efficacy

OBJECTIVE

Amid the escalating global cancer incidence, the development of effective and safe anticancer drugs is a critical priority in medical research. Addressing the clinical shortcomings of ruthenium-based anticancer drugs are currently a prominent focus of research.

SIGNIFICANCE AND METHODS

Since the pioneering work with platinum derivatives, significant progress has been made in the fundamental studies of metal complexes for the treatment of a wide range of cancers, and there has been a growing interest in their properties and biomedical applications. Although chemotherapy is crucial in clinical tumor management, platinum(II) anticancer drugs like cisplatin and carboplatin suffer from severe toxicity and drug resistance issues. Among various metal-based drugs, ruthenium(III) complexes are notable for their selectivity, cytotoxic activity in vitro, and effective anticancer properties in vivo. Despite some drug candidates reaching late-stage clinical trials, their clinical application remains constrained by problems such as low solubility, poor stability, and inadequate cellular uptake.

RESULTS

The development of efficient and stable nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems for ruthenium(III) complexes, enhancing pharmacokinetic properties, and enabling slow, controlled release and targeted drug delivery, offers potential solutions to these limitations.

CONCLUSIONS

This review delves into the recent strides in nanomaterial-based drug delivery for ruthenium complexes, encompassing research on platinum (II) and ruthenium (III) metal complexes, nano-delivery system designs, and addresses pivotal challenges and future trajectories in this domain.

Deep-insights: Nanoengineered gel-based localized drug delivery for arthritis management

Arthritis is an inflammatory joint disorder that progressively impairs function and diminishes quality of life. Conventional therapies often prove ineffective, as oral administration lacks specificity, resulting in off-target side effects like hepatotoxicity and GIT-related issues. Intravenous administration causes systemic side effects. The characteristic joint-localized symptoms such as pain, stiffness, and inflammation make the localized drug delivery suitable for managing arthritis. Topical/transdermal/intra-articular routes have become viable options for drug delivery in treating arthritis. However, challenges with those localized drug delivery routes include skin barrier and cartilage impermeability. Additionally, conventional intra-articular drug delivery also leads to rapid clearance of drugs from the synovial joint tissue. To circumvent these limitations, researchers have developed nanocarriers that enhance drug permeability through skin and cartilage, influencing localized action. Gel-based nanoengineered therapy employs a gel matrix to incorporate the drug-encapsulated nanocarriers. This approach combines the benefits of gels and nanocarriers to enhance therapeutic effects and improve patient compliance. This review emphasizes deep insights into drug delivery using diverse gel-based novel nanocarriers, exploring their various applications embedded in hyaluronic acid (biopolymer)-based gels, carbopol-based gels, and others. Furthermore, this review discusses the influence of nanocarrier pharmacokinetics on the localization and therapeutic manipulation of macrophages mediated by nanocarriers. The ELVIS (extravasation through leaky vasculature and inflammatory cell-mediated sequestration) effect associated with arthritis is advantageous in drug delivery. Simply put, the ELVIS effect refers to the extravasation of nanocarriers through leaky vasculatures, which finally results in the accumulation of nanocarriers in the joint cavity.

A Patent Analysis on Nano Drug Delivery Systems

BACKGROUND

A nano drug delivery system is an effective tool for drug delivery and controlled release, which is used for a variety of medical applications. In recent decades, nano drug delivery systems have been significantly developed with the emergence of new nanomaterials and nanotechnologies.

OBJECTIVE

This article aimed to provide insight into the technological development of nano drug delivery systems through patent analysis.

METHODS

3708 patent documents were used for patent analysis after retrieval from the Incopat patent database.

RESULTS

The number of patents on nano drug delivery systems has shown a rapid growth trend in the past two decades. At present, China and the United States have obvious contributions to the number of patents. According to the patent data, the nanomaterials used in nano drug delivery system are mainly inorganic nanomaterials, lipid-based nanomaterials, and macromolecules. In recent years, the highly cited patents (≥14) for nano drug delivery systems mainly involve lipid-based nanomaterials, indicating that their technology is mature and widely used. The inorganic nanomaterials in drug delivery have received increasing attention, and the number of related patents has increased significantly after 2016. The number of highly cited patents in the United States is 250, which is much higher than in other countries.

CONCLUSION

Even after decades of development, nano drug delivery systems remain a hot topic for researchers. The significant increase in patents since 2016 can be attributed to the large number of new patents from China. However, according to the proportion of highly cited patents in total, China's patented technologies in nano drug delivery systems are not advanced enough compared to developed countries, including the United States, Canada, Germany, and France. In the future, research on emerging nanomaterials for nano drug delivery systems, such as inorganic nanomaterials, may focus on developing new materials and optimising their properties. The lipid-based and polymer- based nanomaterials can be continuously improved for the development of new nanomedicines.

Nanocarrier-Based, ocular drug delivery: Challenges, prospects, and the therapeutic landscape in the United Arab Emirates

Human eyes have the most complex and advanced physiological defense barriers. Due to these barriers, efficient delivery of ocular drugs is a major challenge in the treatment of eye diseases and disorders. Posterior eye diseases such as retinopathy are the leading causes of impaired vision and blindness globally. The topical and systemic administration of drugs such as eye drops, ointments, intravitreal injections, intraocular implants, contact lenses, and emulsions are the perennial approaches employed to treat ocular diseases. However, these modalities are inefficient due to the low bioavailability of the active drug and the potential for drug-related cytotoxicity to the ocular tissue. In this review, the conventional approaches in ocular drug delivery systems (DDSs) are explored and the limitations associated with each technique are elucidated. A comparison between the different DDSs is presented, showing the most effective treatment techniques available to date. In addition, this review presents recent advances in the field of nanocarriers and microcarriers used in ocular drug delivery systems such as nanoparticles, nano-suspensions, nanofibers, nanogels, nano-liposomes, nano micelles, dendrimers, contact lens, microneedle, and implants. Further, this review identifies the utility of nano-carriers in enabling the development of new-generation ocular DDSs with low toxicity, high efficiency, and high stability of targeted drug delivery systems to overcome the limitations observed with conventional ocular DDSs. In addition, this manuscript sheds light on the incidence and unique landscape of ocular diseases in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and the potential for employing novel ocular DDSs for targeted treatment of conditions such as diabetic retinopathy in the UAE. It also discusses the putative role genetic variants of the VEGF gene may play in predisposing the local population in the UAE to developing posterior eye segment diseases such as retinopathy.

