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Watts R, Rader L, Grant J, Filippi CG. Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Subcortical Gray Matter Microstructure and Volume in the Developing Brain. Behav Genet 2023; 53:208-218. [PMID: 37129746 PMCID: PMC10154259 DOI: 10.1007/s10519-023-10142-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Using baseline (ages 9-10) and two-year follow-up (ages 11-12) data from monozygotic and dizygotic twins enrolled in the longitudinal Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM Study, we investigated the genetic and environmental contributions to microstructure and volume of nine subcortical gray matter regions. Microstructure was assessed using diffusion MRI data analyzed using restriction spectrum imaging (RSI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) models. The highest heritability estimates (estimate [95% confidence interval]) for microstructure were found using the RSI model in the pallidum (baseline: 0.859 [0.818, 0.889], follow-up: 0.835 [0.787, 0.871]), putamen (baseline: 0.859 [0.819, 0.889], follow-up: 0.874 [0.838, 0.902]), and thalamus (baseline: 0.855 [0.814, 0.887], follow-up: 0.819 [0.769, 0.857]). For volumes the corresponding regions were the caudate (baseline: 0.831 [0.688, 0.992], follow-up: 0.848 [0.701, 1.011]) and putamen (baseline: 0.906 [0.875, 0.914], follow-up: 0.906 [0.885, 0.923]). The subcortical regions displayed high genetic stability (rA = 0.743-1.000) across time and exhibited unique environmental correlations (rE = 0.194-0.610). Individual differences in both gray matter microstructure and volumes can be largely explained by additive genetic effects in this sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Watts
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, 2 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
| | - Lydia Rader
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Justin Grant
- Department of Radiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
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Saeki S, Szabo H, Tomizawa R, Tarnoki AD, Tarnoki DL, Watanabe Y, Honda C. Lobular Difference in Heritability of Brain Atrophy among Elderly Japanese: A Twin Study. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2022; 58:medicina58091250. [PMID: 36143927 PMCID: PMC9505910 DOI: 10.3390/medicina58091250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Brain atrophy is related to cognitive decline. However, the heritability of brain atrophy has not been fully investigated in the Eastern Asian population. Materials and Methods: Brain imaging of 74 Japanese twins registered in the Osaka University Twin Registry was conducted with voxel-based morphometry SPM12 and was processed by individual voxel-based morphometry adjusting covariates (iVAC) toolbox. The atrophy of the measured lobes was obtained by comparing the focal volume to the average of healthy subjects. Classical twin analysis was used to measure the heritability of its z-scores. Results: The heritability of brain atrophy ranged from 0.23 to 0.97, depending upon the lobes. When adjusted to age, high heritability was reported in the frontal, frontal-temporal, and parietal lobes, but the heritability in other lobes was lower than 0.70. Conclusions: This study revealed a relatively lower heritability in brain atrophy compared to other ethnicities. This result suggests a significant environmental impact on the susceptibility of brain atrophy the Japanese. Therefore, environmental factors may have more influence on the Japanese than in other populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soichiro Saeki
- Center Hospital of the National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan
- Department of Global and Innovative Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-3-3202-7181
| | - Helga Szabo
- Medical Imaging Centre, Semmelweis University, 1082 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Rie Tomizawa
- Center for Twin Research, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
- School of Nursing, Graduate School of Nursing, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka 545-8585, Japan
| | - Adam D. Tarnoki
- Medical Imaging Centre, Semmelweis University, 1082 Budapest, Hungary
- Center for Twin Research, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - David L. Tarnoki
- Medical Imaging Centre, Semmelweis University, 1082 Budapest, Hungary
- Center for Twin Research, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Watanabe
- Department of Radiology, Shiga University of Medical Science, Shiga 520-2192, Japan
| | | | - Chika Honda
- Center for Twin Research, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
- Department of Public Health Nursing, Shiga University of Medical Science, Shiga 520-2192, Japan
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3
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Gray matter volumetric correlates of attention deficit and hyperactivity traits in emerging adolescents. Sci Rep 2022; 12:11367. [PMID: 35790754 PMCID: PMC9256746 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-15124-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research has demonstrated reduction in cortical and subcortical, including basal ganglia (BG), gray matter volumes (GMV) in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a neurodevelopmental condition that is more prevalent in males than in females. However, the volumetric deficits vary across studies. Whether volumetric reductions are more significant in males than females; to what extent these neural markers are heritable and relate to cognitive dysfunction in ADHD remain unclear. To address these questions, we followed published routines and performed voxel-based morphometry analysis of a data set (n = 11,502; 5,464 girls, 9–10 years) curated from the Adolescent Brain Cognition Development project, a population-based study of typically developing children. Of the sample, 634 and 2,826 were identified as monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins/siblings, respectively. In linear regressions, a cluster in the hypothalamus showed larger GMV, and bilateral caudate and putamen, lateral orbitofrontal and occipital cortex showed smaller GMVs, in correlation with higher ADHD scores in girls and boys combined. When examined separately, boys relative to girls showed more widespread (including BG) and stronger associations between GMV deficits and ADHD scores. ADHD traits and the volumetric correlates demonstrated heritability estimates (a2) between 0.59 and 0.79, replicating prior findings of the genetic basis of ADHD. Further, ADHD traits and the volumetric correlates (except for the hypothalamus) were each negatively and positively correlated with N-back performance. Together, these findings confirm volumetric deficits in children with more prominent ADHD traits. Highly heritable in both girls and boys and potentially more significant in boys than in girls, the structural deficits underlie diminished capacity in working memory and potentially other cognitive deficits in ADHD.
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Fu L, Li C, Li Y, Cheng X, Cui X, Jiang J, Ding N, Fang H, Tang T, Ke X. Heritability of abnormalities in limbic networks of autism spectrum disorder children: Evidence from an autism spectrum disorder twin study. Autism Res 2022; 15:628-640. [PMID: 35212461 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Although the limbic system is closely related to emotion and social behaviors, little is known about the integrity of limbic pathways and how genetics influence the anatomical abnormalities of limbic networks in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Therefore, we used an ASD twin study design to evaluate the microstructural integrity and autism-related differences in limbic pathways of young children with ASD and to estimate the heritability of limbic tracts microstructure variance. We obtained diffusion tensor imaging scans from 33 pairs of twins with ASD aged 2-9 years and 20 age-matched typically developing children. The ACE model was used to estimate the relative effects of additive genetic factors (A), shared environmental factors (C) and specific environmental factors (E) on the variability of diffusivity measurements. We found a significant decrease in fractional anisotropy (FA) in the bilateral fornix and uncinate fasciculus (UF), as well as increased mean diffusivity (MD) and radial diffusivity (RD) in the bilateral fornix and right UF of ASD children. Correlation analysis showed that FA, MD, and lateralization indices of UF were correlated with autism diagnostic observation schedule scores. The ACE model revealed that genetic effects may drive some of the variability of microstructure in the bilateral fornix, cingulum, and left UF. In conclusion, in children with ASD, there are abnormalities in the white matter microstructure of the limbic system, which is related to the core symptoms; these abnormalities may be related to the relative contribution of genetic and environmental effects on specific tracts. LAY SUMMARY: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) children have abnormal white matter structure in limbic system related to ASD symptoms, and genetic factors play an important role in the development of limbic tracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Fu
- Children's Mental Health Research Center, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Guangdong Mental Health Center, Guangdong General Hospital & Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chunyan Li
- Children's Mental Health Research Center, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yun Li
- Children's Mental Health Research Center, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xin Cheng
- Children's Mental Health Research Center, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiwen Cui
- Children's Mental Health Research Center, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jiying Jiang
- Children's Mental Health Research Center, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ning Ding
- Children's Mental Health Research Center, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hui Fang
- Children's Mental Health Research Center, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Tianyu Tang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular and Functional Imaging, Department of Radiology, Zhongda Hospital, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaoyan Ke
- Children's Mental Health Research Center, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
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Choi SY, Son SJ, Park B. Shared genetic effects of emotion and subcortical volumes in healthy adults. Neuroimage 2022; 249:118894. [PMID: 35007717 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.118894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Ample studies have reported a strong association between emotion and subcortical volumes; still, the underlying mechanism regarding this relation remains unclear. Using a twin design, the current study aimed to explore the intrinsic association between emotion and subcortical volumes by examining their phenotypic, genetic, and environmental correlations. We used a group dataset of 960 individuals from the Human Connectome Project (234 monozygotic twins, 145 dizygotic twins, 581 not twins, males = 454, age = 22-37 years). We found that both emotion and subcortical volumes were heritable. Of the 17 emotional traits, 13 were significantly phenotypically correlated with the volumes of multiple subcortical regions. There was no environmental correlation between emotion and subcortical volumes; however, we found a genetic overlap between overall emotional traits and caudate volume. Taken together, our results showed that emotion and subcortical volumes were heritable and closely related. Although the caudate has been often studied with execution of movement, given that the caudate volume is genetically associated with diverse emotional domains, such as negative affect, psychological well-being, and social relationships, it may suggest that the caudate volume might also be an important factor when studying the brain basis of emotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung Yun Choi
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Joon Son
- Department of Psychiatry, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Bumhee Park
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea; Office of Biostatistics, Medical Research Collaborating Center, Ajou Research Institute for innovative Medicine, Ajou University Medical Center, Suwon, Republic of Korea.
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6
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Hegarty JP, Pegoraro LFL, Lazzeroni LC, Raman MM, Hallmayer JF, Monterrey JC, Cleveland SC, Wolke ON, Phillips JM, Reiss AL, Hardan AY. Genetic and environmental influences on structural brain measures in twins with autism spectrum disorder. Mol Psychiatry 2020; 25:2556-2566. [PMID: 30659287 PMCID: PMC6639158 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-018-0330-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Atypical growth patterns of the brain have been previously reported in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) but these alterations are heterogeneous across individuals, which may be associated with the variable effects of genetic and environmental influences on brain development. Monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs with and without ASD (aged 6-15 years) were recruited to participate in this study. T1-weighted MRIs (n = 164) were processed with FreeSurfer to evaluate structural brain measures. Intra-class correlations were examined within twin pairs and compared across diagnostic groups. ACE modeling was also completed. Structural brain measures, including cerebral and cerebellar gray matter (GM) and white matter (WM) volume, surface area, and cortical thickness, were primarily influenced by genetic factors in TD twins; however, mean curvature appeared to be primarily influenced by environmental factors. Similarly, genetic factors accounted for the majority of variation in brain size in twins with ASD, potentially to a larger extent regarding curvature and subcortical GM; however, there were also more environmental contributions in twins with ASD on some structural brain measures, such that cortical thickness and cerebellar WM volume were primarily influenced by environmental factors. These findings indicate potential neurobiological outcomes of the genetic and environmental risk factors that have been previously associated with ASD and, although preliminary, may help account for some of the previously outlined neurobiological heterogeneity across affected individuals. This is especially relevant regarding the role of genetic and environmental factors in the development of ASD, in which certain brain structures may be more sensitive to specific influences.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Hegarty
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
| | - Luiz F L Pegoraro
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Campinas, Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campinas, SP, 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Laura C Lazzeroni
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, 1265 Welch Road, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Mira M Raman
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Joachim F Hallmayer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Julio C Monterrey
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Sue C Cleveland
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Olga N Wolke
- Department of Anesthesiology, Stanford University, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Jennifer M Phillips
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Allan L Reiss
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Antonio Y Hardan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
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7
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Hegarty JP, Lazzeroni LC, Raman MM, Pegoraro LFL, Monterrey JC, Cleveland SC, Hallmayer JF, Wolke ON, Phillips JM, Reiss AL, Hardan AY. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Lobar Brain Structures in Twins With Autism. Cereb Cortex 2020; 30:1946-1956. [PMID: 31711118 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhz215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This investigation examined whether the variation of cerebral structure is associated with genetic or environmental factors in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) compared with typically developing (TD) controls. T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging scans were obtained from twin pairs (aged 6-15 years) in which at least one twin was diagnosed with ASD or both were TD. Good quality data were available from 30 ASD, 18 discordant, and 34 TD pairs (n = 164). Structural measures (volume, cortical thickness, and surface area) were generated with FreeSurfer, and ACE modeling was completed. Lobar structures were primarily genetically mediated in TD twins (a2 = 0.60-0.89), except thickness of the temporal (a2 = 0.33 [0.04, 0.63]) and occipital lobes (c2 = 0.61 [0.45, 0.77]). Lobar structures were also predominantly genetically mediated in twins with ASD (a2 = 0.70-1.00); however, thickness of the frontal (c2 = 0.81 [0.71, 0.92]), temporal (c2 = 0.77 [0.60, 0.93]), and parietal lobes (c2 = 0.87 [0.77, 0.97]), and frontal gray matter (GM) volume (c2 = 0.79 [0.63, 0.95]), were associated with environmental factors. Conversely, occipital thickness (a2 = 0.93 [0.75, 1.11]) did not exhibit the environmental contributions that were found in controls. Differences in GM volume were associated with social communication impairments for the frontal (r = 0.52 [0.18, 0.75]), temporal (r = 0.61 [0.30, 0.80]), and parietal lobes (r = 0.53 [0.19, 0.76]). To our knowledge, this is the first investigation to suggest that environmental factors influence GM to a larger extent in children with ASD, especially in the frontal lobe.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Hegarty
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Laura C Lazzeroni
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.,Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Mira M Raman
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Luiz F L Pegoraro
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Campinas, Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campinas 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Julio C Monterrey
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Sue C Cleveland
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Joachim F Hallmayer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Olga N Wolke
- Department of Anesthesiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jennifer M Phillips
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Allan L Reiss
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Antonio Y Hardan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Maggioni E, Squarcina L, Dusi N, Diwadkar VA, Brambilla P. Twin MRI studies on genetic and environmental determinants of brain morphology and function in the early lifespan. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 109:139-149. [PMID: 31911159 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Neurodevelopment represents a period of increased opportunity and vulnerability, during which a complex confluence of genetic and environmental factors influences brain growth trajectories, cognitive and mental health outcomes. Recently, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies on twins have increased our knowledge of the extent to which genes, the environment and their interactions shape inter-individual brain variability. The present review draws from highly salient MRI studies in young twin samples to provide a robust assessment of the heritability of structural and functional brain changes during development. The available studies suggest that (as with many other traits), global brain morphology and network organization are highly heritable from early childhood to young adulthood. Conversely, genetic correlations among brain regions exhibit heterogeneous trajectories, and this heterogeneity reflects the progressive, experience-related increase in brain network complexity. Studies also support the key role of environment in mediating brain network differentiation via changes of genetic expression and hormonal levels. Thus, rest- and task-related functional brain circuits seem to result from a contextual and dynamic expression of heritability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Maggioni
- Department of Neurosciences and Mental Health, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via F. Sforza 28, Milano, Italy
| | - Letizia Squarcina
- Child Psychopathology Unit, Scientific Institute, IRCCS Eugenio Medea, via Don Luigi Monza 20, Bosisio Parini, LC, Italy
| | - Nicola Dusi
- Department of Neurosciences and Mental Health, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via F. Sforza 28, Milano, Italy
| | - Vaibhav A Diwadkar
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University, 42 W Warren Ave, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Paolo Brambilla
- Department of Neurosciences and Mental Health, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via F. Sforza 28, Milano, Italy; Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
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Variable functional connectivity architecture of the preterm human brain: Impact of developmental cortical expansion and maturation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 117:1201-1206. [PMID: 31888985 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1907892117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Functional connectivity (FC) is known to be individually unique and to reflect cognitive variability. Although FC can serve as a valuable correlate and potential predictor of (patho-) physiological nervous function in high-risk constellations, such as preterm birth, templates for individualized FC analysis are lacking, and knowledge about the capacity of the premature brain to develop FC variability is limited. In a cohort of prospectively recruited, preterm-born infants undergoing magnetic resonance imaging close to term-equivalent age, we show that the overall pattern could be reliably detected with a broad range of interindividual FC variability in regions of higher-order cognitive functions (e.g., association cortices) and less interindividual variability in unimodal regions (e.g., visual and motor cortices). However, when comparing the preterm and adult brains, some brain regions showed a marked shift in variability toward adulthood. This shift toward greater variability was strongest in cognitive networks like the attention and frontoparietal networks and could be partially predicted by developmental cortical expansion. Furthermore, FC variability was reflected by brain tissue characteristics indicating cortical maturation. Brain regions with high functional variability (e.g., the inferior frontal gyrus and temporoparietal junction) displayed lower cortical maturation at birth compared with somatosensory cortices. In conclusion, the overall pattern of interindividual variability in FC is already present preterm; however, some brain regions show increased variability toward adulthood, identifying characteristic patterns, such as in cognitive networks. These changes are related to postnatal cortical expansion and maturation, allowing for environmental and developmental factors to translate into marked individual differences in FC.
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Zhao B, Luo T, Li T, Li Y, Zhang J, Shan Y, Wang X, Yang L, Zhou F, Zhu Z, Zhu H. Genome-wide association analysis of 19,629 individuals identifies variants influencing regional brain volumes and refines their genetic co-architecture with cognitive and mental health traits. Nat Genet 2019; 51:1637-1644. [PMID: 31676860 PMCID: PMC6858580 DOI: 10.1038/s41588-019-0516-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Volumetric variations of the human brain are heritable and are associated with many brain-related complex traits. Here we performed genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of 101 brain volumetric phenotypes using the UK Biobank sample including 19,629 participants. GWAS identified 365 independent genetic variants exceeding a significance threshold of 4.9 × 10-10, adjusted for testing multiple phenotypes. A gene-based association study found 157 associated genes (124 new), and functional gene mapping analysis linked 146 additional genes. Many of the discovered genetic variants and genes have previously been implicated in cognitive and mental health traits. Through genome-wide polygenic-risk-score prediction, more than 6% of the phenotypic variance (P = 3.13 × 10-24) in four other independent studies could be explained by the UK Biobank GWAS results. In conclusion, our study identifies many new genetic associations at the variant, locus and gene levels and advances our understanding of the pleiotropy and genetic co-architecture between brain volumes and other traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingxin Zhao
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Tianyou Luo
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Tengfei Li
- Department of Radiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Biomedical Research Imaging Center, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Yun Li
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Jingwen Zhang
- Department of Biostatistics, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yue Shan
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Xifeng Wang
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Liuqing Yang
- Department of Statistics and Operations Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Fan Zhou
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Ziliang Zhu
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Hongtu Zhu
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
- Biomedical Research Imaging Center, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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11
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The utility of twins in developmental cognitive neuroscience research: How twins strengthen the ABCD research design. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2017; 32:30-42. [PMID: 29107609 PMCID: PMC5847422 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Revised: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The ABCD twin study will elucidate the genetic and environmental contributions to a wide range of mental and physical health outcomes in children, including substance use, brain and behavioral development, and their interrelationship. Comparisons within and between monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs, further powered by multiple assessments, provide information about genetic and environmental contributions to developmental associations, and enable stronger tests of causal hypotheses, than do comparisons involving unrelated children. Thus a sub-study of 800 pairs of same-sex twins was embedded within the overall Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) design. The ABCD Twin Hub comprises four leading centers for twin research in Minnesota, Colorado, Virginia, and Missouri. Each site is enrolling 200 twin pairs, as well as singletons. The twins are recruited from registries of all twin births in each State during 2006-2008. Singletons at each site are recruited following the same school-based procedures as the rest of the ABCD study. This paper describes the background and rationale for the ABCD twin study, the ascertainment of twin pairs and implementation strategy at each site, and the details of the proposed analytic strategies to quantify genetic and environmental influences and test hypotheses critical to the aims of the ABCD study.
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12
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Lukies MW, Watanabe Y, Tanaka H, Takahashi H, Ogata S, Omura K, Yorifuji S, Tomiyama N. Heritability of brain volume on MRI in middle to advanced age: A twin study of Japanese adults. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0175800. [PMID: 28426696 PMCID: PMC5398540 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0175800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain atrophy is part of the aging process and accelerated by neurodegenerative diseases, so an understanding of the background heritability of brain volume is essential. The purpose of this study was to determine the heritability of brain volume in middle to advanced age East Asian adults, an age group less studied and an ethnicity not previously studied. 3T magnetic resonance images were obtained and volumetric analyses conducted for a total of 74 individuals, 20 monozygotic twin pairs (mean age 61y min 41y max 75y) and 17 dizygotic twin pairs (mean age 64y min 41y max 85y). Total brain volume and a further seven regions were assessed, including lobar volumes, lateral divisions, and separated grey and white matter. Additive genetics and unique environment (AE) models for global brain volumes including total brain (90%), grey matter (91%) and white matter (84%) and many lobar volumes demonstrated high heritability in our study population. Our results present the heritability of brain volume in middle to advanced age as possibly higher in East Asian adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew W. Lukies
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Watanabe
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Hisashi Tanaka
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Hiroto Takahashi
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Soshiro Ogata
- Department of Health Promotion Science, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
- Osaka University Twin Research Group, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Kayoko Omura
- Department of Public Health and Community Nursing, Mie Prefectural Nursing College, Mie, Japan
| | - Shiro Yorifuji
- Division of Functional Diagnostic Science, Osaka University Medical School, Suita, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Tomiyama
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
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13
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van der Lee SJ, Roshchupkin GV, Adams HHH, Schmidt H, Hofer E, Saba Y, Schmidt R, Hofman A, Amin N, van Duijn CM, Vernooij MW, Ikram MA, Niessen WJ. Gray matter heritability in family-based and population-based studies using voxel-based morphometry. Hum Brain Mapp 2017; 38:2408-2423. [PMID: 28145022 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.23528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2016] [Revised: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The combination of genetics and imaging has improved their understanding of the brain through studies of aggregate measures obtained from high-resolution structural imaging. Voxel-wise analyses have the potential to provide more detailed information of genetic influences on the brain. Here they report a large-scale study of the heritability of gray matter at voxel resolution (1 × 1 × 1 mm). METHODS Validated voxel-based morphometry (VBM) protocols were applied to process magnetic resonance imaging data of 3,239 unrelated subjects from a population-based study and 491 subjects from two family-based studies. Genome-wide genetic data was used to estimate voxel-wise gray matter heritability of the unrelated subjects and pedigree-structure was used to estimate heritability in families. They subsequently associated two genetic variants, known to be linked with subcortical brain volume, with most heritable voxels to determine if this would enhance their association signals. RESULTS Voxels significantly heritable in both estimates mapped to subcortical structures, but also voxels in the language areas of the left hemisphere were found significantly heritable. When comparing regional patterns of heritability, family-based estimates were higher than population-based estimates. However, regional consistency of the heritability measures across study designs was high (Pearson's correlation coefficient = 0.73, P = 2.6 × 10-13 ). They further show enhancement of the association signal of two previously discovered genetic loci with subcortical volume by using only the most heritable voxels. CONCLUSION Gray matter voxel-wise heritability can be reliably estimated with different methods. Combining heritability estimates from multiple studies is feasible to construct reliable heritability maps of gray matter voxels. Hum Brain Mapp 38:2408-2423, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven J van der Lee
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gennady V Roshchupkin
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Medical Informatics, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hieab H H Adams
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Helena Schmidt
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Centre for Molecular Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Department of Neurology, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Edith Hofer
- Clinical Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurology, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria.,Institute of Medical Informatics, Statistics and Documentation, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Yasaman Saba
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Centre for Molecular Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Reinhold Schmidt
- Clinical Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurology, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Albert Hofman
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Najaf Amin
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Meike W Vernooij
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M Arfan Ikram
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Neurology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wiro J Niessen
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Medical Informatics, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
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14
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Development of brain networks and relevance of environmental and genetic factors: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 71:215-239. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Revised: 07/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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15
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de Jong LW, Vidal JS, Forsberg LE, Zijdenbos AP, Haight T, Sigurdsson S, Gudnason V, van Buchem MA, Launer LJ. Allometric scaling of brain regions to intra-cranial volume: An epidemiological MRI study. Hum Brain Mapp 2016; 38:151-164. [PMID: 27557999 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.23351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 07/31/2016] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
There is growing evidence that sub-structures of the brain scale allometrically to total brain size, that is, in a non-proportional and non-linear way. Here, scaling of different volumes of interest (VOI) to intra-cranial volume (ICV) was examined. It was assessed whether scaling was allometric or isometric and whether scaling coefficients significantly differed from each other. We also tested to what extent allometric scaling of VOI was introduced by the automated segmentation technique. Furthermore, reproducibility of allometric scaling was studied different age groups and study populations. Study samples included samples of cognitively healthy adults from the community-based Age Gene/Environment Susceptibility-Reykjavik Study (AGES-Reykjavik Study) (N = 3,883), the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study (CARDIA) (N =709), and the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) (N = 180). Data encompassed participants with different age, ethnicity, risk factor profile, and ICV and VOI obtained with different automated MRI segmentation techniques. Our analysis showed that (1) allometric scaling is a trait of all parts of the brain, (2) scaling of neo-cortical white matter, neo-cortical gray matter, and deep gray matter structures including the cerebellum are significantly different from each other, and (3) allometric scaling of brain structures cannot solely be explained by age-associated atrophy, sex, ethnicity, or a systematic bias from study-specific segmentation algorithm, but appears to be a true feature of brain geometry. Hum Brain Mapp 38:151-164, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura W de Jong
- Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jean-Sébastien Vidal
- Geriatrics Department, AP-HP, Broca Hospital, Paris, 75013, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris V, Paris, EA, 4468, 75006, France
| | - Lars E Forsberg
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Thaddeus Haight
- Intramural Research Program of the National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland
| | | | | | | | - Mark A van Buchem
- Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Lenore J Launer
- Intramural Research Program of the National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland
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16
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Toro R, Poline JB, Huguet G, Loth E, Frouin V, Banaschewski T, