S100 protein is a useful and specific marker for hair cells of the lateral line system in postembryonic zebrafish

Zebrafish neuromast sensory system: Is it an emerging target to assess environmental pollution impacts?

Environmental pollution poses risks to ecosystems. Among these risks, one finds neurotoxicity and damage to the lateral line structures of fish, such as the neuromast and its hair cells. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is recommended as model species to be used in ecotoxicological studies and environmental biomonitoring programs aimed at assessing several biomarkers, such as ototoxicity. However, little is known about the history of and knowledge gaps on zebrafish ototoxicity. Thus, the aim of the current study is to review data available in the scientific literature about using zebrafish as animal model to assess neuromast toxicity. It must be done by analyzing the history and publication category, world production, experimental design, developmental stages, chemical classes, neuromasts and hair cell visualization methods, and zebrafish strains. Based on the results, number, survival and fluorescence intensity of neuromasts, and their hair cells, were the parameters oftentimes used to assess ototoxicity in zebrafish. The wild AB strain was the most used one, and it was followed by Tübingen and transgenic strains with GFP markers. DASPEI was the fluorescent dye most often applied as method to visualize neuromasts, and it was followed by Yo-Pro-1 and GFP transgenic lines. Antibiotics, antitumorals, metals, nanoparticles and plant extracts were the most frequent classes of chemicals used in the analyzed studies. Overall, pollutants can harm zebrafish's mechanosensory system, as well as affect their behavior and survival. Results have shown that zebrafish is a suitable model system to assess ototoxicity induced by environmental pollution.

Localization of Calretinin, Parvalbumin, and S100 Protein in Nothobranchius guentheri Retina: A Suitable Model for the Retina Aging

Calcium-binding proteins (CaBPs) are members of a heterogeneous family of proteins able to buffer intracellular Ca2+ ion concentration. CaBPs are expressed in the central and peripheral nervous system, including a subpopulation of retinal neurons. Since neurons expressing different CaBPs show different susceptibility to degeneration, it could be hypothesized that they are not just markers of different neuronal subpopulations, but that they might be crucial in survival. CaBPs' ability to buffer Ca2+ cytoplasmatic concentration makes them able to defend against a toxic increase in intracellular calcium that can lead to neurodegenerative processes, including those related to aging. An emergent model for aging studies is the annual killifish belonging to the Nothobranchius genus, thanks to its short lifespan. Members of this genus, such as Nothobranchius guentheri, show a retinal stratigraphy similar to that of other actinopterygian fishes and humans. However, according to our knowledge, CaBPs' occurrence and distribution in the retina of N. guentheri have never been investigated before. Therefore, the present study aimed to localize Calretinin N-18, Parvalbumin, and S100 protein (S100p) in the N. guentheri retina with immunohistochemistry methods. The results of the present investigation demonstrate for the first time the occurrence of Calretinin N-18, Parvalbumin, and S100p in N. guentheri retina and, consequently, the potential key role of these CaBPs in the biology of the retinal cells. Hence, the suitability of N. guentheri as a model to study the changes in CaBPs' expression patterns during neurodegenerative processes affecting the retina related both to disease and aging can be assumed.

Rodlet cells in kidney of goldfish (Carassius auratus, Linnaeus 1758): A light and confocal microscopy study

Rodlet cells (RCs) have always been an enigma for scientists. RCs have been given a variety of activities over the years, including ion transport, osmoregulation, and sensory function. These cells, presumably as members of the granulocyte line, are present only in teleosts and play a role in the innate immune response. RCs are migratory cells found in a variety of organs, including skin, vascular, digestive, uropoietic, reproductive, and respiratory systems, and present distinct physical properties that make them easily recognizable in tissues and organs. The development of RCs can be divided into four stages: granular, transitional, mature, and ruptured, having different morphological characteristics. Our study aims to characterize the different stages of these cells by histomorphological and histochemical techniques. Furthermore, we characterized these cells at all stages with peroxidase and fluorescence immunohistochemical techniques using different antibodies: S100, tubulin, α-SMA, piscidin, and for the first time TLR-2. From our results, the immunoreactivity of these cells to the antibodies performed may confirm that RCs play a role in fish defense mechanisms, helping to expand the state of the art on immunology and immune cells of teleosts.