Tumor microenvironment-responsive hyperbranched polymers for controlled drug delivery

Hyperbranched polymers (HBPs) have drawn great interest in the biomedical field on account of their special morphology, low viscosity, self-regulation, and facile preparation methods. Moreover, their large intramolecular cavities, high biocompatibility, biodegradability, and targeting properties render them very suitable for anti-tumor drug delivery. Recently, exploiting the specific characteristics of the tumor microenvironment, a range of multifunctional HBPs responsive to the tumor microenvironment have emerged. By further introducing various types of drugs through physical embedding or chemical coupling, the resulting HBPs based delivery systems have played a crucial part in improving drug stability, increasing effective drug concentration, decreasing drug toxicity and side effects, and enhancing anti-tumor effect. Here, based on different types of tumor microenvironment stimulation signals such as pH, redox, temperature, etc., we systematically review the preparation and response mechanism of HBPs, summarize the latest advances in drug delivery applications, and analyze the challenges and future research directions for such nanomaterials in biomedical clinical applications.

Engineering collagen-based biomaterials for cardiovascular medicine

Cardiovascular diseases have been the leading cause of global mortality and disability. In addition to traditional drug and surgical treatment, more and more studies investigate tissue engineering therapeutic strategies in cardiovascular medicine. Collagen interweaves in the form of trimeric chains to form the physiological network framework of the extracellular matrix of cardiac and vascular cells, possessing excellent biological properties (such as low immunogenicity and good biocompatibility) and adjustable mechanical properties, which renders it a vital tissue engineering biomaterial for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. In recent years, promising advances have been made in the application of collagen materials in blood vessel prostheses, injectable cardiac hydrogels, cardiac patches, and hemostatic materials, although their clinical translation still faces some obstacles. Thus, we reviewed these findings and systematically summarizes the application progress as well as problems of clinical translation of collagen biomaterials in the cardiovascular field. The present review contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the application of collagen biomaterials in cardiovascular medicine.

Graphical abstract

Construction of an Innovative Nanogel and Its Applications for Achieving Chemo-Immunotherapy of Tumors

Malignant tumors, also known as cancers, are a global public health problem. Nanogels are promising carriers for the delivery of anticancer medicines. Therefore, based on the unique microenvironment of tumor cells and the advantages of nanogels, a simple and economical one-pot synthesis method was designed to construct natural polysaccharide-based redox-responsive nanogels (LDD NGs). The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect enriched LDD NGs in tumor cells, which then rapidly collapsed and released the natural antitumor drug diosgenin (DG) and the natural polysaccharide lentinan (LNT) via the depletion of a high level of reduced glutathione (GSH) in tumor cells, resulting in a synergistic therapeutic effect of chemotherapy and immunotherapy. In vivo antitumor experiments showed that LDD NGs could inhibit the proliferation and metastasis of the A549 lung cancer cells. Further studies indicated that LDD NGs could increase the production of ROS and induce apoptosis of A549 cells. In addition, LNT released from LDD NGs could promote the proliferation of dendritic cells, increase the production of NO, and upregulate the expressions of the costimulatory molecules CD40, CD80, CD86, and MHC-II. The construction of LDD NGs was a novel drug synthesis approach that could provide fresh ideas for the development of polysaccharide-based redox-responsive drug delivery systems.

Nano- and Micro-Platforms in Therapeutic Proteins Delivery for Cancer Therapy: Materials and Strategies

Proteins have emerged as promising therapeutics in oncology due to their great specificity. Many treatment strategies are developed based on protein biologics, such as immunotherapy, starvation therapy, and pro-apoptosis therapy, while some protein biologics have entered the clinics. However, clinical translation is severely impeded by instability, short circulation time, poor transmembrane transportation, and immunogenicity. Micro- and nano-particles-based drug delivery platforms are designed to solve those problems and enhance protein therapeutic efficacy. This review first summarizes the different types of therapeutic proteins in clinical and research stages, highlighting their administration limitations. Next, various types of micro- and nano-particles are described to demonstrate how they can overcome those limitations. The potential of micro- and nano-particles are then explored to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of proteins by combinational therapies. Finally, the challenges and future directions of protein biologics carriers are discussed for optimized protein delivery.

Biodegradable Natural Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering, Controlled Release, and Soil Remediation

This article provides insights into hydrogels of the most promising biodegradable natural polymers and their mechanisms of degradation, highlighting the different possibilities of controlling hydrogel degradation rates. Since biodegradable hydrogels can be designed as scaffolding materials to mimic the physical and biochemical properties of natural tissues, these hydrogels have found widespread application in the field of tissue engineering and controlled release. In the same manner, their potential as water reservoirs, macro- and microelement carriers, or matrixes for the selective adsorption of pollutants make them excellent candidates for sustainable soil amendment solutions. Accordingly, this article summarizes the recent advances in natural biodegradable hydrogels in the fields of tissue engineering, controlled release, and soil remediation, emphasizing the new opportunities that degradability and its tunability offer for the design and applicability of hydrogels.

Exploring Hydrogel Nanoparticle Systems for Enhanced Ocular Drug Delivery

Drug delivery to the ocular system is affected by anatomical factors like the corneal epithelium, blinking reflex, aqueous blood barrier, and retinal blood barrier, which lead to quick removal from the site and inefficient drug delivery. Developing a drug delivery mechanism that targets specific eye tissue is a major hurdle for researchers. Our study examines the challenges of drug absorption in these pathways. Hydrogels have been researched as a suitable delivery method to overcome some obstacles. These are developed alone or in conjunction with other technologies, such as nanoparticles. Many polymer hydrogel nanoparticle systems utilizing both natural and synthetic polymers have been created and investigated; each has pros and cons. The complex release mechanism of encapsulated agents from hydrogel nanoparticles depends on three key factors: hydrogel matrix swelling, drug-matrix chemical interactions, and drug diffusion. This mechanism exists regardless of the type of polymer. This study provides an overview of the classification of hydrogels, release mechanisms, and the role of controlled release systems in pharmaceutical applications. Additionally, it highlights the integration of nanotechnology in ocular disease therapy, focusing on different types of nanoparticles, including nanosuspensions, nanoemulsions, and pharmaceutical nanoparticles. Finally, the review discusses current commercial formulations for ocular drug delivery and recent advancements in non-invasive techniques. The objective is to present a comprehensive overview of the possibilities for enhancing ocular medication delivery through hydrogel nanoparticle systems.

