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Farahtaj F, Alizadeh L, Gholami A, Khosravy MS, Bashar R, Gharibzadeh S, Mahmoodzadeh Niknam H, Ghaemi A. Differential pathogenesis of intracerebral and intramuscular inoculation of street rabies virus and CVS-11 strains in a mouse model. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF BASIC MEDICAL SCIENCES 2021; 24:943-950. [PMID: 34712425 PMCID: PMC8528248 DOI: 10.22038/ijbms.2021.54264.12188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Objective(s): The mechanisms of rabies evasion and immunological interactions with the host defense have not been completely elucidated. Here, we evaluated the dynamic changes in the number of astrocytes, microglial and neuronal cells in the brain following intramuscular (IM) and intracerebral (IC) inoculations of street rabies virus (SRV). Materials and Methods: The SRV isolated from a jackal and CVS-11 were used to establish infection in NMRI-female mice. The number of astrocytes (by expression of GFAP), microglial (by Iba1), and neuronal cells (by MAP-2) in the brain following IM and IC inoculations of SRV were evaluated by immunohistochemistry and H & E staining 7 to 30 days post-infection. Results: Increased numbers of astrocytes and microglial cells in dead mice infected by SRV via both IC and IM routes were recorded. The number of neuronal cells in surviving mice was decreased only in IC-infected mice, while in the dead group, this number was decreased by both routes. The risk of death in SRV-infected mice was approximately 3 times higher than in the CVS-11 group. In IC-inoculated mice, viral dilution was the only influential factor in mortality, while the type of strain demonstrated a significant impact on the mortality rate in IM inoculations. Conclusion: Our results suggested that microglial cells and their inflammatory cytokines may not contribute to the neuroprotection and recovery in surviving mice following intracerebral inoculation of SRV. An unexpected decrease in MAP2 expression via intramuscular inoculation indicates the imbalance in the integrity and stability of neuronal cytoskeleton which aggravates rabies infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firozeh Farahtaj
- National Center for Reference & Research on Rabies, Institut Pasteur of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Leila Alizadeh
- Department of Virology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Gholami
- Viral vaccine Production, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Karaj, Iran
| | | | - Rouzbeh Bashar
- National Center for Reference & Research on Rabies, Institut Pasteur of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Safoora Gharibzadeh
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Research Center for Emerging and Reemerging of Infectious Diseases, Institut Pasteur of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Amir Ghaemi
- Department of Virology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
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Farahtaj F, Gholami A, Khosravy MS, Gharibzadeh S, Niknam HM, Ghaemi A. Enhancement of immune responses by co-stimulation of TLR3 - TLR7 agonists as a potential therapeutics against rabies in mouse model. Microb Pathog 2021; 157:104971. [PMID: 34029660 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2021.104971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is always fatal, when post-exposure prophylaxis is administered after the onset of clinical symptoms. To date, there is no effective treatment of rabies once clinical symptoms has initiated. Therefore, we aimed to provide evidences which indicate the promising effects of combination treatment with TLR agonists following rabies infection. Four groups of rabies infected-mice (10-mice/group) were treated with PolyI:C 50 μg (a TLR3 agonist), Imiquimod50 μg (a TLR7 agonist), (Poly + Imi)25 μg and (Poly + Imi)50 μg respectively. The immune responses in each experimental groups were investigated in the brain through evaluation of GFAP, MAP2, CD4, HSP70, TLR3, TLR7 and apoptotic cell expression as well as determination of IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-4, levels. The treatment with combination of agonists (Poly + Imi)50 μg/mouse resulted a 75% decrease of mortality rate and better extended survival time following street rabies virus infection. Higher number of CD4+T cells, TLR3 and TLR7 expression in the brain parenchyma observed in the groups receiving both combined agonist therapies at the levels of 25 μg and 50 μg. In spite of decreased number of neuronal cell, significant higher number of astrocytes was shown in the group given (Poly + Imi)25 μg. The obtained results also pointed to the dramatic decrease of HSP70 expression in all groups of infected mice whereas higher number of apoptotic cells and Caspase 8 expression were recorded in (Poly + Imi)25 μg treated group. Furthermore, the cytokine profile consisting the increased levels of TNF-α, IFN-γ and IL-4 revealed that both humoral and cellular responses were highly modulated in combination therapy of 50 μg of Imiquimod and Poly I:C. Reduced viral load as quantified by real-time PCR of rabies N gene expression in the brain also correlated with the better survival of agonist-treated groups of mice. Based on obtained results, we have presented evidences of beneficial utilization of combined agonist therapy composed of TLR3/TLR7 ligands. This treatment regimen extended survival of infected mice and decreased significantly their mortality rate. We believe that the results of synergy-inducing protection of both TLR3/TLR7 agonists lead to the enhancement of innate immune responses cells residing in the CNS which warrant the studies to further understanding of crosstalk mechanisms in cellular immunity against rabies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firouzeh Farahtaj
- Center for Reference and Research on Rabies, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Gholami
- Viral Vaccine Production, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Karaj, Iran
| | | | - Safoora Gharibzadeh
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Research Center for Emerging and Reemerging of Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Amir Ghaemi
- Department of Virology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.
