Development of biotin molecule targeted cancer cell drug delivery of doxorubicin loaded κ-carrageenan grafted graphene oxide nanocarrier

An update on nanoformulations with FDA approved drugs for female reproductive cancer

Female reproductive cancers, including ovarian, cervical, breast, gestational trophoblastic and endometrial cancer, present significant challenges in therapy and patient prognosis. Conventional chemotherapy often lacks selectivity, leading to systemic toxicity and reduced treatment efficacy. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach to improve drug delivery and therapeutic outcomes. Encapsulation of FDA-approved drugs within nanocarriers such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and lipid nanoparticles enables controlled drug release, reduces off-target effects, and enhances drug accumulation at tumor sites. This targeted delivery minimizes damage to healthy tissues and improves patient survival rates. Additionally, nanoformulations facilitate combination therapy, overcoming drug resistance and maximizing therapeutic efficacy. Despite promising results, challenges like scalability, reproducibility, and regulatory approvals hinder widespread clinical applications. Developing personalized nanoformulations tailored to individual patient profiles offers potential for precision cancer therapy. This study explores the role of nanoformulations in enhancing the therapeutic potential of FDA-approved drugs for treating female reproductive cancers.

Biotinylated platinum(IV)-conjugated graphene oxide nanoparticles for targeted chemo-photothermal combination therapy in breast cancer

Graphene oxide (GO) and GO-based nanocomposites are promising in drug delivery and photothermal therapy due to their exceptional near-infrared optical absorption and high specific surface area. In this study, we have effectively conjugated an oxaliplatin (IV) prodrug, PEGylated graphene oxide, and PEGylated biotin (PB) in a single platform for breast cancer treatment. This platform demonstrates promising prospects for targeted drug delivery and the synergistic application of photothermal-chemotherapy when exposed to NIR-laser irradiation. The resulting nanocomposite (GO(OX)PB (1/1/0.2) NPs) displayed an exceptionally large surface area, minimal particle size (195.7 nm), specific targeting capabilities, a high drug load capacity (43.56 %) and entrapment efficiency (89.48 %) and exhibit excellent photothermal conversion efficiency and photostability when exposed to NIR-laser irradiation (808 nm). The therapeutic effectiveness was assessed both in vitro and in vivo conditions employing human breast cancer cells (MCF-7), mouse mammary gland adenocarcinoma cells (4T1), and 4T1-Luc tumor-bearing mouse models. The findings demonstrated that GO(OX)PB (1/1/0.2) NPs (+L) were highly effective in causing significant cytotoxicity, G2/M phase cell cycle arrest, ROS generation, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, apoptosis, and photothermal effect. This resulted in a greater percentage of cell death compared to free OX, GO(OX)PEG (1/1/0.2) NPs (±L), and GO(OX)PB (1/1/0.2) NPs (-L). The in vivo therapeutic studies on 4T1-Luc tumor-bearing mice revealed that a combination of GO(OX)PB (1/1/0.2) NPs (+L) caused complete disappearance of the tumor, no tumor recurrence, prolonged survival, reduced lung metastasis, and mitigated nephrotoxicity. The serum and blood analysis demonstrated minimal systemic toxicity of GO(OX)PB (1/1/0.2) NPs. The developed nanoplatform, in this context, may serve as a potential nanomedicine to address conventional nephrotoxicity in breast cancer and prevent metastasis by combining chemo-photothermal therapy.

Nanoscale strategies: doxorubicin resistance challenges and enhancing cancer therapy with advanced nanotechnological approaches

Doxorubicin (DOX), an anthracycline, is widely used in cancer treatment by interfering RNA and DNA synthesis. Its broad antitumour spectrum makes it an effective therapy for a wide array of cancers. However, the prevailing drug-resistant cancer has proven to be a significant drawback to the success of the conventional chemotherapy regime and DOX has been identified as a major hurdle. Furthermore, the clinical application of DOX has been limited by rapid breakdown, increased toxicity, and decreased half-time life, highlighting an urgent need for more innovative delivery methods. Although advancements have been made, achieving a complete cure for cancer remains elusive. The development of nanoparticles offers a promising avenue for the precise delivery of DOX into the tumour microenvironment, aiming to increase the drug concentration at the target site while reducing side effects. Despite the good aspects of this technology, the classical nanoparticles struggle with issues such as premature drug leakage, low bioavailability, and insufficient penetration into tumours due to an inadequate enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Recent advancements have focused on creating stimuli-responsive nanoparticles and employing various chemosensitisers, including natural compounds and nucleic acids, fortifying the efficacy of DOX against resistant cancers. The efforts to refine nanoparticle targeting precision to improve DOX delivery are reviewed. This includes using receptor-mediated endocytosis systems to maximise the internalisation of drugs. The potential benefits and drawbacks of these novel techniques constitute significant areas of ongoing study, pointing to a promising path forward in addressing the challenges posed by drug-resistant cancers.

Sustainable and biocompatible hybrid materials-based sulfated polysaccharides for biomedical applications: a review

Sustainable biomaterials that are both efficient and environmentally friendly are the subject of research and development efforts among scientists and academics from a variety of contemporary scientific disciplines. Due to their significant involvement in several physiological and pathological processes, sulfated polysaccharides (SPs) have garnered growing interest across various application domains, including biomedicine. Nevertheless, mechanical and thermal stability are issues for unmodified polysaccharide materials. Interactions between polymers, such as the mixing of biopolymers with synthetic or biopolymers through chemical interaction or grafting into the main chain structure of raw materials to enhance their therapeutic effects, are essential to meet the high standards of biomedical features. Another way to improve the mechanical and thermal properties is to graft appropriate fillers onto the polysaccharide backbone. The characteristics of polysaccharide bio-nanocomposites in comparison to more traditional polymers have attracted a lot of interest. With an emphasis on anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiviral, immunoregulatory, and anticoagulant properties, this review delves into the most recent biological uses of sulfated polysaccharides. As well as thoroughly outlining the factors that impact the biological properties, such as the extraction process, molecular weight (Mw), the degree of sulfation, distribution/position, modification procedures, and the filler size, etc., this review aims to: (1) provide a systematic and critical overview of the cutting-edge research on SPs and hybrid sulfated polysaccharide bio-nanocomposites; (2) identify the key factors, mechanisms, methods, and challenges impacting SPs bio-nanocomposites; (3) elucidate the current and potential biomedical applications, advantages, manufacturing challenges, and opportunities associated with SPs bio-nanocomposites; (4) offer insights into future research directions by suggesting improvements for bio-nanocomposites, including novel materials, and advanced processing techniques.

Preparation and Evaluation of pH-Sensitive Chitosan/Alginate Nanohybrid Mucoadhesive Hydrogel Beads: An Effective Approach to a Gastro-Retentive Drug Delivery System

BACKGROUND

Despite extensive research over the decades, cancer therapy is still a great challenge because of the non-specific delivery of chemotherapeutic agents, which could be overcome by limiting the distribution of chemotherapeutic agents toward cancer cells.

OBJECTIVE

To reduce the cytolytic effects against cancer cells, graphene oxide (GO) nanoparticles (NPs) can load anticancer medicines and genetic tools.

METHODOLOGY

During the current study, folic-acid-conjugated graphene oxide (Fa-GO) hybrid mucoadhesive chitosan (CS)-based hydrogel beads were fabricated through an "ion-gelation process", which allows for regulated medication release at malignant pH.