A Visual Distance-Based Capillary Immunoassay Using Biomimetic Polymer Nanoparticles for Highly Sensitive and Specific C-Reactive Protein Quantification

The low-cost daily monitoring of C-reactive protein (CRP) levels is crucial for screening acute inflammation or infections as well as managing chronic inflammatory diseases. In this study, we synthesized novel 2-Methacryloyloxy ethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC)-based biomimetic nanoparticles with a large surface area to develop a visual CRP-quantification assay using affordable glass capillaries. The PMPC nanoparticles, synthesized via reflux precipitation polymerization, demonstrated multivalent binding capabilities, enabling rapid and specific CRP capture. In the presence of CRP, PMPC nanoparticles formed sandwich structures with magnetic nanoparticles functionalized with CRP antibodies, thereby enhancing detection sensitivity and specificity. These sandwich complexes were magnetically accumulated into visible and quantifiable stacks within the glass capillaries, allowing for the rapid, sensitive, and specific quantification of CRP concentrations with a detection limit of 57.5 pg/mL and a range spanning from 0 to 5000 ng/mL. The proposed visual distance-based capillary biosensor shows great potential in routine clinical diagnosis as well as point-of-care testing (POCT) in resource-limited settings.

The Tiny Big Difference: Nanotechnology in Photoprotective Innovations - A Systematic Review

UV radiation causes long- and short-term skin damage, such as erythema and skin cancer. Therefore, the use of sunscreens is extremely important. However, concerns about UV filter safety have prompted exploration into alternative solutions, with nanotechnology emerging as a promising avenue. This systematic review identified 23 experimental studies utilizing nanocarriers to encapsulate sunscreens with the aim of enhancing their efficacy and safety. Polymeric and lipid nanoparticles are frequently employed to encapsulate both organic and inorganic UV filters along with natural antioxidants. Nanocarriers have demonstrated benefits including reduced active ingredient usage, increased sun protection factor, and mitigated photoinstability. Notably, they also decreased the skin absorption of UV filters. In summary, nanocarriers represent a viable strategy for improving sunscreen formulations, offering enhanced physicochemical properties and bolstered photoprotective effects, thereby addressing concerns regarding UV filter safety and efficacy in cosmetic applications.

Biodegradable nanoplatforms for antigen delivery: part II - nanoparticles, hydrogels, and microneedles for cancer immunotherapy

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy has resulted in a breakthrough in the treatment of patients with refractory or relapsed hematological malignancies. However, the identification of patients suitable for CAR-T cell therapy needs to be improved.

AREASCOVERED

CAR-T cell therapy has demonstrated excellent efficacy in hematological malignancies; however, views on determining when to apply CAR-T cells in terms of the evaluation of patient characteristics remain controversial.

EXPERT OPINION

We reviewed the current feasibility and challenges of CAR-T cell therapy in the most common hematological malignancies and classified them according to disease type and treatment priority, to guide clinicians and researchers in applying and investigating CAR-T cells further.

Thermo-responsive composite nanoparticles based on hydroxybutyl chitosan oligosaccharide: Fabrication, stimulus release and cancer therapy

Designing thermo-responsive nanocarriers based on biopolymers is fascinating and challenging for cancer therapy. In this study, thermo-responsive composite nanoparticles (CNPs) were prepared using hydroxybutyl chitosan oligosaccharide (HBCOS) and sodium caseinate (SC) via electrostatic interactions and covalent crosslinking. The temperature-responsive behaviors of CNPs were induced by the breakage of hydrogen bonds and the shrinkage of chains in nanoparticles. The CNPs exhibited concentration-independent thermo-responsive behavior, non-adsorption aggregation, and non-hemolysis, suggesting excellent stability and thermo-sensitivity. The initial release rate and final amount of DOX released from CNPs at 42 °C were higher than that at 37 °C, showing a thermo-responsive release, which was also more prominent at lower pH. The release of DOX from CNPs followed first order kinetics based on Fickian diffusion. In vitro cytotoxicity assays confirmed the thermo-responsive antitumor activity of DOX-loaded CNPs as the HT-29 cell viability incubated with DOX-loaded CNPs at 42 °C was significantly lower than that at 37 °C. Cellular uptake experiments proved that DOX-loaded CNPs accumulated in the cytoplasm after being endocytosed and promoted DOX release by increasing environment temperature. This study generated stable thermo-sensitive CNPs based on biopolymers, which can be used as potential nanocarriers for the controlled release of anticancer drugs for cancer therapy.

Cancer Nanovaccines: Nanomaterials and Clinical Perspectives

Cancer nanovaccines represent a promising frontier in cancer immunotherapy, utilizing nanotechnology to augment traditional vaccine efficacy. This review comprehensively examines the current state-of-the-art in cancer nanovaccine development, elucidating innovative strategies and technologies employed in their design. It explores both preclinical and clinical advancements, emphasizing key studies demonstrating their potential to elicit robust anti-tumor immune responses. The study encompasses various facets, including integrating biomaterial-based nanocarriers for antigen delivery, adjuvant selection, and the impact of nanoscale properties on vaccine performance. Detailed insights into the complex interplay between the tumor microenvironment and nanovaccine responses are provided, highlighting challenges and opportunities in optimizing therapeutic outcomes. Additionally, the study presents a thorough analysis of ongoing clinical trials, presenting a snapshot of the current clinical landscape. By curating the latest scientific findings and clinical developments, this study aims to serve as a comprehensive resource for researchers and clinicians engaged in advancing cancer immunotherapy. Integrating nanotechnology into vaccine design holds immense promise for revolutionizing cancer treatment paradigms, and this review provides a timely update on the evolving landscape of cancer nanovaccines.

Biodegradable nanoplatforms for antigen delivery: part I - state of the art review of polymeric nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy

INTRODUCTION

Polymeric nanoparticles used for antigen delivery against infections and for cancer immunotherapy are an emerging therapeutic strategy in promoting the development of innovative vaccines. Beyond their capability to create targeted delivery systems with controlled release of payloads, biodegradable polymers are utilized for their ability to enhance the immunogenicity and stability of antigens.