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Bohmwald K, Soto JA, Andrade-Parra C, Fernández-Fierro A, Espinoza JA, Ríos M, Eugenin EA, González PA, Opazo MC, Riedel CA, Kalergis AM. Lung pathology due to hRSV infection impairs blood-brain barrier permeability enabling astrocyte infection and a long-lasting inflammation in the CNS. Brain Behav Immun 2021; 91:159-171. [PMID: 32979471 PMCID: PMC7513917 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) is the most common infectious agent that affects children before two years of age. hRSV outbreaks cause a significant increase in hospitalizations during the winter season associated with bronchiolitis and pneumonia. Recently, neurologic alterations have been associated with hRSV infection in children, which include seizures, central apnea, and encephalopathy. Also, hRSV RNA has been detected in cerebrospinal fluids (CSF) from patients with neurological symptoms after hRSV infection. Additionally, previous studies have shown that hRSV can be detected in the lungs and brains of mice exposed to the virus, yet the potential effects of hRSV infection within the central nervous system (CNS) remain unknown. Here, using a murine model for hRSV infection, we show a significant behavior alteration in these animals, up to two months after the virus exposure, as shown in marble-burying tests. hRSV infection also produced the expression of cytokines within the brain, such as IL-4, IL-10, and CCL2. We found that hRSV infection alters the permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in mice, allowing the trespassing of macromolecules and leading to increased infiltration of immune cells into the CNS together with an increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the brain. Finally, we show that hRSV infects murine astrocytes both, in vitro and in vivo. We identified the presence of hRSV in the brain cortex where it colocalizes with vWF, MAP-2, Iba-1, and GFAP, which are considered markers for endothelial cells, neurons, microglia, and astrocyte, respectively. hRSV-infected murine astrocytes displayed increased production of nitric oxide (NO) and TNF-α. Our results suggest that hRSV infection alters the BBB permeability to macromolecules and immune cells and induces CNS inflammation, which can contribute to the behavioral alterations shown by infected mice. A better understanding of the neuropathy caused by hRSV could help to reduce the potential detrimental effects on the CNS in hRSV-infected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Bohmwald
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
| | - Jorge A. Soto
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
| | - Catalina Andrade-Parra
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
| | - Ayleen Fernández-Fierro
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
| | - Janyra A. Espinoza
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
| | - Mariana Ríos
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
| | - Eliseo A. Eugenin
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, United States
| | - Pablo A. González
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
| | - María Cecilia Opazo
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Claudia A. Riedel
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile,Corresponding authors at: Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, República #440, Santiago 8331010, Chile (C.A. Riedel). Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy. Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Avenida Libertador Bernardo O’Higgins #340, Santiago 8331010, Chile (A.M. Kalergis)
| | - Alexis M. Kalergis
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile,Departamento de Endocrinología, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile,Corresponding authors at: Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, República #440, Santiago 8331010, Chile (C.A. Riedel). Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy. Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Avenida Libertador Bernardo O’Higgins #340, Santiago 8331010, Chile (A.M. Kalergis)
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Holzerland J, Fénéant L, Banadyga L, Hölper JE, Knittler MR, Groseth A. BH3-only sensors Bad, Noxa and Puma are Key Regulators of Tacaribe virus-induced Apoptosis. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008948. [PMID: 33045019 PMCID: PMC7598930 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogenicity often differs dramatically among even closely related arenavirus species. For instance, Junín virus (JUNV), the causative agent of Argentine hemorrhagic fever (AHF), is closely related to Tacaribe virus (TCRV), which is normally avirulent in humans. While little is known about how host cell pathways are regulated in response to arenavirus infection, or how this contributes to virulence, these two viruses have been found to differ markedly in their ability to induce apoptosis. However, details of the mechanism(s) governing the apoptotic response to arenavirus infections are unknown. Here we confirm that TCRV-induced apoptosis is mitochondria-regulated, with associated canonical hallmarks of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, and go on to identify the pro- and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 factors responsible for regulating this process. In particular, levels of the pro-apoptotic BH3-only proteins Noxa and Puma, as well