Localization of Neurotrophin Specific Trk Receptors in Mechanosensory Systems of Killifish (Nothobranchius guentheri)

Neurotrophins (NTs) and their signal-transducing Trk receptors play a crucial role in the development and maintenance of specific neuronal subpopulations in nervous and sensory systems. NTs are supposed to regulate two sensory systems in fish, the inner ear and the lateral line system (LLS). The latter is one of the major mechanosensory systems in fish. Considering that annual fishes of the genus Nothobranchius, with their short life expectancy, have become a suitable model for aging studies and that the occurrence and distribution of neurotrophin Trk receptors have never been investigated in the inner ear and LLS of killifish (Nothobranchius guentheri), our study aimed to investigate the localization of neurotrophin-specific Trk receptors in mechanosensory systems of N. guentheri. For histological and immunohistochemical analysis, adult specimens of N. guentheri were processed using antibodies against Trk receptors and S100 protein. An intense immunoreaction for TrkA and TrkC was found in the sensory cells of the inner ear as well as in the hair cells of LLS. Moreover, also the neurons localized in the acoustic ganglia displayed a specific immunoreaction for all Trk receptors (TrkA, B, and C) analyzed. Taken together, our results demonstrate, for the first time, that neurotrophins and their specific receptors could play a pivotal role in the biology of the sensory cells of the inner ear and LLS of N. guentheri and might also be involved in the hair cells regeneration process in normal and aged conditions.

Acid-Sensing Ion Channels in Zebrafish

Simple Summary

The present review collects data regarding the presence of ASICs (acid-sensing ion channels) in zebrafish, which have become, over several years, an important experimental model for the study of various diseases. ASICs are a family of ion channels involved in the perception of different types of stimuli. They are excitatory receptors for extracellular H⁺ involved in synaptic transmission, the peripheral perception of pain and in chemical or mechanosensation.

Abstract

The ASICs, in mammals as in fish, control deviations from the physiological values of extracellular pH, and are involved in mechanoreception, nociception, or taste receptions. They are widely expressed in the central and peripheral nervous system. In this review, we summarized the data about the presence and localization of ASICs in different organs of zebrafish that represent one of the most used experimental models for the study of several diseases. In particular, we analyzed the data obtained by immunohistochemical and molecular biology techniques concerning the presence and expression of ASICs in the sensory organs, such as the olfactory rosette, lateral line, inner ear, taste buds, and in the gut and brain of zebrafish.

Vincristine exposure impairs skin keratinocytes, ionocytes, and lateral-line hair cells in developing zebrafish embryos

Environmental contamination by anticancer pharmaceuticals has been widely reported. These drugs are not readily biodegradable, and their parent compounds and/or metabolites have been detected in surface waters and groundwater throughout the world. Adverse effects of anticancer drugs occur frequently in cancer patients, and a large body of clinical knowledge has accumulated. However, the effects of these drugs on aquatic organisms have not been thoroughly studied. This study aimed to investigate the effects of acute exposure to a common anticancer drug, vincristine (VCR), on zebrafish embryonic development and skin function. After 96 h of VCR exposure (0, 1, 10, 15, and 25 mg/L), significant teratogenic effects were observed, including growth retardation, pericardial edema, spine, tail, and yolk sac malformations (VCR ≥ 15 mg/L), a decreased heart rate, and ocular malformations (VCR ≥ 10 mg/L). The value of the half lethal concentration for zebrafish embryos was 20.6 mg/L. At ≥10 mg/L VCR, systemic ion contents and acid secretion in the skin over the yolk-sac decreased, and these findings were associated with decreases in skin ionocytes (H⁺-ATPase-rich cells and Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase-rich cells). Also, the microridge-structure of skin keratinocytes was significantly damaged. The number of lateral line hair cells was reduced when VCR was ≥10 mg/L, and functional impairment was detected when VCR was as low as 1 mg/L. Results of this in vivo study in zebrafish embryos indicate that acute exposure to VCR can lead to developmental defects, impairment of skin functions, and even fish death.