AREAS COVERED

This review extensively discusses the physicochemical parameters that affect the behavior of nanoparticles as antigen-delivery systems. Additionally, various types of natural and synthetic polymers and recent advancements in nanoparticle-based targeted vaccine production are reviewed.

EXPERT OPINION

Biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles have gained major interest in the vaccination filed and have been extensively used to encapsulate antigens against a wide variety of tumors. Moreover, their versatility in terms of tunning their physicochemical characteristics, and their surface, facilitates the targeting to antigen presenting cells and enhances immune response.

Stimulus-Responsive Hydrogels for Targeted Cancer Therapy

Cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease and remains a global health challenge affecting millions of human lives worldwide. Despite advancements in conventional treatments like surgery, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy, the rise of multidrug resistance, tumor recurrence, and their severe side effects and the complex nature of the tumor microenvironment (TME) necessitates innovative therapeutic approaches. Recently, stimulus-responsive nanomedicines designed to target TME characteristics (e.g., pH alterations, redox conditions, enzyme secretion) have gained attention for their potential to enhance anticancer efficacy while minimizing the adverse effects of chemotherapeutics/bioactive compounds. Among the various nanocarriers, hydrogels are intriguing due to their high-water content, adjustable mechanical characteristics, and responsiveness to external and internal stimuli, making them promising candidates for cancer therapy. These properties make hydrogels an ideal nanocarrier for controlled drug release within the TME. This review comprehensively surveys the latest advancements in the area of stimulus-responsive hydrogels for cancer therapy, exploring various stimuli-responsive mechanisms, including biological (e.g., pH, redox), chemical (e.g., enzymes, glucose), and physical (e.g., temperature, light), as well as dual- or multi-stimuli responsiveness. Furthermore, this review addresses the current developments and challenges in hydrogels in cancer treatment. Our aim is to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of stimulus-responsive hydrogels for cancer treatment, offering novel perspectives on their development for cancer therapy and other medical applications.

Cation-induced morphological transitions and aggregation of thermoresponsive PNIPAM nanogels

Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) nanogels are promising responsive colloidal particles that can be used in pharmaceutical applications as drug carriers. This work investigates the temperature-dependent morphological changes and agglomeration of PNIPAM nanogels in the presence of mono- and multi-valent cationic electrolytes. We described the deswelling, flocculation, thermal reversibility behaviour and aggregated morphology of PNIPAM nanogels over a range of electrolyte concentrations and temperatures revealing the critical transition points from stable suspension to spontaneous agglomeration. We demonstrated that the flocculating ability and the rate of aggregate formation follow the order of deswelling behaviour. Transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy analysis revealed the presence of a shell-like layer with varying density in the multivalent electrolyte solutions when compared to those in aqueous medium. We identified a concentration threshold of the thermally induced reversible aggregation/dispersion for the PNIPAM nanogels in the presence of Na+ and K+ ions at 10 mM, for Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions at 1 mM and for Al3+ ions at 0.1 mM concentrations. Such concentration thresholds indicated the effective destabilization of the electrolyte system with multivalency following the Schulze-Hardy rule. Our findings were supported by applying a Debye screening model that accounts for the shielding effect of multivalent cationic electrolytes on these nanogel systems. Our experiments and the models confirmed the compression of the electric double layer as the valency and ionic strength increased, except for Al3+ at higher concentrations which seemed to disrupt the electrical double layer and cause reversal of zeta potential. Our work highlights the significant impact the presence of multivalent cations can impose on the stability and morphology of nanogels, and this understanding will help in designing responsive nanogel systems based on PNIPAM nanogels.

Progress of nanoparticle drug delivery system for the treatment of glioma

Gliomas are typical malignant brain tumours affecting a wide population worldwide. Operation, as the common treatment for gliomas, is always accompanied by postoperative drug chemotherapy, but cannot cure patients. The main challenges are chemotherapeutic drugs have low blood-brain barrier passage rate and a lot of serious adverse effects, meanwhile, they have difficulty targeting glioma issues. Nowadays, the emergence of nanoparticles (NPs) drug delivery systems (NDDS) has provided a new promising approach for the treatment of gliomas owing to their excellent biodegradability, high stability, good biocompatibility, low toxicity, and minimal adverse effects. Herein, we reviewed the types and delivery mechanisms of NPs currently used in gliomas, including passive and active brain targeting drug delivery. In particular, we primarily focused on various hopeful types of NPs (such as liposome, chitosan, ferritin, graphene oxide, silica nanoparticle, nanogel, neutrophil, and adeno-associated virus), and discussed their advantages, disadvantages, and progress in preclinical trials. Moreover, we outlined the clinical trials of NPs applied in gliomas. According to this review, we provide an outlook of the prospects of NDDS for treating gliomas and summarise some methods that can enhance the targeting specificity and safety of NPs, like surface modification and conjugating ligands and peptides. Although there are still some limitations of these NPs, NDDS will offer the potential for curing glioma patients.

Design and synthesis of drug hydrogels containing carboxymethylcellulose with honeycomb structure and pH-sensitivity as drug delivery systems for adriamycin, metformin, and naproxen

The aim of this research is to prepare and identify functionalized carboxymethylcellulose/mesoporous silica nanohydrogels (CMC/NH2-MCM-41) for obtaining a pH-sensitive system for the controlled release of drugs. The beads of CMC/NH2-MCM-41 nanocomposites were prepared by dispersing NH2-MCM-41 in a CMC polymer matrix and crosslinking with ferric ions (Fe3+). The SEM analysis of samples revealed enhancement in surface porosity of the functionalized nanohydrogel beads compared to the conventional beads. Swelling of the prepared functionalized nanohydrogels was evaluated at various pH values including pH = 7.35-7.45 (simulated body fluid or healthy cells), pH = 6 (simulated intestinal fluid), and pH = 1.5-3.5 (simulated gastric fluid). The swelling of CMC/MCM-41 and CMC/NH2-MCM-41 nanohydrogels at the pH values of simulated body fluid and simulated intestinal fluid is much higher than that of simulated gastric fluid, indicating successful synthesis of pH-sensitive nanohydrogels for drug delivery. The drug loading results showed that drug release in the CMC/NH2-MCM-41 system is much slower than that in the CMC/MCM-41 system. The results of the survival studies for the manufactured systems showed a very good biocompatibility of the designed drug delivery systems for biological applications. By coating the surface of functionalized mesopores with CMC hydrogel, we were able to develop a pH-sensitive intelligent drug delivery system.