RESULTS

The fabricated chitosan-alginate (SA-CS) hydrogel beads were examined using surface morphology, optical microscopy, XRD, FTIR, and homogeneity analysis techniques. The size analysis indicated that the size of the Fa-GO was up to 554.2 ± 95.14 nm, whereas the beads were of a micrometer size. The folic acid conjugation was confirmed by NMR. The results showed that the craggy edges of the graphene oxide were successfully encapsulated in a polymeric matrix. The mucoadhesive properties were enhanced with the increase in the CS concentration. The nanohybrid SA-CS beads exhibited good swelling properties, and the drug release was 68.29% at pH 5.6 during a 24 h investigation. The accelerated stability study, according to ICH guidelines, indicated that the hydrogel beads have a shelf-life of more than two years.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the achieved results, it can be concluded that this novel gastro-retentive delivery system may be a viable and different way to improve the stomach retention of anticancer agents and enhance their therapeutic effectiveness.

Graphene-Based Wound Dressings for Wound Healing: Mechanism, Technical Analysis, and Application Status

The development of novel wound dressings is critical in medical care. Graphene and its derivatives possess excellent biomedical properties, making them highly suitable for various applications in medical dressings. This review provides a comprehensive technical analysis and the current application status of graphene-based medical dressings. Initially, we discuss the chemical structure and the fabrication method of graphene and its derivatives. We then provide a detailed summary of the mechanisms by which graphene materials promote wound repair across the four stages of wound healing. Subsequently, we categorize the types of graphene-based wound dressings and analyze corresponding characteristics. Finally, we analyze the challenges encountered at present and propose solutions regarding future development trends. This paper aims to serve as a reference for further research in skin tissue engineering and the development of innovative graphene-based medical dressings.

Polymeric Nanostructures Revolutionizing Cervical Cancer: Diagnostics, Therapeutics, and Theranostics

Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer among women. Despite recent advancements in diagnostics and therapeutics, this disease is still a formidable challenge to deal with. Conventional methods for detecting human papillomavirus infection and imaging the tissues face major hurdles due to a lack of signal specificity and obscured resolution respectively. Moreover, chemotherapeutics struggle against the development of multidrug resistance and rapid clearance. With their easily tunable properties, polymeric nanostructures present a promising avenue for rapid, specific, and efficient diagnostics and therapeutics. These nanostructures also serve as theranostic agents that integrate imaging modalities with therapeutic approaches concurrently. This review highlights various types of polymeric nanostructures that serve as biosensors for the detection and quantification of cervical cancer biomarkers and act as nanocarriers for transporting fluorophores, photosensitizers, drugs, and radiosensitizers to their target site of action.

Graphical Abstract

Pemetrexed-loaded supramolecular acetal-functionalized pH-responsive nanocarriers selectively induce apoptosis through biotin receptors to enhance antitumor efficacy

A novel pH-responsive crystalsomes has been developed using acetal-functionalized pillar[5]arenes (AP[5]) and methyl viologen (MV) through host-guest interactions. The successful synthesis of AP[5] was confirmed via 1H-NMR spectroscopy, while the formation of the host-guest complex between AP[5] and MV was also verified using ¹H-NMR. The supramolecular assemblies formed at a 1:1 molar ratio of AP[5] to MV exhibited remarkable colloidal stability, a negative surface charge, and a high association constant.An acetal-functionalized pillara[5]arenes (AP[5]) crystalsomes were fabricated to reduce the toxicity of pemetrexed (PMX) in off-target sites and deliver the therapeutic doses to the active sites. Extensive characterization of the crystalsomes was performed, revealing their morphology and crystalline structure through SEM and TEM imaging. WAXS analysis confirmed the crystalline nature of the assemblies, and SAED patterns indicated that the crystalsome shell consisted of lamellae resembling single crystals with polymer chains oriented parallel to the interface. To enhnace the targeting capabilities, the surface of the crystalsomes was modified with biotin by conjugating viologen with biotin (MV-BT), aiming to target biotin receptors overexpressed on tumor cells. These biotin -modified crystalsomes (PMX-BT@CLs) were designed to be acid-labile facilitating the release of encapsulated drugs upon cellular internalization, as confirmed by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). In vivo, studies demonstrated that the PMX-loaded crystalsomes remained in circulation for extended period, showing improved pharmacokinetics. The area under the curve (AUC) of PMX-BT@CLs was approxiately 3.9 times higher than that of the free drug. Additionally, the relative tumor volume was found to be about 3.5 times lower in the group treated with biotin-modified crystalsomes compared to those treated with free PMX. The mean survival time was also significantly enhanced in the PMX-BT@CLs group. This study underscores the potential of using host-guest motifs in drug delivery app;ications, demonstrating the PMX can effectively targted to tumor sites with minimal off-target toxicity.

Doxorubicin-loaded Polymeric Biotin-PEG-SeSe-PBLA Micelles with surface Binding of Biotin-Mediated Cancer Cell Targeting and Redox-Responsive Drug release for enhanced anticancer efficacy

Biotin receptors are overexpressed in various cancer cell types, essential in tumor development, metabolism, and metastasis. Chemotherapeutic agents may be more effective and have fewer adverse effects if they specifically target the biotin receptors on cancer cells. Polymeric micelles (PMs) with nanoscale size via the EPR effect to accumulate near tumor tissue. We utilized the solvent exchange technique to crate polymeric Biotin-PEG-SeSe-PBLA micelles. This underwent self-assembly to create uniformly dispersed PMs with a hydrodynamic diameter of 81.54 ± 0.23 nm. The resulting PMs characterized by 1HNMR, 13CNMR, FTIR, and Raman spectroscopy. PMs exhibited a high efficacy of Doxorubicin encapsulation (EE) and loading content (DLC), with values of 5.93 wt% and 74.32 %, respectively. DOX@Biotin-PEG-SeSe-PBLA micelles showed optimal DOX release, around 89 % and 74 % in 10 mM glutathione and 0.1 % H2O2, respectively, within 72 hours, in the simulated cancer redox pool. Fascinatingly, the blank Biotin-PEG-SeSe-PBLA micelles did not affect the HaCaT or HeLa cell lines; approximately 85 % of the cells were metabolically active. Contrarily, at a 5 μg/ml concentration, DOX@Biotin-PEG-SeSe-PBLA specifically inhibited the proliferation of roughly 76 % of HeLa cells and 11 % of HaCaT cells. The fluorescence microscopy results demonstrated that biotin-decorated micelles were more successfully internalized by HeLa cells, which overexpress the biotin receptor, than by non-targeted micelles in vitro. In summary, the diselenide-linked Biotin-PEGSeSe-PBLA formed smart PMs that could offer DOX specific to cancer cells with precision and are physiologically durable.