Expression and Localization of BDNF/TrkB System in the Zebrafish Inner Ear

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a member of the neurotrophin family, is involved in multiple and fundamental functions of the central and peripheral nervous systems including sensory organs. Despite recent advances in knowledge on the functional significance of BDNF and TrkB in the regulation of the acoustic system of mammals, the localization of BDNF/TrkB system in the inner ear of zebrafish during development, is not well known. Therefore, the goal of the present study is to analyze the age-dependent changes using RT-PCR, Western Blot and single and double immunofluorescence of the BDNF and its specific receptor in the zebrafish inner ear. The results showed the mRNA expression and the cell localization of BDNF and TrkB in the hair cells of the crista ampullaris and in the neuroepithelium of the utricle, saccule and macula lagena, analyzed at different ages. Our results demonstrate that the BDNF/TrkB system is present in the sensory cells of the inner ear, during whole life. Therefore, this system might play a key role in the development and maintenance of the hair cells in adults, suggesting that the zebrafish inner ear represents an interesting model to study the involvement of the neurotrophins in the biology of sensory cells

Acidified water impairs the lateral line system of zebrafish embryos

Acidification of freshwater ecosystems is recognized as a global environmental problem. However, the influence of acidic water on the early stages of freshwater fish is still unclear. This study focused on the sublethal effects of acidic water on the lateral line system of zebrafish embryos. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to water at different pH values (pH 4, 5, 7, 9, and 10) for 96 (0-96 h post-fertilization (hpf)) and 48 h (48∼96 hpf). The survival rate, body length, and heart rate significantly decreased in pH 4-exposed embryos during the 96-h incubation. The number of lateral-line neuromasts and the size of otic vesicles/otoliths also decreased in pH 4-exposed embryos subjected to 96- and 48-h incubations. The number of neuromasts decreased in pH 5-exposed embryos during the 96-h incubation. Alkaline water (pH 9 and 10) did not influence embryonic development but suppressed the hatching process. The mechanotransducer channel-mediated Ca²⁺ influx was measured to reveal the function of lateral line hair cells. The Ca²⁺ influx of hair cells decreased in pH 5-exposed embryos subjected to the 48-h incubation, and both the number and Ca²⁺ influx of hair cells had decreased in pH 5-exposed embryos after 96 h of incubation. In addition, the number and function of hair cells were suppressed in H⁺-ATPase- or GCM2-knockdown embryos, which partially lost the ability to secrete acid into the ambient water. In conclusion, this study suggests that lateral line hair cells are sensitive to an acidic environment, and freshwater acidification could be a threat to the early stages of fishes.

The tongue of Leopard Gecko (Eublepharis macularius): LM, SEM and confocal laser study

The leopard gecko is a crepuscular and insectivorous reptile. The role of the tongue in this reptile is fundamental for the prey capture and ingestion and is not related with eyes cleaning as usual in other geckos. The elongated tongue can be divided into a foretongue with a slightly bifurcated apex and a hindtongue. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that several different papillae are present on the dorsal surface, foliate and dome-shaped in the foretongue, becoming thicker and stouter with reduced interpapillary spaces in the lateral parts. The hindtongue is characterised by wide foliate papillae with indented margins and deep fissures of the mucosa. Light microscopy showed the presence of a stratified slightly keratinized squamous epithelium in the apex of the foretongue, a stratified non-keratinized squamous epithelium in the fore and in the hindtongue. In the foretongue, numerous muciparous caliciform cells were observed. Moreover, the presence of taste buds on the tongue ventral surface was demonstrated for the first time in this species and the confocal laser study revealed a strong immunoreactivity for the S-100 protein in the sensory cells. Therefore, the results obtained could give a contribution to the knowledge of the tongue anatomy and are a basis for eventual further studies regarding the feeding habits in a reptile become a popular pet.

Cisplatin exposure impairs ionocytes and hair cells in the skin of zebrafish embryos