Preparation and anti-inflammatory effect of mercury sulphide nanoparticle-loaded hydrogels

We successfully prepared mercury sulphide nanoparticle hydrogels by physical encapsulation method. The successfully prepared mercuric sulphide nanoparticle hydrogel was a zinc folate hydrogel, which showed an obvious porous structure with interconnected and uniformly distributed pores and a pore size range of about 20 μm. The maximum drug loading of the hydrogels was 3%, and the in vitro cumulative release degree was in accordance with the first-order kinetic equation Mt = 149.529 (1 - e-0.026t). The particles in mercuric sulphide nanoparticle hydrogels significantly down-regulated the expression of the cell surface co-stimulatory molecule CD86 (p < .0001). Meanwhile, the inflammatory response was regulated through the NF-κB pathway in LPS-induced inflammatory cells. Later, it was observed that mercuric sulphide nanoparticle hydrogels could significantly counteract the inflammatory and immune models through a mouse ear swelling model, a rat foot-plantar swelling model and a rheumatoid arthritis model. This design targets the immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory effects through nanocomposite hydrogel technology. It reduces the drawbacks of low mercury utilisation and susceptibility to accumulation of toxicity. It aims to provide an experimental basis for the development of mercuric sulphide and the treatment of inflammatory and immune-related diseases.HighlightsMercury sulphide nanoparticle hydrogel has an optimal mercury sulphide nanoparticle content of 2%, is structurally homogeneous and stable, and does not exhibit significant liver or kidney toxicity.Mercuric sulphide nanoparticle hydrogel exerts anti-inflammatory effects in cells and rats, and regulates the expression of macrophage surface molecules and factors related to the NF-κB pathway.Mercuric sulphide nanoparticle hydrogel improves the condition of ankle synovial joints in a rat model of rheumatoid arthritis.

Hybrid Nanogel Drug Delivery Systems: Transforming the Tumor Microenvironment through Tumor Tissue Editing

The future of drug delivery offers immense potential for the creation of nanoplatforms based on nanogels. Nanogels present a significant possibility for pharmaceutical advancements because of their excellent stability and effective drug-loading capability for both hydrophobic and hydrophilic agents. As multifunctional systems, composite nanogels demonstrate the capacity to carry genes, drugs, and diagnostic agents while offering a perfect platform for theranostic multimodal applications. Nanogels can achieve diverse responsiveness and enable the stimuli-responsive release of chemo-/immunotherapy drugs and thus reprogramming cells within the TME in order to inhibit tumor proliferation, progression, and metastasis. In order to achieve active targeting and boost drug accumulation at target sites, particular ligands can be added to nanogels to improve the therapeutic outcomes and enhance the precision of cancer therapy. Modern "immune-specific" nanogels also have extra sophisticated tumor tissue-editing properties. Consequently, the introduction of a multifunctional nanogel-based drug delivery system improves the targeted distribution of immunotherapy drugs and combinational therapeutic treatments, thereby increasing the effectiveness of tumor therapy.

Design and applications of polymer-like peptides in biomedical nanogels

INTRODUCTION

Polymer nanogels are among the most promising nanoplatforms for use in biomedical applications. The substantial interest for these drug carriers is to enhance the transportation of bioactive substances, reduce the side effects, and achieve optimal action on the curative sites by targeting delivery and triggering the release of the drugs in a controlled and continuous mode.

AREA COVERED

The review discusses the opportunities, applications, and challenges of synthetic polypeptide nanogels in biomedicine, with an emphasis on the recent progress in cancer therapy. It is evidenced by the development of polypeptide nanogels for better controlled drug delivery and release, in complex in vivo microenvironments in biomedical applications.

EXPERT OPINION

Polypeptide nanogels can be developed by choosing the amino acids from the peptide structure that are suitable for the type of application. Using a stimulus - sensitive peptide nanogel, it is possible to obtain the appropriate transport and release of the drug, as well as to achieve desirable therapeutic effects, including safety, specificity, and efficiency. The final system represents an innovative way for local and sustained drug delivery at a specific site of the body.

Optically monitoring the microenvironment of a hydrophobic cargo in amphiphilic nanogels: influence of network composition on loading and release

Amphiphilic nanogels (ANGs) are promising carriers for hydrophobic cargos such as drugs, dyes, and catalysts. Loading content and release kinetics of these compounds are controlled by type and number of hydrophobic groups in the amphiphilic copolymer network. Thus, understanding the interactions between cargo and colloidal carrier is mandatory for a tailor-made and cargo-specific ANG design. To systematically explore the influence of the network composition on these interactions, we prepared a set of ANGs of different amphiphilicity and loaded these ANGs with varying concentrations of the solvatochromic dye Nile Red (NR). Here, NR acts as a hydrophobic model cargo to optically probe the polarity of its microenvironment. Analysis of the NR emission spectra as well as measurements of the fluorescence quantum yields and decay kinetics revealed a decrease in the polarity of the NR microenvironment with increasing hydrophobicity of the hydrophobic groups in the ANG network and dye-dye interactions at higher loading concentrations. At low NR concentrations, the hydrophobic cargo NR is encapsulated in the hydrophobic domains. Increasing NR concentrations resulted in probe molecules located in a more hydrophilic environment, i.e., at the nanodomain border, and favored dye-dye interactions and NR aggregation. These results correlate well with release experiments, indicating first NR release from more hydrophilic network locations. Overall, our findings demonstrate the importance to understand carrier-drug interactions for efficient loading and controlled release profiles in amphiphilic nanogels.

Pulmonary inhalation for disease treatment: Basic research and clinical translations

Pulmonary drug delivery has the advantages of being rapid, efficient, and well-targeted, with few systemic side effects. In addition, it is non-invasive and has good patient compliance, making it a highly promising drug delivery mode. However, there have been limited studies on drug delivery via pulmonary inhalation compared with oral and intravenous modes. This paper summarizes the basic research and clinical translation of pulmonary inhalation drug delivery for the treatment of diseases and provides insights into the latest advances in pulmonary drug delivery. The paper discusses the processing methods for pulmonary drug delivery, drug carriers (with a focus on various types of nanoparticles), delivery devices, and applications in pulmonary diseases and treatment of systemic diseases (e.g., COVID-19, inhaled vaccines, diagnosis of the diseases, and diabetes mellitus) with an updated summary of recent research advances. Furthermore, this paper describes the applications and recent progress in pulmonary drug delivery for lung diseases and expands the use of pulmonary drugs for other systemic diseases.

Nanogels: Smart tools to enlarge the therapeutic window of gene therapy

Gene therapy can potentially treat a great number of diseases, from cancer to rare genetic disorders. Very recently, the development and emergency approval of nucleic acid-based COVID-19 vaccines confirmed its strength and versatility. However, gene therapy encounters limitations due to the lack of suitable carriers to vectorize therapeutic genetic material inside target cells. Nanogels are highly hydrated nano-size crosslinked polymeric networks that have been used in many biomedical applications, from drug delivery to tissue engineering and diagnostics. Due to their easy production, tunability, and swelling properties they have called the attention as promising vectors for gene delivery. In this review, nanogels are discussed as vectors for nucleic acid delivery aiming to enlarge gene therapy's therapeutic window. Recent works highlighting the optimization of inherent transfection efficiency and biocompatibility are reviewed here. The importance of the monomer choice, along with the internal structure, surface decoration, and responsive features are outlined for the different transfection modalities. The possible sources of toxicological endpoints in nanogels are analyzed, and the strategies to limit them are compared. Finally, perspectives are discussed to identify the remining challenges for the nanogels before their translation to the market as transfection agents.

The function and application of edible fungal polysaccharides

Edible fungi, commonly known as mushrooms, are precious medicinal and edible homologous gifts from nature to us. Edible fungal polysaccharides (EFPs) are a variety of bioactive macromolecular which isolated from fruiting bodies, mycelia or fermentation broths of edible or medicinal fungus. Increasing researches have confirmed that EFPs possess multiple biological activities both in vitro and in vivo settings, including antioxidant, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-tumor, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and regulating intestinal flora activities. As a result, they have emerged as a prominent focus in the healthcare, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Fungal EFPs have safe, non-toxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible properties with low immunogenicity, bioadhesion ability, and antibacterial activities, presenting diverse potential applications in the food industries, cosmetic, biomedical, packaging, and new materials. Moreover, varying raw materials, extraction, purification, chemical modification methods, and culture conditions can result in variances in the structure and biological activities of EFPs. The purpose of this review is to provide comprehensively and systematically organized information on the structure, modification, biological activities, and potential applications of EFPs to support their therapeutic effects and health functions. This review provides new insights and a theoretical basis for prospective investigations and advancements in EFPs in fields such as medicine, food, and new materials.

Preparation, In Vitro Characterization, and Evaluation of Polymeric pH-Responsive Hydrogels for Controlled Drug Release

The purpose of the current research is to formulate a smart drug delivery system for solubility enhancement and sustained release of hydrophobic drugs. Drug solubility-related challenges constitute a significant concern for formulation scientists. To address this issue, a recent study focused on developing PEG-g-poly(MAA) copolymeric nanogels to enhance the solubility of olmesartan, a poorly soluble drug. The researchers employed a free radical polymerization technique to formulate these nanogels. Nine formulations were formulated. The newly formulated nanogels underwent comprehensive tests, including physicochemical assessments, dissolution studies, solubility evaluations, toxicity investigations, and stability examinations. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) investigations confirmed the successful encapsulation of olmesartan within the nanogels, while thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) studies verified their thermal stability. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images revealed the presence of pores on the surface of the nanogels, facilitating water penetration and promoting rapid drug release. Moreover, powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) studies indicated that the prepared nanogels exhibited an amorphous structure. The nanogel carrier system led to a significant enhancement in olmesartan's solubility, achieving a remarkable 12.3-fold increase at pH 1.2 and 13.29-fold rise in phosphate buffer of pH 6.8 (NGP3). Significant swelling was observed at pH 6.8 compared to pH 1.2. Moreover, the formulated nexus is nontoxic and biocompatible and depicts considerable potential for delivery of drugs and protein as well as heat-sensitive active moieties.

Single-, Dual-, and Multi-Stimuli-Responsive Nanogels for Biomedical Applications

In recent years, stimuli-responsive nanogels that can undergo suitable transitions under endogenous (e.g., pH, enzymes and reduction) or exogenous stimuli (e.g., temperature, light, and magnetic fields) for on-demand drug delivery, have received significant interest in biomedical fields, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, wound healing, and gene therapy due to their unique environment-sensitive properties. Furthermore, these nanogels have become very popular due to some of their special properties such as good hydrophilicity, high drug loading efficiency, flexibility, and excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability. In this article, the authors discuss current developments in the synthesis, properties, and biomedical applications of stimulus-responsive nanogels. In addition, the opportunities and challenges of nanogels for biomedical applications are also briefly predicted.

Biomaterials-based anti-inflammatory treatment strategies for Alzheimer's disease

The current therapeutic drugs for Alzheimer's disease only improve symptoms, they do not delay disease progression. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new effective drugs. The underlying pathogenic factors of Alzheimer's disease are not clear, but neuroinflammation can link various hypotheses of Alzheimer's disease; hence, targeting neuroinflammation may be a new hope for Alzheimer's disease treatment. Inhibiting inflammation can restore neuronal function, promote neuroregeneration, reduce the pathological burden of Alzheimer's disease, and improve or even reverse symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. This review focuses on the relationship between inflammation and various pathological hypotheses of Alzheimer's disease; reports the mechanisms and characteristics of small-molecule drugs (e.g., nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, neurosteroids, and plant extracts); macromolecule drugs (e.g., peptides, proteins, and gene therapeutics); and nanocarriers (e.g., lipid-based nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, and inorganic nanoparticles) in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. The review also makes recommendations for the prospective development of anti-inflammatory strategies based on nanocarriers for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Developments in Emerging Topical Drug Delivery Systems for Ocular Disorders

According to the current information, using nano gels in the eyes have therapeutic benefits. Industry growth in the pharmaceutical and healthcare sectors has been filled by nanotechnology. Traditional ocular preparations have a short retention duration and restricted drug bioavailability because of the eye's architectural and physiological barriers, a big issue for physicians, patients, and chemists. In contrast, nano gels can encapsulate drugs within threedimensional cross-linked polymeric networks. Because of their distinctive structural designs and preparation methods, they can deliver loaded medications in a controlled and sustained manner, enhancing patient compliance and therapeutic efficacy. Due to their excellent drugloading capacity and biocompatibility, nano-gels outperform other nano-carriers. This study focuses on using nano gels to treat eye diseases and provides a brief overview of their creation and response to stimuli. Our understanding of topical drug administration will be advanced using nano gel developments to treat common ocular diseases such as glaucoma, cataracts, dry eye syndrome, bacterial keratitis, and linked medication-loaded contact lenses and natural active ingredients.

Rational Design and Development of Polymeric Nanogels as Protein Carriers

Proteins have gained significant attention as potential therapeutic agents owing to their high specificity and reduced toxicity. Nevertheless, their clinical utility is hindered by inherent challenges associated with stability during storage and after in vivo administration. To overcome these limitations, polymeric nanogels (NGs) have emerged as promising carriers. These colloidal systems are capable of efficient encapsulation and stabilization of protein cargoes while improving their bioavailability and targeted delivery. The design of such delivery systems requires a comprehensive understanding of how the synthesis and formulation processes affect the final performance of the protein. This review highlights critical aspects involved in the development of NGs for protein delivery, with specific emphasis on loading strategies and evaluation techniques. For example, factors influencing loading efficiency and release kinetics are discussed, along with strategies to optimize protein encapsulation through protein-carrier interactions to achieve the desired therapeutic outcomes. The discussion is based on recent literature examples and aims to provide valuable insights for researchers working toward the advancement of protein-based therapeutics.

Application of 3D- printed hydrogels in wound healing and regenerative medicine

Hydrogels are three-dimensional polymer networks with hydrophilic properties. The modifiable properties of hydrogels and the structure resembling living tissue allow their versatile application. Therefore, increasing attention is focused on the use of hydrogels as bioinks for three-dimensional (3D) printing in tissue engineering. Bioprinting involves the fabrication of complex structures from several types of materials, cells, and bioactive compounds. Stem cells (SC), such as mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are frequently employed in 3D constructs. SCs have desirable biological properties such as the ability to differentiate into various types of tissue and high proliferative capacity. Encapsulating SCs in 3D hydrogel constructs enhances their reparative abilities and improves the likelihood of reaching target tissues. In addition, created constructs can simulate the tissue environment and mimic biological signals. Importantly, the immunogenicity of scaffolds is minimized through the use of patient-specific cells and the biocompatibility and biodegradability of the employed biopolymers. Regenerative medicine is taking advantage of the aforementioned capabilities in regenerating various tissues- muscle, bones, nerves, heart, skin, and cartilage.

Engineered therapeutic proteins for sustained-release drug delivery systems

Proteins play a vital role in diverse biological processes in the human body, and protein therapeutics have been applied to treat different diseases such as cancers, genetic disorders, autoimmunity, and inflammation. Protein therapeutics have demonstrated their advantages, such as specific pharmaceutical effects, low toxicity, and strong solubility. However, several disadvantages arise in clinical applications, including short half-life, immunogenicity, and low permeation, leading to reduced drug effectiveness. The structure of protein therapeutics can be modified to increase molecular size, leading to prolonged stability and increased plasma half-life. Notably, the controlled-release delivery systems for the sustained release of protein drugs and preserving the stability of cargo proteins are envisioned as a potential approach to overcome these challenges. In this review, we summarize recent research progress related to structural modifications (PEGylation, glycosylation, poly amino acid modification, and molecular biology-based strategies) and promising long-term delivery systems, such as polymer-based systems (injectable gel/implants, microparticles, nanoparticles, micro/nanogels, functional polymers), lipid-based systems (liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers), and inorganic nanoparticles exploited for protein therapeutics. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: In this review, we highlight recent advances concerning modifying proteins directly to enhance their stability and functionality and discuss state-of-the-art methods for the delivery and controlled long-term release of active protein therapeutics to their target site. In terms of drug modifications, four widely used strategies, including PEGylation, poly amino acid modification, glycosylation, and genetic, are discussed. As for drug delivery systems, we emphasize recent progress relating to polymer-based systems, lipid-based systems developed, and inorganic nanoparticles for protein sustained-release delivery. This review points out the areas requiring focused research attention before the full potential of protein therapeutics for human health and disease can be realized.

Stimuli-Responsive and Multifunctional Nanogels in Drug Delivery

Nanogels represent promising drug delivery systems in the biomedical field, designed to overcome challenges associated with standard treatment approaches. Stimuli-responsive nanogels, often referred to as intelligent materials, have garnered significant attention for their potential to enhance control over properties such as drug release and targeting. Furthermore, researchers have recently explored the application of nanogels in diverse sectors beyond biomedicine including sensing materials, catalysts, or adsorbents for environmental applications. However, to fully harness their potential as practical delivery systems, further research is required to better understand their pharmacokinetic behaviour, interactions between nanogels and bio distributions, as well as toxicities. One promising future application of stimuli-responsive multifunctional nanogels is their use as delivery agents in cancer treatment, offering an alternative to overcome the challenges with conventional approaches. This review discusses various synthetic methods employed in developing nanogels as efficient carriers for drug delivery in cancer treatment. The investigations explore, the key aspects of nanogels, including their multifunctionality and stimuli-responsive properties, as well as associated toxicity concerns. The discussions presented herein aim to provide the readers a comprehensive understanding of the potential of nanogels as smart drug delivery systems in the context of cancer therapy.

Polysaccharide-Based Nanogels to Overcome Mucus, Skin, Cornea, and Blood-Brain Barriers: A Review

Nanocarriers have been extensively developed in the biomedical field to enhance the treatment of various diseases. However, to effectively deliver therapeutic agents to desired target tissues and enhance their pharmacological activity, these nanocarriers must overcome biological barriers, such as mucus gel, skin, cornea, and blood-brain barriers. Polysaccharides possess qualities such as excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, unique biological properties, and good accessibility, making them ideal materials for constructing drug delivery carriers. Nanogels, as a novel drug delivery platform, consist of three-dimensional polymer networks at the nanoscale, offering a promising strategy for encapsulating different pharmaceutical agents, prolonging retention time, and enhancing penetration. These attractive properties offer great potential for the utilization of polysaccharide-based nanogels as drug delivery systems to overcome biological barriers. Hence, this review discusses the properties of various barriers and the associated constraints, followed by summarizing the most recent development of polysaccharide-based nanogels in drug delivery to overcome biological barriers. It is expected to provide inspiration and motivation for better design and development of polysaccharide-based drug delivery systems to enhance bioavailability and efficacy while minimizing side effects.

Design and development of pH-responsive alginate-based nanogel carriers for etoposide delivery

Recently, pH-responsive nanogels are playing progressively important roles in cancer treatment. The present study focuses on designing and developing pH-responsive alginate-based nanogels to achieve a controlled release of etoposide (Et) while enhancing its hydrophilicity. Alginate (ALG) is grafted with 2-hydroxypropyl methacrylamide (HPMA) through a microwave-supported method, and the chemical structure of the graft copolymer (ALG-g-PHPMA) was verified by 1H/13C NMR and FTIR techniques. The ALG-g-PHPMA and anticancer drug-loaded ALG-g-PHPMA@Et nanogels were obtained using an emulsion method, and their structures were characterized through FTIR, TG/DSC, AFM/TEM, BET, and DLS analyses. The ALG-g-PHPMA nanogels demonstrated a good drug encapsulation efficiency (79.60 %), displaying a pH-dependent release profile and an in vitro accelerated release of Et compared to the ALG nanogels. Thermal and BET analyses revealed enhanced stability, surface area, and porosity volume of the alginate nanogels. The grafting of PHPMA chains onto alginate altered the surface topology of the ALG nanogels, resulting in lower surface roughness. Furthermore, cytotoxicity tests showed the high biocompatibility of the ALG-g-PHPMA copolymer and its nanogels. The ALG-g-PHPMA@Et nanogels exhibited a higher anticancer effect on lung cancer (H1299) cells than free etoposide. These results suggest that the ALG-g-PHPMA nanogels can be applied as a pH-dependent nanoplatform for delivering anticancer drugs.

Peptide Amphiphilic Supramolecular Nanogels: Competent Host for Notably Efficient Lipase-Catalyzed Hydrolysis of Water-Insoluble Substrates

The present work depicts the development of stable nanogels in an aqueous medium that were exploited for efficient surface-active lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis of water-insoluble substrates. Surfactant-coated gel nanoparticles (neutral NG1, anionic NG2, and cationic NG3) were prepared from peptide amphiphilic hydrogelator (G1, G2, and G3, respectively) at different hydrophilic and lipophilic balance (HLB). Chromobacterium viscosum (CV) lipase activity towards hydrolysis of water-insoluble substrates (p-nitrophyenyl-n-alkanoates (C4-C10)) in the presence of nanogels got remarkably improved by ~1.7-8.0 fold in comparison to that in aqueous buffer and other self-aggregates. An increase in hydrophobicity of the substrate led to a notable improvement in lipase activity in the hydrophilic domain (HLB>8.0) of nanogels. The micro-heterogeneous interface of small-sized (10-65 nm) nanogel was found to be an appropriate scaffold for immobilizing surface-active lipase to exhibit superior catalytic efficiency. Concurrently, the flexible conformation of lipase immobilized in nanogels was reflected in its secondary structure having the highest α-helix content from the circular dichroism spectra.

Exploring novel strategies to improve anti-tumour efficiency: The potential for targeting reactive oxygen species

The cellular milieu in which malignant growths or cancer stem cells reside is known as the tumour microenvironment (TME). It is the consequence of the interactivity amongst malignant and non-malignant cells and directly affects cancer development and progression. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are chemically reactive molecules that contain oxygen, they are generated because of numerous endogenous and external factors. Endogenous ROS produced from mitochondria is known to significantly increase intracellular oxidative stress. In addition to playing a key role in several biological processes both in healthy and malignant cells, ROS function as secondary messengers in cell signalling. At low to moderate concentrations, ROS serves as signalling transducers to promote cancer cell motility, invasion, angiogenesis, and treatment resistance. At high concentrations, ROS can induce oxidative stress, leading to DNA damage, lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation. These effects can result in cell death or trigger signalling pathways that lead to apoptosis. The creation of innovative therapies and cancer management techniques has been aided by a thorough understanding of the TME. At present, surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, occasionally in combination, are the most often used methods for tumour treatment. The current challenge that these therapies face is the lack of spatiotemporal application specifically at the lesion which results in toxic effects on healthy cells associated with off-target drug delivery and undesirably high doses. Nanotechnology can be used to specifically deliver various chemicals via nanocarriers to target tumour cells, thereby increasing the accumulation of ROS-inducing agents at the site of the tumour. Nanoparticles can be engineered to release ROS-inducing agents in a controlled manner to the TME that will in turn react with the ROS to either increase or decrease it, thereby improving antitumour efficiency. Nano-delivery systems such as liposomes, nanocapsules, solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers were explored for the up/down-regulation of ROS. This review will discuss the use of nanotechnology in targeting and altering the ROS in the TME.

Nanoparticle-Based Treatment in Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GB) is a malignant glioma associated with a mean overall survival of 12 to 18 months, even with optimal treatment, due to its high relapse rate and treatment resistance. The standardized first-line treatment consists of surgery, which allows for diagnosis and cytoreduction, followed by stereotactic fractionated radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Treatment failure can result from the poor passage of drugs through the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The development of novel and more effective therapeutic approaches is paramount to increasing the life expectancy of GB patients. Nanoparticle-based treatments include epitopes that are designed to interact with specialized transport systems, ultimately allowing the crossing of the BBB, increasing therapeutic efficacy, and reducing systemic toxicity and drug degradation. Polymeric nanoparticles have shown promising results in terms of precisely directing drugs to the brain with minimal systemic side effects. Various methods of drug delivery that pass through the BBB, such as the stereotactic injection of nanoparticles, are being actively tested in vitro and in vivo in animal models. A significant variety of pre-clinical studies with polymeric nanoparticles for the treatment of GB are being conducted, with only a few nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems to date having entered clinical trials. Pre-clinical studies are key to testing the safety and efficacy of these novel anticancer therapies and will hopefully facilitate the testing of the clinical validity of this promising treatment method. Here we review the recent literature concerning the most frequently reported types of nanoparticles for the treatment of GB.