as their canonical transcription factor p53, were strongly increased. Interestingly, TCRV infection also led to the accumulation of the inactive phosphorylated form of another pro-apoptotic BH3-only protein, Bad (i.e. as phospho-Bad). Knockout of Noxa or Puma suppressed apoptosis in response to TCRV infection, whereas silencing of Bad increased apoptosis, confirming that these factors are key regulators of apoptosis induction in response to TCRV infection. Further, we found that while the highly pathogenic JUNV does not induce caspase activation, it still activated upstream pro-apoptotic factors, consistent with current models suggesting that JUNV evades apoptosis by interfering with caspase activation through a nucleoprotein-mediated decoy function. This new mechanistic insight into the role that individual BH3-only proteins and their regulation play in controlling apoptotic fate in arenavirus-infected cells provides an important experimental framework for future studies aimed at dissecting differences in the apoptotic responses between arenaviruses, their connection to other cell signaling events and ultimately the relationship of these processes to pathogenesis. Arenaviruses are important zoonotic pathogens that present a serious threat to human health. While some virus species cause severe disease, resulting in hemorrhagic fever and/or neurological symptoms, other closely related species exhibit little or no pathogenicity. The basis for these dramatically different outcomes is insufficiently understood, but investigations of host cell responses have suggested that apoptosis, i.e. non-inflammatory programmed cell death, is regulated differently between pathogenic and apathogenic arenaviruses. However, many questions remain regarding how these viruses interact with cell death pathways upon infection. Here we demonstrate that apoptosis induced by the avirulent Tacaribe virus (TCRV), proceeds via the mitochondria (i.e. the intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway), and is regulated by a combination of factors that appear to balance activation (i.e. Noxa and Puma) and inactivation (i.e. Bad-P) of this cascade. During TCRV infection, the balance of these pro- and anti-apoptotic signals shifts the equilibrium late in the infection towards cell death. Importantly, we also found that the highly pathogenic Junín virus (JUNV), which does not trigger caspase activation or apoptotic cell death, nonetheless induces pro-apoptotic factors, thus supporting the existence of a specific mechanism by which this virus is able to evade apoptosis at late stages in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Holzerland
- Junior Research Group Arenavirus Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Greifswald—Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Lucie Fénéant
- Junior Research Group Arenavirus Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Greifswald—Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Logan Banadyga
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Julia E. Hölper
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Greifswald—Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Michael R. Knittler
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Greifswald—Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Allison Groseth
- Junior Research Group Arenavirus Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Greifswald—Isle of Riems, Germany
- * E-mail:
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5
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Escalera-Antezana JP, Rodriguez-Villena OJ, Arancibia-Alba AW, Alvarado-Arnez LE, Bonilla-Aldana DK, Rodríguez-Morales AJ. Clinical features of fatal cases of Chapare virus hemorrhagic fever originating from rural La Paz, Bolivia, 2019: A cluster analysis. Travel Med Infect Dis 2020; 36:101589. [PMID: 32061859 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2019] [Revised: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In 2003 an emerging mammarenavirus (formerly arenaviruses) was discovered in Bolivia and named Chapare (CHAPV). It was associated with severe and fatal hemorrhagic fever, being similar in clinical features to Machupo (MACV). In mid-2019, CHAPV was the cause of a cluster of five cases, two of them laboratory confirmed, three of them fatal. Here, we report the main clinical findings, epidemiological features and the potential ecological aspects, of that cluster of cases in rural La Paz, Bolivia. METHODS For this observational, retrospective and cross-sectional study, information was obtained from the Hospitals and the Ministry of Health for the cases that were laboratory-diagnosed and related, during 2019. RT-PCR was used for the detection of the RNA of CHAPV in the blood samples. RESULTS Two cases were RT-PCR + for CHAPV. The median age of patients was 42 y-old (IQR 25-45), four out of five were male. All patients were hospitalized, admitted to the ICU and had fever, upper digestive hemorrhage, with two of them, presenting ARDS, and requiring mechanical ventilation. Three patients died (case fatality rate, CFR 60%). CONCLUSIONS Mammarenaviruses led to a high fatality rate. These cases occurred in areas with suitable ecoepidemiological conditions for rodent-borne diseases, including CHAPV infection. Socioenvironmental and occupational factors in rural areas of Bolivia may contribute with the risk of zoonotic spillover and transmission to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Omar J Rodriguez-Villena
- Emergency Department and Emergency Medical Residency Program Coordination, Hospital Obrero N1, Caja Nacional de Salud, La Paz, Bolivia
| | | | | | - D Katterine Bonilla-Aldana
- Incubator in Zoonosis (SIZOO), Biodiversity and Ecosystem Conservation Research Group (BIOECOS), Fundación Universitaria Autónoma de las Américas, Sede Pereira, Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia; Public Health and Infection Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia
| | - Alfonso J Rodríguez-Morales
- Universidad Franz Tamayo/UNIFRANZ, Cochabamba, Bolivia; Public Health and Infection Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia; Grupo de Investigación Biomedicina, Faculty of Medicine, Fundación Universitaria Autónoma de las Américas, Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia.
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Tian B, Zhou M, Yang Y, Yu L, Luo Z, Tian D, Wang K, Cui M, Chen H, Fu ZF, Zhao L. Lab-Attenuated Rabies Virus Causes Abortive Infection and Induces Cytokine Expression in Astrocytes by Activating Mitochondrial Antiviral-Signaling Protein Signaling Pathway. Front Immunol 2018; 8:2011. [PMID: 29403485 PMCID: PMC5785723 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.02011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2017] [Accepted: 12/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is an ancient disease but remains endemic in most parts of the world and causes approximately 59,000 deaths annually. The mechanism through which the causative agent, rabies virus (RABV), evades the host immune response and infects the host central nervous system (CNS) has not been completely elucidated thus far. Our previous studies have shown that lab-attenuated, but not wild-type (wt), RABV activates the innate immune response in the mouse and dog models. In this present study, we demonstrate that lab-attenuated RABV causes abortive infection in astrocytes, the most abundant glial cells in the CNS. Furthermore, we found that lab-attenuated RABV produces more double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) than wt RABV, which is recognized by retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) or melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 (MDA5). Activation of mitochondrial antiviral-signaling protein (MAVS), the common adaptor molecule for RIG-I and MDA5, results in the production of type I interferon (IFN) and the expression of hundreds of IFN-stimulated genes, which suppress RABV replication and spread in astrocytes. Notably, lab-attenuated RABV replicates in a manner identical to that of wt RABV in MAVS−/− astrocytes. It was also found that lab-attenuated, but not wt, RABV induces the expression of inflammatory cytokines via the MAVS- p38/NF-κB signaling pathway. These inflammatory cytokines increase the blood–brain barrier permeability and thus enable immune cells and antibodies infiltrate the CNS parenchyma, resulting in RABV control and elimination. In contrast, wt RABV restricts dsRNA production and thus evades innate recognition by RIG-I/MDA5 in astrocytes, which could be one of the mechanisms by which wt RABV evades the host immune response in resident CNS cells. Our findings suggest that astrocytes play a critical role in limiting the replication of lab-attenuated RABV in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ming Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yu Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Lan Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhaochen Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Dayong Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ke Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Min Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Huanchun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhen F Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Department of Pathology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Ling Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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Spengler JR, Kelly Keating M, McElroy AK, Zivcec M, Coleman-McCray JD, Harmon JR, Bollweg BC, Goldsmith CS, Bergeron É, Keck JG, Zaki SR, Nichol ST, Spiropoulou CF. Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever in Humanized Mice Reveals Glial Cells as Primary Targets of Neurological Infection. J Infect Dis 2017; 216:1386-1397. [PMID: 28482001 PMCID: PMC5853341 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jix215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a tick-borne viral hemorrhagic disease seen exclusively in humans. Central nervous system (CNS) infection and neurological involvement have also been reported in CCHF. In the current study, we inoculated NSG-SGM3 mice engrafted with human hematopoietic CD34+ stem cells with low-passage CCHF virus strains isolated from human patients. In humanized mice, lethal disease develops, characterized by histopathological change in the liver and brain. To date, targets of neurological infection and disease have not been investigated in CCHF. CNS disease in humanized mice was characterized by gliosis, meningitis, and meningoencephalitis, and glial cells were identified as principal targets of infection. Humanized mice represent a novel lethal model for studies of CCHF countermeasures, and CCHF-associated CNS disease. Our data suggest a role for astrocyte dysfunction in neurological disease and identify key regions of infection in the CNS for future investigations of CCHF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica R Spengler
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - M Kelly Keating
- Infectious Diseases Pathology Branch, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Anita K McElroy
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Marko Zivcec
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - JoAnn D Coleman-McCray
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jessica R Harmon
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Brigid C Bollweg
- Infectious Diseases Pathology Branch, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Cynthia S Goldsmith
- Infectious Diseases Pathology Branch, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Éric Bergeron
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - James G Keck
- In Vivo Services, The Jackson Laboratory, Sacramento, California
| | - Sherif R Zaki
- Infectious Diseases Pathology Branch, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Stuart T Nichol
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Christina F Spiropoulou
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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8
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Lindqvist R, Mundt F, Gilthorpe JD, Wölfel S, Gekara NO, Kröger A, Överby AK. Fast type I interferon response protects astrocytes from flavivirus infection and virus-induced cytopathic effects. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:277. [PMID: 27776548 PMCID: PMC5078952 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0748-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Neurotropic flaviviruses such as tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), West Nile virus (WNV), and Zika virus (ZIKV) are causative agents of severe brain-related diseases including meningitis, encephalitis, and microcephaly. We have previously shown that local type I interferon response within the central nervous system (CNS) is involved in the protection of mice against tick-borne flavivirus infection. However, the cells responsible for mounting this protective response are not defined. Methods Primary astrocytes were isolated from wild-type (WT) and interferon alpha receptor knock out (IFNAR−/−) mice and infected with neurotropic flaviviruses. Viral replication and spread, IFN induction and response, and cellular viability were analyzed. Transcriptional levels in primary astrocytes treated with interferon or supernatant from virus-infected cells were analyzed by RNA sequencing and evaluated by different bioinformatics tools. Results Here, we show that astrocytes control viral replication of different TBEV strains, JEV, WNV, and ZIKV. In contrast to fibroblast, astrocytes mount a rapid interferon response and restrict viral spread. Furthermore, basal expression levels of key interferon-stimulated genes are high in astrocytes compared to mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Bioinformatic analysis of RNA-sequencing data reveals that astrocytes have established a basal antiviral state which contributes to the rapid viral recognition and upregulation of interferons. The most highly upregulated pathways in neighboring cells were linked to type I interferon response and innate immunity. The restriction in viral growth was dependent on interferon signaling, since loss of the interferon receptor, or its blockade in wild-type cells, resulted in high viral replication and virus-induced cytopathic effects. Astrocyte supernatant from TBEV-infected cells can restrict TBEV growth in astrocytes already 6 h post infection, the effect on neurons is highly reinforced, and astrocyte supernatant from 3 h post infection is already protective. Conclusions These findings suggest that the combination of an intrinsic constitutive antiviral response and the fast induction of type I IFN production by astrocytes play an important role in self-protection of astrocytes and suppression of flavivirus replication in the CNS. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-016-0748-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Lindqvist
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Virology, Umeå University, 90185, Umeå, Sweden.,The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), 90187, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Filip Mundt
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Proteomics and Biomarkers, 415 Main Street, #5033-A, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA
| | - Jonathan D Gilthorpe
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Umeå University, 90187, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Silke Wölfel
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstraße 11, 80937, Munich, Germany
| | - Nelson O Gekara
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, 90187, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Andrea Kröger
- Innate Immunity and Infection, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Inhoffen Str 7, 38124, Braunschweig, Germany.,Institute of Medical Microbiology, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Leipziger Str. 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Anna K Överby
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Virology, Umeå University, 90185, Umeå, Sweden. .,The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), 90187, Umeå, Sweden.
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9
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Pathologic role of glial nitric oxide in adult and pediatric neuroinflammatory diseases. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2014; 45:168-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2013] [Revised: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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10
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Kolokoltsova OA, Yun NE, Paessler S. Reactive astrogliosis in response to hemorrhagic fever virus: microarray profile of Junin virus-infected human astrocytes. Virol J 2014; 11:126. [PMID: 25015256 PMCID: PMC4113780 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-11-126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Arenavirus Junin is the causative agent of Argentine hemorrhagic fever. Limited information is available concerning the pathogenesis of this human disease, especially the pathogenesis of acute and late neurological symptoms. METHODS In our study we present for the first time cDNA microarray profile of human astrocytes infected with the virulent strain of Junin virus. Transcriptional profiling was confirmed by quantitative real-time RT-PCR and cytokine/chemokine/growth factor assay. RESULTS We demonstrated the impact of virus infection on immune/inflammatory response/interferon signaling and apoptosis. Pro-apoptotic response and amplification with time of pro-inflammatory cascade of human astrocytes suggested neurodegenerative dysfunctional reactive astrogliosis in response to Junin virus infection. CONCLUSION Our results suggest potential pathogenic role of astroglial cells in the development of neurological symptoms and late neurological syndrome during Argentine hemorrhagic fever.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Slobodan Paessler
- Department of Pathology, Galveston National Laboratory, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, TX, USA.
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11
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Palus M, Bílý T, Elsterová J, Langhansová H, Salát J, Vancová M, Růžek D. Infection and injury of human astrocytes by tick-borne encephalitis virus. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:2411-2426. [PMID: 25000960 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.068411-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), a disease caused by tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), represents the most important flaviviral neural infection in Europe and north-eastern Asia. In the central nervous system (CNS), neurons are the primary target for TBEV infection; however, infection of non-neuronal CNS cells, such as astrocytes, is not well understood. In this study, we investigated the interaction between TBEV and primary human astrocytes. We report for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, that primary human astrocytes are sensitive to TBEV infection, although the infection did not affect their viability. The infection induced a marked increase in the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein, a marker of astrocyte activation. In addition, expression of matrix metalloproteinase 9 and several key pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines (e.g. tumour necrosis factor α, interferon α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, interferon γ-induced protein 10, macrophage inflammatory protein, but not monocyte chemotactic protein 1) was upregulated. Moreover, we present a detailed description of morphological changes in TBEV-infected cells, as investigated using three-dimensional electron tomography. Several novel ultrastructural changes were observed, including the formation of unique tubule-like structures of 17.9 ±0.15 nm diameter with associated viral particles and/or virus-induced vesicles and located in the rough endoplasmic reticulum of the TBEV-infected cells. This is the first demonstration that TBEV infection activates primary human astrocytes. The infected astrocytes might be a potential source of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the TBEV-infected brain, and might contribute to the TBEV-induced neurotoxicity and blood-brain barrier breakdown that occurs during TBE. The neuropathological significance of our observations is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Palus
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Bílý
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Elsterová
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100 Brno, Czech Republic.,Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Helena Langhansová
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Salát
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Marie Vancová
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Daniel Růžek
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, CZ-62100 Brno, Czech Republic.,Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branišovská 31, CZ-37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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12
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Toll-like receptor 2-mediated innate immune responses against Junín virus in mice lead to antiviral adaptive immune responses during systemic infection and do not affect viral replication in the brain. J Virol 2014; 88:7703-14. [PMID: 24760892 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00050-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Successful adaptive immunity to virus infection often depends on the initial innate response. Previously, we demonstrated that Junín virus, the etiological agent responsible for Argentine hemorrhagic fever (AHF), activates an early innate immune response via an interaction between the viral glycoprotein and Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2). Here we show that TLR2/6 but not TLR1/2 heterodimers sense Junín virus glycoprotein and induce a cytokine response, which in turn upregulates the expression of the RNA helicases RIG-I and MDA5. NF-κB and Erk1/2 were important in the cytokine response, since both proteins were phosphorylated as a result of the interaction of virus with TLR2, and treatment with an Erk1/2-specific inhibitor blocked cytokine production. We show that the Junín virus glycoprotein activates cytokine production in a human macrophage cell line as well. Moreover, we show that TLR2-mediated immune response plays a role in viral clearance because wild-type mice cleared Candid 1 (JUNV C1), the vaccine strain of Junín virus, more rapidly than did TLR2 knockout mice. This clearance correlated with the generation of Junín virus-specific CD8(+) T cells. However, infected wild-type and TLR2 knockout mice developed TLR2-independent blocking antibody responses with similar kinetics. We also show that microglia and astrocytes but not neurons are susceptible to infection with JUNV C1. Although JUNV C1 infection of the brain also triggered a TLR2-dependent cytokine response, virus levels were equivalent in wild-type and TLR2 knockout mice. Importance: Junín virus is transmitted by rodents native to Argentina and is associated with both systemic disease and, in some patients, neurological symptoms. Humans become infected when they inhale aerosolized Junín virus. AHF has a 15 to 30% mortality rate, and patients who clear the infection develop a strong antibody response to Junín virus. Here we investigated what factors determine the immune response to Junín virus. We show that a strong initial innate immune response to JUNV C1 determines how quickly mice can clear systemic infection and that this depended on the cellular immune response. In contrast, induction of an innate immune response in the brain had no effect on virus infection levels. These findings may explain how the initial immune response to Junín virus infection could determine different outcomes in humans.
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13
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Hussmann KL, Fredericksen BL. Differential induction of CCL5 by pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains of West Nile virus in brain endothelial cells and astrocytes. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:862-867. [PMID: 24413421 PMCID: PMC3973477 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.060558-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The neuroinflammatory response to West Nile virus (WNV) infection can be either protective or pathological depending on the context. Although several studies have examined chemokine profiles within brains of WNV-infected mice, little is known about how various cell types within the central nervous system (CNS) contribute to chemokine expression. Here, we assessed chemokine expression in brain microvascular endothelial cells and astrocytes, which comprise the major components of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), in response to a non-pathogenic (WNV-MAD78) and a highly pathogenic (WNV-NY) strain of WNV. Higher levels of the chemokine CCL5 were detected in WNV-MAD78-infected brain endothelial monolayers compared with WNV-NY-infected cells. However, the opposite profile was observed in WNV-infected astrocytes, indicating that pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains of WNV provoke different CCL5 profiles at the BBB. Thus, cells comprising the BBB may contribute to a dynamic pro-inflammatory response within the CNS that evolves as WNV infection progresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine L. Hussmann
- Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Brenda L. Fredericksen
- Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
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14
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Giusti CJD, Alberdi L, Frik J, Ferrer MF, Scharrig E, Schattner M, Gomez RM. Galectin-3 is upregulated in activated glia during Junin virus-induced murine encephalitis. Neurosci Lett 2011; 501:163-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2011] [Revised: 07/02/2011] [Accepted: 07/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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15
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Ecco R, Susta L, Afonso CL, Miller PJ, Brown C. Neurological lesions in chickens experimentally infected with virulent Newcastle disease virus isolates. Avian Pathol 2011; 40:145-52. [PMID: 21500034 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2010.544289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Distribution, character, and severity of lesions were evaluated in tissues from the central nervous system of chickens inoculated with 10 different Newcastle disease virus (NDV) isolates: CA 1083, Korea 97-147, Australia (all velogenic viscerotropic), Texas GB and Turkey North Dakota (both velogenic neurotropic), Nevada cormorant, Anhinga and Roakin (all mesogenic), and B1 and QV4 (lentogenic). Tissues for the present study included archived formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded brain (all strains) plus spinal cord (two strains). Encephalitis was observed in all velogenic viscerotropic and velogenic neurotropic strains, and in some mesogenic strains. In general, the encephalitic lesions began at 5 days post infection, with more severe lesions occurring around 10 days post infection. At this time point, especially in the grey matter of the brain, cerebellum and spinal cord, there were neuronal necrosis, neuronal phagocytosis, and clusters of cells with microglial morphology. Axonal degeneration and demyelination was also observed. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) for viral nucleoprotein confirmed the presence of virus. In the areas of encephalomyelitis, IHC for CD3 revealed that many of the inflammatory cells were T lymphocytes. IHC using an antibody for glial fibrillar acid protein showed reactive astrogliosis, which was most pronounced at the later time points.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roselene Ecco
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, 501 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, GA 30602-7388, USA
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16
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Gómez RM, Jaquenod de Giusti C, Sanchez Vallduvi MM, Frik J, Ferrer MF, Schattner M. Junín virus. A XXI century update. Microbes Infect 2011; 13:303-11. [PMID: 21238601 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2010.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2010] [Revised: 12/26/2010] [Accepted: 12/27/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Junín virus of the Arenaviridae family is the etiological agent of Argentine hemorrhagic fever, a febrile syndrome causing hematological and neurological symptoms. We review historical perspectives of current knowledge on the disease, and update information related to the virion and its potential pathogenic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo M Gómez
- Biotechnology and Molecular Biology Institute, CONICET-UNLP, calle 49 y 115, 1900 La Plata, Argentina.
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17
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Kolokoltsova OA, Yun NE, Poussard AL, Smith JK, Smith JN, Salazar M, Walker A, Tseng CTK, Aronson JF, Paessler S. Mice lacking alpha/beta and gamma interferon receptors are susceptible to junin virus infection. J Virol 2010; 84:13063-7. [PMID: 20926559 PMCID: PMC3004311 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01389-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2010] [Accepted: 09/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Junin virus (JUNV) causes a highly lethal human disease, Argentine hemorrhagic fever. Previous work has demonstrated the requirement for human transferrin receptor 1 for virus entry, and the absence of the receptor was proposed to be a major cause for the resistance of laboratory mice to JUNV infection. In this study, we present for the first time in vivo evidence that the disruption of interferon signaling is sufficient to generate a disease-susceptible mouse model for JUNV infection. After peripheral inoculation with virulent JUNV, adult mice lacking alpha/beta and gamma interferon receptors developed disseminated infection and severe disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga A. Kolokoltsova
- Galveston National Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Nadezda E. Yun
- Galveston National Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Allison L. Poussard
- Galveston National Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Jennifer K. Smith
- Galveston National Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Jeanon N. Smith
- Galveston National Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Milagros Salazar
- Galveston National Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Aida Walker
- Galveston National Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Chien-Te K. Tseng
- Galveston National Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Judith F. Aronson
- Galveston National Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Slobodan Paessler
- Galveston National Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Abstract
Advances in free radical research show that reactive oxygen and nitrogen oxide species, for example superoxide, nitric oxide (NO) and peroxynitrite, play an important role in the pathogenesis of different viral infections, including dengue virus. The pathogenic mechanism of dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) is complicated and is not clearly understood. The hallmarks of the dengue disease, the antibody‐dependent enhancement, the shift from T‐helper type 1 (Th1) to Th2 cytokine response and the cytokine tsunami resulting in vascular leakage can now be explained much better with the knowledge gained about NO and peroxynitrite. This paper makes an effort to present a synthesis of the current opinions to explain the pathogenesis of DHF/shock syndrome with NO on centre stage.
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