This study aimed to assess the sublethal effects of a platinum-based compound, cisplatin, using a zebrafish model. Zebrafish embryos were incubated in different concentrations of cisplatin at 0-96 h post-fertilization. Using a non-invasive, scanning ion-selective electrode technique (SIET), we measured the functions of hair cells (Ca²⁺ influx) and ionocytes ([H⁺] gradients). The survival rate, hatching rate, phenotype, body length, whole-body ion (Na⁺, Cl^-, and Ca²⁺) and Pt contents were also determined. The effects of cisplatin on zebrafish embryos were demonstrated as first impairing hair cell function (at 1 μM of cisplatin), the hair cell number, and body ion content of Cl^- (at 10 μM of cisplatin), then decreasing ionocyte acid secretion and overall body ion contents of Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ (at 50 μM of cisplatin). The body length and ionocyte density decreased at 100 μM of cisplatin, and survival decreased at 500 μM of cisplatin. As the cisplatin concentration increased, the accumulation of Pt in fish embryos also increased. These results revealed that hair cells are significantly more susceptible to cisplatin toxicity than ionocytes. By determining the lowest observed effective concentration of cisplatin that caused in vivo functional alterations of zebrafish hair cells and skin ionocytes, this model demonstrated 500-fold greater sensitivity than by detecting changes in survival, for early assessment of the effects of platinum-based chemotherapeutic drugs on fish.

Neuromast hair cells retain the capacity of regeneration during heavy metal exposure

The neuromast is the morphological unit of the lateral line of fishes and is composed of a cluster of central sensory cells (hair cells) surrounded by support and mantle cells. Heavy metals exposure leads to disruption of hair cells within the neuromast. It is well known that the zebrafish has the ability to regenerate the hair cells after damage caused by toxicants. The process of regeneration depends on proliferation, differentiation and cellular migration of sensory and non-sensory progenitor cells. Therefore, our study was made in order to identify which cellular types are involved in the complex process of regeneration during heavy metals exposure. For this purpose, adult zebrafish were exposed to various heavy metals (Arsenic, cadmium and zinc) for 72h. After acute (24h) exposure, immunohistochemical localization of S100 (a specific marker for hair cells) in the neuromasts highlighted the hair cells loss. The immunoreaction for Sox2 (a specific marker for stem cells), at the same time, was observed in the support and mantle cells, after exposure to arsenic and cadmium, while only in the support cells after exposure to zinc. After chronic (72h) exposure the hair cells were regenerated, showing an immunoreaction for S100 protein. At the same exposure time to the three metals, a Sox2 immunoreaction was expressed in support and mantle cells. Our results showed for the first time the regenerative capacity of hair cells, not only after, but also during exposure to heavy metals, demonstrated by the presence of different stem cells that can diversify in hair cells.

Fine structure of the canal neuromasts of the lateral line system in the adult zebrafish

The mechanosensory lateral line system of fish is responsible for several functions such as balance, hearing, and orientation in water flow and is formed by neuromast receptor organs distributed on head, trunk and tail. Superficial and canal neuromasts can be distinguished for localization and morphological differences. Several information is present regarding the superficial neuromasts of zebrafish and other teleosts especially during larval and juvenile stages, while not as numerous data are so far available about the ultrastructural characteristics of the canal neuromasts in adult zebrafish. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate by transmission electron microscopy the ultrastructural aspects of cells present in the canal neuromasts. Besides the typical cellular aspects of the neuromast, different cellular types of hair cells were observed that could be identified as developing hair cells during the physiological turnover. The knowledge of the observed cellular types of the canal neuromasts and their origin could give a contribution to studies carried out on adult zebrafish used as model in neurological and non-neurological damages, such as deafness and vestibular disorders.

Acid-sensing ion channels and transient-receptor potential ion channels in zebrafish taste buds

Sensory information from the environment is required for life and survival, and it is detected by specialized cells which together make up the sensory system. The fish sensory system includes specialized organs that are able to detect mechanical and chemical stimuli. In particular, taste buds are small organs located on the tongue in terrestrial vertebrates that function in the perception of taste. In fish, taste buds occur on the lips, the flanks, and the caudal (tail) fins of some species and on the barbels of others. In fish taste receptor cells, different classes of ion channels have been detected which, like in mammals, presumably participate in the detection and/or transduction of chemical gustatory signals. However, since some of these ion channels are involved in the detection of additional sensory modalities, it can be hypothesized that taste cells sense stimuli other than those specific for taste. This mini-review summarizes current knowledge on the presence of transient-receptor potential (TRP) and acid-sensing (ASIC) ion channels in the taste buds of teleosts, especially adult zebrafish. Up to now ASIC4, TRPC2, TRPA1, TRPV1 and TRPV4 ion channels have been found in the sensory cells, while ASIC2 was detected in the nerves supplying the taste buds.

Onset and dynamic expression of S100 proteins in the olfactory organ and the lateral line system in zebrafish development

In the zebrafish olfactory epithelium, three morphologically distinct olfactory neurons express different marker proteins. We utilize this feature to access developmental dynamics of one of the neuron types, the crypt cells, to determine whether they are differentiated at a stage similar to other olfactory neurons. Immunohistochemical studies using an S100 antibody that specifically recognizes crypt cells showed that S100-positive cells appear in olfactory rosettes as early as at 2day postfertilization (dpf). However, some of the rosettes did not have any S100-positive cells until 4 dpf. The number of S100-positive cells in individual rosettes increased steadily over the next 3days before it decreased significantly. There were 7.8 S100-positive cells per rosettes on average in larvae at 7 dpf. The number reduced to 2.2 at 9 dpf. A recovery to a pre-reduction level was detected in 12 dpf larvae. We also observed S100-positive cells in neuromasts of the lateral line system in 2 dpf larvae, suggesting that the crypt cells and sensory cells in the neuromasts have similar onsets of differentiation. Our data have provided a time line of differentiation of crypt cells in development of the olfactory system and demonstrated that this type of cell is differentiated at a stage similar to ciliated and microvillous olfactory neurons. A nonlinear growth trajectory of the crypt cell population in the first nine days of zebrafish development implicates a possible functional significance of crypt cells in early life stages of zebrafish.

Structural and functional diversification in the teleost S100 family of calcium-binding proteins

BACKGROUND

Among the EF-Hand calcium-binding proteins the subgroup of S100 proteins constitute a large family with numerous and diverse functions in calcium-mediated signaling. The evolutionary origin of this family is still uncertain and most studies have examined mammalian family members.

RESULTS

We have performed an extensive search in several teleost genomes to establish the s100 gene family in fish. We report that the teleost S100 repertoire comprises fourteen different subfamilies which show remarkable similarity across six divergent teleost species. Individual species feature distinctive subsets of thirteen to fourteen genes that result from local gene duplications and gene losses. Eight of the fourteen S100 subfamilies are unique for teleosts, while six are shared with mammalian species and three of those even with cartilaginous fish. Several S100 family members are found in jawless fish already, but none of them are clear orthologs of cartilaginous or bony fish s100 genes. All teleost s100 genes show the expected structural features and are subject to strong negative selection. Many aspects of the genomic arrangement and location of mammalian s100 genes are retained in the teleost s100 gene family, including a completely conserved intron/exon border between the two EF hands. Zebrafish s100 genes exhibit highly specific and characteristic expression patterns, showing both redundancy and divergence in their cellular expression. In larval tissue expression is often restricted to specific cell types like keratinocytes, hair cells, ionocytes and olfactory receptor neurons as demonstrated by in situ hybridization.

CONCLUSION

The origin of the S100 family predates at least the segregation of jawed from jawless fish and some extant family members predate the divergence of bony from cartilaginous fish. Despite a complex pattern of gene gains and losses the total repertoire size is remarkably constant between species. On the expression level the teleost S100 proteins can serve as precise markers for several different cell types. At least some of their functions may be related to those of their counterparts in mammals. Accordingly, our findings provide an excellent basis for future studies of the functions and interaction partners of s100 genes and finally their role in diseases, using the zebrafish as a model organism.

S100 protein-like immunoreactivity in the crypt olfactory neurons of the adult zebrafish

The olfactory epithelium of some teleosts, including zebrafish, contains three types of olfactory sensory neurons. Because zebrafish has become an ideal model for the study of neurogenesis in the olfactory system, it is of capital importance the identification of specific markers for different neuronal populations. In this study we used immunohistochemistry to analyze the distribution of S100 protein-like in the adult zebrafish olfactory epithelium. Surprisingly, specific S100 protein-like immunostaining was detected exclusively in crypt neurons, whereas ciliated and microvillous neurons were not reactive, and the supporting glial cells as well. The pattern of immunostaining was exclusively cytoplasmic without apparent polarity within the soma, and the intensity of immunostaining was not related with the maturative stage of the neurons. The role of S100 protein in crypt olfactory neurons is unknown, although it is probably associated with the capacity of these cells to respond to chemical stimuli. In any case, it represents an excellent marker to identify crypt olfactory neurons in zebrafish.