Injectable Carrageenan/Green Graphene Oxide Hydrogel: A Comprehensive Analysis of Mechanical, Rheological, and Biocompatibility Properties

In this work, physically crosslinked injectable hydrogels based on carrageenan, locust bean gum, and gelatin, and mechanically nano-reinforced with green graphene oxide (GO), were developed to address the challenge of finding materials with a good balance between injectability and mechanical properties. The effect of GO content on the rheological and mechanical properties, injectability, swelling behavior, and biocompatibility of the nanocomposite hydrogels was studied. The hydrogels' morphology, assessed by FE-SEM, showed a homogeneous porous architecture separated by thin walls for all the GO loadings investigated. The rheology measurements evidence that G' > G″ over the whole frequency range, indicating the dominant elastic nature of the hydrogels and the difference between G' over G″ depends on the GO content. The GO incorporation into the biopolymer network enhanced the mechanical properties (ca. 20%) without appreciable change in the injectability of the nanocomposite hydrogels, demonstrating the success of the approach described in this work. In addition, the injectable hydrogels with GO loadings ≤0.05% w/v exhibit negligible toxicity for 3T3-L1 fibroblasts. However, it is noted that loadings over 0.25% w/v may affect the cell proliferation rate. Therefore, the nano-reinforced injectable hybrid hydrogels reported here, developed with a fully sustainable approach, have a promising future as potential materials for use in tissue repair.

Exploring carrageenan: From seaweed to biomedicine-A comprehensive review

Biomaterials are pivotal in the realms of tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and drug delivery and serve as fundamental building blocks. Within this dynamic landscape, polymeric biomaterials emerge as the frontrunners, offering unparalleled versatility across physical, chemical, and biological domains. Natural polymers, in particular, captivate attention for their inherent bioactivity. Among these, carrageenan (CRG), extracted from red seaweeds, stands out as a naturally occurring polysaccharide with immense potential in various biomedical applications. CRG boasts a unique array of properties, encompassing antiviral, antibacterial, immunomodulatory, antihyperlipidemic, antioxidant, and antitumor attributes, positioning it as an attractive choice for cutting-edge research in drug delivery, wound healing, and tissue regeneration. This comprehensive review encapsulates the multifaceted properties of CRG, shedding light on the chemical modifications that it undergoes. Additionally, it spotlights pioneering research that harnesses the potential of CRG to craft scaffolds and drug delivery systems, offering high efficacy in the realms of tissue repair and disease intervention. In essence, this review celebrates the remarkable versatility of CRG and its transformative role in advancing biomedical solutions.

Application of graphene oxide in tumor targeting and tumor therapy

Graphene oxide (GO), as a kind of two-dimensional sp2 carbon nanomaterials, has attracted great attention in many fields in the past decade. Due to its unique physical and chemical properties, GO is showing great promise in the field of biomedicine. For GO, all the atoms on its surface are exposed to the surface with ultra-high specific surface area, and a variety of groups on the surface, such as carboxyl, hydroxyl and epoxy groups, can effectively bind/load various biomolecules. Due to the availability of these groups, GO also possesses excellent hydrophilicity and biocompatibility for the modification of the desired biocompatible molecules or polymers on the surface of GO. The nano-network structure and hydrophobicity of GO enable it to load a large number of hydrophobic drugs containing benzene rings and it has been widely used as a multi-functional nano-carrier for chemotherapeutic drug or gene delivery. This review article will give an in-depth overview of the synthesis methods of GO, the advantages and disadvantages of GO used in nano-drug delivery system, the research progress of GO as a stimulus-responsive nano-drug carrier, and the application of these intelligent systems in cancer treatment.

Biotin conjugates in targeted drug delivery: is it mediated by a biotin transporter, a yet to be identified receptor, or (an)other unknown mechanism(s)?

Conjugation of drugs with biotin is a widely studied strategy for targeted drug delivery. The structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies through H3-biotin competition experiments conclude with the presence of a free carboxylic acid being essential for its uptake via the sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT, the major biotin transporter). However, biotin conjugation with a payload requires modification of the carboxylic acid to an amide or ester group. Then, there is the question as to how/whether the uptake of biotin conjugates goes through the SMVT. If not, then what is the mechanism? Herein, we present known uptake mechanisms of biotin and its applications reported in the literature. We also critically analyse possible uptake mechanism(s) of biotin conjugates to address the disconnect between the results from SMVT-based SAR and "biotin-facilitated" targeted drug delivery. We believe understanding the uptake mechanism of biotin conjugates is critical for their future applications and further development.

Graphene oxide nanoarchitectures in cancer therapy: Drug and gene delivery, phototherapy, immunotherapy, and vaccine development

The latest advancements in oncology involves the creation of multifunctional nanostructures. The integration of nanoparticles into the realm of cancer therapy has brought about a transformative shift, revolutionizing the approach to addressing existing challenges and limitations in tumor elimination. This is particularly crucial in combating the emergence of resistance, which has significantly undermined the effectiveness of treatments like chemotherapy and radiotherapy. GO stands as a carbon-derived nanoparticle that is increasingly finding utility across diverse domains, notably in the realm of biomedicine. The utilization of GO nanostructures holds promise in the arena of oncology, enabling precise transportation of drugs and genetic material to targeted sites. GO nanomaterials offer the opportunity to enhance the pharmacokinetic behavior and bioavailability of drugs, with documented instances of these nanocarriers elevating drug accumulation at the tumor location. The GO nanostructures encapsulate genes, shielding them from degradation and facilitating their uptake within cancer cells, thereby promoting efficient gene silencing. The capability of GO to facilitate phototherapy has led to notable advancements in reducing tumor progression. By PDT and PTT combination, GO nanomaterials hold the capacity to diminish tumorigenesis. GO nanomaterials have the potential to trigger both cellular and innate immunity, making them promising contenders for vaccine development. Additionally, types of GO nanoparticles that respond to specific stimuli have been applied in cancer eradication, as well as for the purpose of cancer detection and biomarker diagnosis. Endocytosis serves as the mechanism through which GO nanomaterials are internalized. Given these advantages, the utilization of GO nanomaterials for tumor elimination comes highly recommended.

Marine biomaterials in biomedical nano/micro-systems

Marine resources in unique marine environments provide abundant, cost-effective natural biomaterials with distinct structures, compositions, and biological activities compared to terrestrial species. These marine-derived raw materials, including polysaccharides, natural protein components, fatty acids, and marine minerals, etc., have shown great potential in preparing, stabilizing, or modifying multifunctional nano-/micro-systems and are widely applied in drug delivery, theragnostic, tissue engineering, etc. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the most current marine biomaterial-based nano-/micro-systems developed over the past three years, primarily focusing on therapeutic delivery studies and highlighting their potential to cure a variety of diseases. Specifically, we first provided a detailed introduction to the physicochemical characteristics and biological activities of natural marine biocomponents in their raw state. Furthermore, the assembly processes, potential functionalities of each building block, and a thorough evaluation of the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of advanced marine biomaterial-based systems and their effects on molecular pathophysiological processes were fully elucidated. Finally, a list of unresolved issues and pivotal challenges of marine-derived biomaterials applications, such as standardized distinction of raw materials, long-term biosafety in vivo, the feasibility of scale-up, etc., was presented. This review is expected to serve as a roadmap for fundamental research and facilitate the rational design of marine biomaterials for diverse emerging applications.

Advanced theranostic nanoplatforms for hypericin delivery in the cancer treatment

Biomodified coated-lipid vesicles were obtained using the DPPC lipid (L) and F127 copolymer linked covalently with spermine (SN), biotin (BT), and folic acid (FA), resulting in LF127-SN, LF127-BT, and LF127-FA nanoplatforms. The photosensitizer hypericin (HY) was incorporated into the nanosystem by a thin-film method and characterized by dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, and transmission electronic microscopy. The results provided a good level of stability for all nanoplatforms for at least 5 days as an aqueous dispersion. The in vitro serum stability showed that the HY-loaded LF127-SN has a lower tendency to form complexes with BSA protein than with its analogs. LF127-SN was the most stable HY formulation, followed by LF127-BT and LF127-FA, confirmed by the association constant (Kd) values: 600 μmol L-1, 1100 μmol L-1, 515 μmol L-1, and 378 μmol L-1 for LF127, LF127 FA, LF127-BT, and LF127-SN, respectively. The photodynamic potential of HY was accessed by cytotoxicity assays using Caco-2, B16-F10, L-929, and HaCat cells. HY-loaded LF127-SN revealed a significant increase in the selectivity compared to other nanoplatforms. HY-loaded in LF127-BT and LF127-SN showed distinct uptake and biodistribution after 2 h of intravenous application. All biomodified coated-lipids showed satisfactory metabolism within 72 h after application, without significant accumulation or residue in any vital organ. These results suggest that incorporating HY-loaded in these nanosystems may be a promising strategy for future applications, even with a small amount of binders to the coating copolymer (0.02% w/v). Furthermore, these results indicate that the LF127-SN showed remarkable superiority compared to other evaluated systems, being the most distinct for future photodynamic therapy and theranostic applications.

A Sodium Alginate-Based Multifunctional Nanoplatform for Synergistic Chemo-Immunotherapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Efficient hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) treatment remains a significant challenge due to the inherent limitations of traditional strategies. The exploration of polysaccharides' natural immunity for HCC immunotherapy is rarely explored. For this purpose, facile construction of a multifunctional nanoplatform, biotinylated aldehyde alginate-doxorubicin nano micelle (BEACNDOXM) is reported in this study for synergistic chemo-immunotherapy by using constant β-D-mannuronic acid (M) units and modulated α-L-guluronic acid (G) units in the alginate (ALG) structure. The M units show natural immunity and specific binding ability with mannose receptors (MRs) via strong receptor-ligand interactions, and the G units serve as highly reactive conjugation sites for biotin (Bio) and DOX. Therefore, this formulation not only integrates the natural immunity of ALG and the immunogenic cell death (ICD) triggering function of DOX, but also shows dual targeting properties to HCC cells via MRs and Bio receptors (BRs)-mediated endocytosis. Notably, BEACNDOXM mediates a tumor inhibitory efficiency 12.10% and 4.70% higher than free DOX and single targeting aldehyde alginate-doxorubicin nano micelle controls, respectively, at an equivalent DOX dose of 3 mg kg-1 in Hepa1-6 tumor-bearing mice. This study reports the first example of integrating the natural immunity of ALG and the ICD effect of anticancer drugs for enhanced chemo-immunotherapy of HCC.

Interaction of Doxorubicin Embedded into Phospholipid Nanoparticles and Targeted Peptide-Modified Phospholipid Nanoparticles with DNA

The interactions of dsDNA with new targeted drug delivery derivatives of doxorubicin (DOX), such as DOX embedded into phospholipid nanoparticles (NPhs) and DOX with the NGR targeted peptide-modified NPhs were studied electrochemically by differential pulse voltammetry technique. Screen-printed electrodes (SPEs), modified with stable fine dispersions of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), were used for quantitative electrochemical investigations of direct electrochemical oxidation of guanine, adenine, and thymine heterocyclic bases of dsDNA, and their changes in the presence of DOX nanoderivatives. Analysing the shifts of peak potentials of nucleobases in the presence of drug, we have shown that the doxorubicin with NGR targeted peptide changed the mode of interaction in DNA-drug complexes from intercalative to electrostatic. Binding constants (K_b) of DNA-drug complexes were calculated in accordance with adenine, guanine, and thymine oxidation signals. Based on our experiments, we have proven that the surface modification of a drug delivery system with NGR targeted peptide dramatically changed the mechanism of interaction of drug with genetic material. DNA-mediated drug toxicity was calculated based on the concentration-dependent "response" of heterocyclic nucleobases on drug influence. DOX, DOX-loaded phospholipid nanoparticles (NPhs), and DOX with NGR addressed peptide-modified NPhs were moderately toxic in the concentration range of 0.5-290 µM.

Recent advances in cellulose, pectin, carrageenan and alginate-based oral drug delivery systems

Polymers-based drug delivery systems constitute one of the highly explored thrust areas in the field of the medicinal and pharmaceutical industries. In the past years, the properties of polymers have been modified in context to their solubility, release kinetics, targeted action site, absorption, and therapeutic efficacy. Despite the availability of diverse synthetic polymers for the bioavailability enhancement of drugs, the use of natural polymers is still highly recommended due to their easy availability, accessibility, and non-toxicity. The aim of the review is to provide the available literature of the last five years on oral drug delivery systems based on four natural polymers i.e., cellulose, pectin, carrageenan, and alginate in a concise and tabulated manner. In this review, most of the information is in tabulated form to provide easy accessibility to the reader. The data related to active pharmaceutical ingredients and supported components in different formulations of the mentioned polymers have been made available.

Biocompatible polysaccharide fabricated graphene oxide nanoparticles: A versatile nanodrug carrier to deliver κ- carrageenan against cancer cells

A graphene oxide mediated hybrid nano system for pH stimuli-responsive and in vitro drug delivery targeted for cancer was described in this study. Graphene oxide (GO) functionalized Chitosan (CS) mediated nanocarrier capped with xyloglucan (XG) was fabricated with and without Kappa carrageenan (κ-C) from red seaweed, Kappaphycus alverzii, as an active drug. FTIR, EDAX, XPS, XRD, SEM and HR-TEM studies were carried out for GO-CS-XG nanocarrier loaded with and without active drugs to understand the physicochemical properties. XPS (C1s, N1s and O1s) confirmed the fabrications of XG and functionalization of GO by CS via the binding energies at 284.2 eV, 399.4 eV and 531.3 eV, respectively. The amount of drug loaded in vitro was 0.422 mg/mL. The GO-CS-XG nanocarrier showed a cumulative drug release of 77 % at acidic pH 5.3. In contrast to physiological conditions, the release rate of κ-C from the GO-CS-XG nanocarrier was considerably higher in the acidic condition. Thus, a pH stimuli-responsive anticancer drug release was successfully achieved with the GO-CS-XG-κ-C nanocarrier system for the first time. The drug release mechanism was carried out using various kinetic models that showed a mixed release behavior depending on concentration and diffusion/swelling mechanism. The best-fitting model which supports our release mechanism are zero order, first order and Higuchi models. GO-CS-XG and κ-C loaded nanocarrier biocompatibility were determined by in vitro hemolysis and membrane stabilization studies. MCF-7 and U937 cancer cell lines were used to study the cytotoxicity of the nanocarrier by MTT assay, which indicates excellent cytocompatibility. These findings support the versatile use of a green renewable biocompatible GO-CS-XG nanocarrier as targeted drug delivery and potential anticancer agent for therapeutic purposes.

Graphene family in cancer therapy: recent progress in cancer gene/drug delivery applications

In the past few years, the development in the construction and architecture of graphene based nanocomplexes has dramatically accelerated the use of nano-graphene for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes, fostering a new area of nano-cancer therapy. To be specific, nano-graphene is increasingly used in cancer therapy, where diagnosis and treatment are coupled to deal with the clinical difficulties and challenges of this lethal disease. As a distinct family of nanomaterials, graphene derivatives exhibit outstanding structural, mechanical, electrical, optical, and thermal capabilities. Concurrently, they can transport a wide variety of synthetic agents, including medicines and biomolecules, such as nucleic acid sequences (DNA and RNA). Herewith, we first provide an overview of the most effective functionalizing agents for graphene derivatives and afterward discuss the significant improvements in the gene and drug delivery composites based on graphene.

Recent advances in exploiting carrageenans as a versatile functional material for promising biomedical applications

Carrageenans are a group of biopolymers widely found in red seaweeds. Commercial carrageenans have been traditionally used as emulsifiers, stabilizers, and thickening and gelling agents in food products. Carrageenans are regarded as bioactive polysaccharides with disease-modifying and microbiota-modulating activities. Novel biomedical applications of carrageenans as biocompatible functional materials for fabricating hydrogels and nanostructures, including carbon dots, nanoparticles, and nanofibers, have been increasingly exploited. In this review, we describe the unique structural characteristics of carrageenans and their functional relevance. We summarize salient physicochemical features, including thixotropic and shear-thinning properties, of carrageenans. Recent results from clinical trials in which carrageenans were applied as both antiviral and antitumor agents and functional materials are discussed. We also highlight the most recent advances in the development of carrageenan-based targeted drug delivery systems with various pharmaceutical formulations. Promising applications of carrageenans as a bioink material for 3D printing in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine are systematically evaluated. We envisage some key hurdles and challenges in the commercialization of carrageenans as a versatile material for clinical practice. This comprehensive review of the intimate relationships among the structural features, unique rheological properties, and biofunctionality of carrageenans will provide novel insights into their biomedicine application potential.

Injectable hybrid hydrogels physically crosslinked based on carrageenan and green graphene for tissue repair

Injectable and biocompatible novel hybrid hydrogels based on physically crosslinked natural biopolymers and green graphene for potential use in tissue engineering are reported. Kappa and iota carrageenan, locust bean gum and gelatin are used as biopolymeric matrix. The effect of green graphene content on the swelling behavior, mechanical properties and biocompatibility of the hybrid hydrogels is investigated. The hybrid hydrogels present a porous network with three-dimensionally interconnected microstructures, with lower pore size than that of the hydrogel without graphene. The addition of graphene into the biopolymeric network improves the stability and the mechanical properties of the hydrogels in phosphate buffer saline solution at 37 °C without noticeable change in the injectability. The mechanical properties of the hybrid hydrogels were enhanced by varying the dosage of graphene between 0.025 and 0.075 w/v%. In this range, the hybrid hydrogels preserve their integrity during mechanical test and recover the initial shape after removing the applied stress. Meanwhile, hybrid hydrogels with graphene content of up to 0.05 w/v% exhibit good biocompatibility for 3T3-L1 fibroblasts; the cells proliferate inside the gel structure and show higher spreading after 48 h. These injectable hybrid hydrogels with graphene have promising future as materials for tissue repair.

68Ga radiolabeled chitosan/curcumin/biotin nanocomposite as a drug carrier and early-stage cancer detection

Nano chitosan was extracted from shrimp wastes. Biotin, as a tumor-targeting agent, and curcumin, as potential carriers of ⁶⁸Ga, were immobilized on the nano chitosan, and a novel bio-nanocomposite was designed. It was characterized by FT-IR, SEM, TEM, XRD, TGA, and elemental analysis. It seems that the chitosan has a fibril shape with an average size of 70 nm, and the biotin and curcumin are evenly distributed as obtained SEM images. While, the size of Chit/Cur@Biot bio-nanocomposite was between 10 and 20 nm according to the TEM images. Cell cytotoxicity assay, cellular uptake, and fluorescence spectroscopy on A549 lung cancer cells were performed to show the potential applications of this bio-nanocomposite. The obtained results were demonstrated that Chit/Cur and Chit/Cur@Biot bio-nanocomposite exhibit antitumor activity, while, the Chit/Cur@Biot bio-nanocomposite is more effective than Chit/Cur against cancer cell lines at high concentrations. The results of fluoresce microscopy show that fluoresce of Chit/Cur@Biot was much stronger than Chit/Cur in the A549 cell lines. Moreover, the cellular uptake of Chit/Cur@Biot was enhanced when compared with the control group. The potentials of this bio-nanocomposite as anticancer and cancer-detecting agent in nuclear medicine were confirmed.

Synergistic effect of polymer functionalized graphene oxide system for breast cancer treatment

The multifaceted drug carrier system is an emerging trend in delivering chemotherapeutic drugs and photosensitizers for the synergistic effect. In this work, we have designed a functionalized graphene oxide (GO) based carrier system for combined chemo-photodynamic therapeutic effects. Doxorubicin (DOX) and rose bengal (RB) were entrapped on the surface of GO via hydrophobic and π-π stacking interactions. The functional group determination, crystalline properties, surface morphology, and hydrodynamic size were evaluated using FT-IR, XRD, SEM, TEM, AFM, and DLS analysis. At 24 h, the entrapment efficiency was 65 % DOX and 40.92 % RB, and the loading capacities were 16.9 % DOX and 5.68 % RB observed at 30 min. The drug release percentage was higher in pH-2.6 rather than in pH-5.5, 6.8, and 7.4 pH environments. The in-vitro toxicity analysis using the LDH assay reveals that the DOX and RB co-loaded carriers had a significant cytotoxic effect on MCF-7 cells, indicating that the carrier could improve the therapeutic efficacy of DOX. Morphological changes were studied using inverted light microscopy; the cells were irradiated with a laser 525 nm 10 J/cm² for 2 min 51 sec, and it was observed that the DOX and RB co-loaded carrier with laser-irradiated cells exposed the high-level morphological changes with the occurrence of apoptotic cell death. Compared to free DOX, the DOX/RB co-loaded carrier + laser had an efficient anticancer activity, as confirmed by DAPI staining cell uptake, flow cytometry, and intracellular ROS generation analysis. The DOX and RB co-loaded carrier clearly exhibits the RB-mediated photodynamic action on MCF-7 cells in response to external laser light irradiation. It permits an on-demand dual-payload release to trigger an instantaneous photodynamic and chemo treatment for cancer cell eradication. Finally, the ensuing dual-agent release is probable to successfully fight cancer via a synergistic effect.

Multifunctional Nanoparticles as High-Efficient Targeted Hypericin System for Theranostic Melanoma

Biotin, spermine, and folic acid were covalently linked to the F127 copolymer to obtain a new drug delivery system designed for HY-loaded PDT treatment against B₁₆F₁₀ cells. Chemical structures and binders quantification were performed by spectroscopy and spectrophotometric techniques (¹NMR, HABA/Avidin reagent, fluorescamine assay). Critical micelle concentration, critical micelle temperature, size, polydispersity, and zeta potential indicate the hydrophobicity of the binders can influence the physicochemical parameters. Spermine-modified micelles showed fewer changes in their physical and chemical parameters than the F127 micelles without modification. Furthermore, zeta potential measurements suggest an increase in the physical stability of these carrier systems. The phototherapeutic potential was demonstrated using hypericin-loaded formulation against B₁₆F₁₀ cells, which shows that the combination of the binders on F127 copolymer micelles enhances the photosensitizer uptake and potentializes the photodynamic activity.

Prospects of microbial-engineering for the production of graphene and its derivatives: Application to design nanosystms for cancer theranostics

Cancer is known as one of the leading causes of morbidity and fatality, currently faced by our society. The prevalence of cancer related dieses is rapidly increasing around the world. To reduce the mortality rates, early diagnosis and subsequent treatment of cancer in timely manner is quite essential. Advancements have been made to achieve effective theranostics strategies to tackle cancerous dieses, yet very challenging to overcome this issue. Recently, advances made in the field of nanotechnology have shown tremendous potential for cancer theranostics. Different types of nanomaterials have been successfully employed to develop sophisticated diagnosis and therapy techniques. In this context, graphene and its derivatives e.g. graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (RGO) have been investigated as promising candidates to design graphene-based nanosystems for the diagnosis and therapeutic purpose. Further, to synthesize graphene and its derivatives different types of physicochemical methods are being adopted. However, each method has its own advantage and disadvantages. In this reference, among diverse biological methods, microbial technique can be one of the most promising and eco-friendly approach for the preparation of graphene and its derivatives, particularly GO and RGO. In this review, we summarize studies performed on the preparation of graphene and its derivatives following microbial routes meanwhile focus has been made on the preparation method and the possible mechanism involved therein. Thereafter, we have discussed applications of graphene and its derivatives to developed advanced nanosystem that can be imperative for the cancer theranostics. Results of recent studies exploring applications graphene based nanosystem for the preparation of different types of biosensors for early diagnosis; advanced therapeutic approaches by designing drug delivery nanosystems along with multifunctionality (e.g cancer imaging, drug delivery, photodynamic and photo thermal therapy) in cancer theranostics have been discussed. Particularly, emphasis has been given on the preparation techniques of graphene based nanosystems, being employed in designing of biosensing platforms, drug delivery and multifunctional nanosystems. Moreover, issues have been discussed on the preparation of graphene and its derivatives following microbial technique and the implementation of graphene based nanosystems in cancer theranostics.

Anti-cancer activity of sustained release capsaicin formulations

Capsaicin (trans-8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-noneamide) is a hydrophobic, lipophilic vanilloid phytochemical abundantly found in chili peppers and pepper extracts. Several convergent studies show that capsaicin displays robust cancer activity, suppressing the growth, angiogenesis and metastasis of several human cancers. Despite its potent cancer-suppressing activity, the clinical applications of capsaicin as a viable anti-cancer drug have remained problematic due to its poor bioavailability and aqueous solubility properties. In addition, the administration of capsaicin is associated with adverse side effects like gastrointestinal cramps, stomach pain, nausea and diarrhea and vomiting. All these hurdles may be circumvented by encapsulation of capsaicin in sustained release drug delivery systems. Most of the capsaicin-based the sustained release drugs have been tested for their pain-relieving activity. Only a few of these formulations have been investigated as anti-cancer agents. The present review describes the physicochemical properties, bioavailability, and anti-cancer activity of capsaicin-sustained release agents. The asset of such continuous release capsaicin formulations is that they display better solubility, stability, bioavailability, and growth-suppressive activity than the free drug. The encapsulation of capsaicin in sustained release carriers minimizes the adverse side effects of capsaicin. In summary, these capsaicin-based sustained release drug delivery systems have the potential to function as novel chemotherapies, unique diagnostic imaging probes and innovative chemosensitization agents in human cancers.

Marine Bioactive Compounds Derived from Macroalgae as New Potential Players in Drug Delivery Systems: A Review

The marine algal ecosystem is characterized by a rich ecological biodiversity and can be considered as an unexploited resource for the discovery and isolation of novel bioactive compounds. In recent years, marine macroalgae have begun to be explored for their valuable composition in bioactive compounds and opportunity to obtain different nutraceuticals. In comparison with their terrestrial counterparts, Black Sea macroalgae are potentially good sources of bioactive compounds with specific and unique biological activities, insufficiently used. Macroalgae present in different marine environments contain several biologically active metabolites, including polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, polyunsaturated fatty acids, sterols, proteins polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamins, and minerals. As a result, they have received huge interest given their promising potentialities in supporting antitumoral, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antiangiogenic, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective properties. An additional advantage of ulvans, fucoidans and carrageenans is the biocompatibility and limited or no toxicity. This therapeutic potential is a great natural treasure to be exploited for the development of novel drug delivery systems in both preventive and therapeutic approaches. This overview aims to provide an insight into current knowledge focused on specific bioactive compounds, which represent each class of macroalgae e.g., ulvans, fucoidans and carrageenans, respectively, as valuable potential players in the development of innovative drug delivery systems.

Multifunctional graphene oxide nanoparticles for drug delivery in cancer

Recent advancements in nanotechnology have enabled us to develop sophisticated multifunctional nanoparticles or nanosystems for targeted diagnosis and treatment of several illnesses, including cancers. To effectively treat any solid tumor, the therapy should preferably target just the malignant cells/tissue with minor damage to normal cells/tissues. Graphene oxide (GO) nanoparticles have gained considerable interest owing to their two-dimensional planar structure, chemical/mechanical stability, excellent photosensitivity, superb conductivity, high surface area, and good biocompatibility in cancer therapy. Many compounds have been functionalized on the surface of GO to increase their biological applications and minimize cytotoxicity. The review presents an overview of the physicochemical characteristics, strategies for various modifications, toxicity and biocompatibility of graphene and graphene oxide, current trends in developing GO-based nano constructs as a drug delivery cargo and other biological applications, including chemo-photothermal therapy, chemo-photodynamic therapy, bioimaging, and theragnosis in cancer. Further, the review discusses the challenges and opportunities of GO, GO-based nanomaterials for the said applications. Overall, the review focuses on the therapeutic potential of strategically developed GO nanomedicines and comprehensively discusses their opportunities and challenges in cancer therapy.

Biotin receptor-targeting nanogels loaded with methotrexate for enhanced antitumor efficacy in triple-negative breast cancer in vitro and in vivo models

High-dose methotrexate (MTX) chemotherapeutic applications confront drug specificity and pharmacokinetic challenges, which can be overcome by utilizing targeted drug delivery systems. In the present study, biotin-PEG conjugated nanogels of carboxymethyl polyethyleneimine (Biotin-PEG-CMPEI) were developed for active targeted delivery of MTX in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). TEM and DLS analyses revealed uniform, discrete, and spherical particles with a mean hydrodynamic diameter of about 100 nm and ζ-potential of + 15 mV (pH = 7.4). Biotin-PEG-CMPEI nanogels exhibited a zero-order MTX release kinetics at pH = 7.5 and a swelling-controlled release at pH = 5.5. In 4 T1 cells treated with the MTX-loaded Biotin-PEG-CMPEI, the IC₅₀ was reduced by about 10 folds compared to the free drug, while the unloaded nanogels showed no significant toxicity. In the model mice, the group treated with the MTX-loaded Biotin-PEG-CMPEI had a lower tumor volume and mortality rate animal model when compared to free drug. Additionally, histopathological analyses showed that the group treated with the MTX-loaded nanogels had less lung metastasis and glomerular damage caused by MTX. Overall, the MTX-loaded Biotin-PEG-CMPEI targeted directly against overexpressed biotin receptors in TNBC have been shown to improve the MTX safety and therapeutic efficacy.

Antibacterial amorphous magnesium phosphate/graphene oxide for accelerating bone regeneration

Magnesium phosphates (MgP)s have attracted interest as an alternative biomaterial compared to the calcium phosphate (CaP)s compounds in the bone regeneration application in terms of their prominent biodegradability, lack of cytotoxicity, and ability of bone repair stimulation. Among them, amorphous magnesium phosphates (AMP)s indicated a higher rate of resorption, while preserving high osteoblasts viability and proliferation, which is comparable to their CaP peers. However, fast degradation of AMP leads to the initial fast release of Mg²⁺ ions and adverse effects on its excellent biological features. It seems that the addition of graphene oxide (GO) to magnesium phosphate can moderate its degradation rate. Hence, a novel in situ synthesized AMP powders containing 0.05, 0.25, 0.5, and 1 wt% of graphene oxide (AMP/GO) were developed to achieve a favorable degradation rate, desirable antibacterial properties against both Escherichia coli (E. coli), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) accompanying with proper cell viability and proliferation. The incorporation of 0.5 wt% of graphene oxide into the AMP ceramic led to reduce the release of Mg²⁺ ions from 571.2 ± 12.9 mg/L to 372.8 ± 14.7 mg/L and P ions from 354.8 ± 11.9 mg/L to 245.3 ± 9.9 mg/L, at day 10 of immersion in PBS. Besides, AMP/0.5 GO bioceramics were capable of eradicating all bacterial colonies of both strains. On the other hand, MG63 cells viability went up from 143.46% ± 7.54 to 184.46% ± 11.54 on the 7th day of culture in the presence of 0.5 wt% of GO compared to pure AMP ceramic. Furthermore, alizarin red staining and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity demonstrated the ability of AMP/GO to maintain the osteogenic phenotype of MG63 cells during 7 days culture. Therefore, it can be concluded that well distributed and in situ synthesized AMP/0.5GO powders can be a promising biomaterial for bone tissue regeneration.

Nanoscale bioconjugates: A review of the structural attributes of drug-loaded nanocarrier conjugates for selective cancer therapy

Nanobioconjugates are nanoscale drug delivery vehicles that have been conjugated to or decorated with biologically active targeting ligands. These targeting ligands can be antibodies, peptides, aptamers, or small molecules such as vitamins or hormones. Most research studies in this field have been devoted to targeting cancer. Moreover, the nanostructures can be designed with an additional level of targeting by being designed to be stimulus-responsive or "smart" by a judicious choice of materials to be incorporated into the hybrid nanostructures. This stimulus could be an acidic pH, raised temperature, enzyme, ultrasound, redox potential, an externally applied magnetic field, or laser irradiation. In this case, the smart capability can increase the accumulation at the tumor site or the on-demand drug release, while the ligand ensures selective binding to the tumor cells. The present review highlights some interesting studies classified according to the nanostructure material. These materials include natural substances (polysaccharides), multi-walled carbon nanotubes (and halloysite nanotubes), metal-organic frameworks and covalent-organic frameworks, metal nanoparticles (gold and silver), and polymeric micelles.

PVA/κ-carrageenan/Au/camptothecin/pegylated-polyurethane/paclitaxel nanofibers against lung cancer treatment

Gold nanoparticles, paclitaxel (PTX), and camptothecin (CMPT) were loaded into the PVA/κ-carrageenan/pegylated-PU composite and core–shell nanofibers prepared by two-nozzle and coaxial electrospinning methods. The capability of composite and core–shell nanofibers was investigated for the targeted delivery of anticancer drugs in lung cancer treatment. In vitro and in vivo release of PTX and CMPT were investigated to find the release mechanism from nanofibers compared to direct administration of pristine PTX and CMPT. The mean fiber diameter for composite and core–shell nanofibers with shell feeding rates of 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7 mL h⁻¹ was about 225, 330, 520, and 640 nm, respectively. In vivo release studies indicated that the blood concentration of CMPT and PTX for rats fed with core–shell nanofibers reached the highest values of 26.8 ± 0.04 μg mL⁻¹, and 26.5 ± 0.05 μg mL⁻¹ in 36 h, and 24 h and reduced slowly within 84 h, and 48 h, respectively. The maximum cytotoxicity was 75% in the presence PVA/κ-carrageenan/CMPT/Au/pegylated-PU/PTX core–shell nanofibers. In vivo antitumor activity results confirmed the synergic effect of Au, CMPT and PTX anticancer drugs on the reduction of tumor volume without change in mouse weight by the PVA/κ-carrageenan/CMPT/Au/pegylated PU/PTX core–shell nanofibers. The obtained results indicated that the simultaneous loading of CMPT and PTX anticancer drugs and Au nanoparticles is more beneficial for lung cancer treatment.

Core–shell nanofibers and in vivo release from core–shell nanofibers against lung cancer.

Drug delivery systems for cancer treatment: a review of marine-derived polysaccharides

Abstract:

Cancer is a disease characterized by uncontrolled cell proliferation and the spread of cells to other tissues and remains one of the worldwide problems waiting to be solved. There are various treatment strategies for cancer, such as chemotherapy, surgery, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy, although it varies according to its type and stage. Many chemotherapeutic agents have limited clinical use due to lack of efficacy, off-target toxicity, metabolic instability, or poor pharmacokinetics. One possible solution to this high rate of clinical failure is to design drug delivery systems that deliver drugs in a controlled and specific manner and are not toxic to normal cells. Marine systems contain biodiversity, including components and materials that can be used in biomedical applications and therapy. Biomaterials such as chitin, chitosan, alginate, carrageenan, fucoidan, hyaluronan, agarose, and ulvan obtained from marine organisms have found use in DDSs today. These polysaccharides are biocompatible, non-toxic, biodegradable, and cost-effective, making them ideal raw materials for increasingly complex DDSs with a potentially regulated release. In this review, the contributions of polysaccharides from the marine environment to the development of anticancer drugs in DDSs will be discussed.

Biotinylated magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles for cancer cell targeting and controlled drug delivery

Here, multivalent functions have been successfully integrated on a single core-shell type nanostructure, for remote-controlled and receptor-targeted intracellular delivery of doxorubicin (DOX) to breast cancer cells that overexpress biotin receptors.

Biotinylated chitosan macromolecule based nanosystems: A review from chemical design to biological targets

World Health Organization estimates that 30-50% of cancers are preventable by healthy lifestyle choices, early detection and adequate therapy. When the conventional therapeutic strategies are still regulated by the lack of selectivity, multidrug resistance and severe toxic side effects, nanotechnology grants a new frontier for cancer management since it targets cancer cells and spares healthy tissues. This review highlights recent studies using biotin molecule combined with functional nanomaterials used in biomedical applications, with a particular attention on biotinylated chitosan-based nanosystems. Succinctly, this review focuses on five areas of recent advances in biotin engineering: (a) biotin features, (b) biotinylation approaches, (c) biotin functionalized chitosan based nanosystems for drug and gene delivery functions, (d) diagnostic and theranostic perspectives, and (e) author's inputs to the biotin-chitosan based tumour-targeting drug delivery structures. Precisely engineered biotinylated-chitosan macromolecules shaped into nanosystems are anticipated to emerge as next-generation platforms for treatment and molecular imaging modalities applications.

Fabrication and Characterization of a Biomaterial Based on Extracellular-Vesicle Functionalized Graphene Oxide

Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) derived extracellular vesicles (EV) are emerging as acellular therapeutics for solid organ injury and as carriers for drug delivery. Graphene-based materials are novel two-dimensional crystal structure-based materials with unique characteristics of stiffness, strength and elasticity that are being explored for various structural and biological applications. We fabricated a biomaterial that would capture desirable properties of both graphene and stem cell derived EV. Metabolically engineered EV that express azide groups were cross-linked with alkyne-functionalized graphene oxide (GO) via a copper catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction. The crosslinking between EV and GO was accomplished without the need for ligand expression on the metal. Scanning electron and fluorescence microscopy demonstrated excellent cross-linking between EV and GO. Biological effects were assessed by phagocytosis studies and cell viability studies. The uptake of GO or sonicated GO (sGO) resulted in a durable pro-inflammatory immune response. Cell studies further showed that crosslinked GO-EV scaffolds exhibited cell-type dependent cytotoxicity on liver cancer cells whereas there was minimal impact on healthy hepatocyte proliferation. In vitro, neither GO-EV nor sGO-EV induced DNA strand breaks. In vivo studies in zebrafish revealed gross developmental malformations but treatment-induced mortality was only seen with the highest doses of GO-EV and sGO-EV. With these advantages, this engineered biomaterial combining the versatility of graphene with the therapeutic effects of MSC-EV has potential for applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Recent Advances in Chemically-Modified and Hybrid Carrageenan-Based Platforms for Drug Delivery, Wound Healing, and Tissue Engineering

Recently, many studies have focused on carrageenan-based hydrogels for biomedical applications thanks to their intrinsic properties, including biodegradability, biocompatibility, resembling native glycosaminoglycans, antioxidants, antitumor, immunomodulatory, and anticoagulant properties. They can easily change to three-dimensional hydrogels using a simple ionic crosslinking process. However, there are some limitations, including the uncontrollable exchange of ions and the formation of a brittle hydrogel, which can be overcome via simple chemical modifications of polymer networks to form chemically crosslinked hydrogels with significant mechanical properties and a controlled degradation rate. Additionally, the incorporation of various types of nanoparticles and polymer networks into carrageenan hydrogels has resulted in the formation of hybrid platforms with significant mechanical, chemical and biological properties, making them suitable biomaterials for drug delivery (DD), tissue engineering (TE), and wound healing applications. Herein, we aim to overview the recent advances in various chemical modification approaches and hybrid carrageenan-based platforms for tissue engineering and drug delivery applications.

Functionalization of Metal and Carbon Nanoparticles with Potential in Cancer Theranostics

Cancer theranostics is a new concept of medical approach that attempts to combine in a unique nanoplatform diagnosis, monitoring and therapy so as to provide eradication of a solid tumor in a non-invasive fashion. There are many available solutions to tackle cancer using theranostic agents such as photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) under the guidance of imaging techniques (e.g., magnetic resonance-MRI, photoacoustic-PA or computed tomography-CT imaging). Additionally, there are several potential theranostic nanoplatforms able to combine diagnosis and therapy at once, such as gold nanoparticles (GNPs), graphene oxide (GO), superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) and carbon nanodots (CDs). Currently, surface functionalization of these nanoplatforms is an extremely useful protocol for effectively tuning their structures, interface features and physicochemical properties. This approach is much more reliable and amenable to fine adjustment, reaching both physicochemical and regulatory requirements as a function of the specific field of application. Here, we summarize and compare the most promising metal- and carbon-based theranostic tools reported as potential candidates in precision cancer theranostics. We focused our review on the latest developments in surface functionalization strategies for these nanosystems, or hybrid nanocomposites consisting of their combination, and discuss their main characteristics and potential applications in precision cancer medicine.

Recent Advances in pH- or/and Photo-Responsive Nanovehicles

The combination of nanotechnology and chemotherapy has resulted in more effective drug design via the development of nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) for tumor targeting. Stimulus-responsive DDSs in response to internal or external signals can offer precisely controlled delivery of preloaded therapeutics. Among the various DDSs, the photo-triggered system improves the efficacy and safety of treatment through spatiotemporal manipulation of light. Additionally, pH-induced delivery is one of the most widely studied strategies for targeting the acidic micro-environment of solid tumors. Accordingly, in this review, we discuss representative strategies for designing DDSs using light as an exogenous signal or pH as an endogenous trigger.

Microwave-Assisted Chitosan-Functionalized Graphene Oxide as Controlled Intracellular Drug Delivery Nanosystem for Synergistic Antitumour Activity

To achieve better antitumour efficacy, it is urgent to improve anticancer drug delivery efficiency in targeting cancer cells. In this work, chitosan-functionalized graphene oxide (ChrGO) nanosheets were fabricated via microwave-assisted reduction, which were employed to the intracellular delivery nanosystem for anticancer drug agent in breast cancer cells. Drug loading and release research indicated that adriamycin can be efficiently loaded on and released from the ChrGO nanosheets. Less drug release during delivery and better biocompatibility of ChrGO/adriamycin significantly improve its safety and therapeutic efficacy in HER2-overexpressing BT-474 cells. Furthermore, ChrGO/adriamycin in combination with trastuzumab exhibited synergistic antitumour activity in BT-474 cells, which demonstrated superior therapeutic efficacy compared with each drug alone. Cells treated with trastuzumab (5 μg/mL) or equivalent ChrGO/adriamycin (5 μg/mL) each elicited 54.5% and 59.5% cell death, respectively, while the combination treatment with trastuzumab and ChrGO/adriamycin resulted in a dramatic 88.5% cell death. The dual-targeted therapy displayed higher apoptosis, indicating superior therapeutic efficacy due to the presence of different mechanisms of action. The combined treatment of ChrGO/adriamycin and trastuzumab in BT-474 cells induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, which ultimately led to the death of augmented cancer cells. This work has provided a facile microwave-assisted fabrication of ChrGO as a controlled and targeted intracellular drug delivery nanosystem, which is expected to be a novel promising therapy for treating HER2-overexpressing breast cancer cells.

Advances on Graphene-Based Nanomaterials and Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes Applied in Cutaneous Wound Healing

Graphene is a new type of carbon nanomaterial discovered after fullerene and carbon nanotube. Due to the excellent biological properties such as biocompatibility, cell proliferation stimulating, and antibacterial properties, graphene and its derivatives have become emerging candidates for the development of novel cutaneous wound dressings and composite scaffolds. On the other hand, pre-clinical research on exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC-Exos) has been intensified for cell-free treatment in wound healing and cutaneous regeneration, via ameliorating the damaged microenvironment of the wound site. Here, we provide a comprehensive understanding of the latest studies and observations on the various effects of graphene-based nanomaterials (GBNs) and MSC-Exos during the cutaneous wound repair process, as well as the putative mechanisms thereof. In addition, we propose the possible forward directions of GBNs and MSC-Exos applications, expecting to promote the clinical transformation.

Cancer-on-a-Chip for Modeling Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor and Tumor Interactions

Cancer immunotherapies, including immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-based therapies, have revolutionized cancer treatment. However, patient response to ICIs is highly variable, necessitating the development of methods to quickly assess efficacy. In this study, an array of miniaturized bioreactors has been developed to model tumor-immune interactions. This immunotherapeutic high-throughput observation chamber (iHOC) is designed to test the effect of anti-PD-1 antibodies on cancer spheroid (MDA-MB-231, PD-L1+) and T cell (Jurkat) interactions. This system facilitates facile monitoring of T cell inhibition and reactivation using metrics such as tumor infiltration and interleukin-2 (IL-2) secretion. Status of the tumor-immune interactions can be easily captured within the iHOC by measuring IL-2 concentration using a micropillar array where sensitive, quantitative detection is allowed after antibody coating on the surface of array. The iHOC is a platform that can be used to model and monitor cancer-immune interactions in response to immunotherapy in a high-throughput manner.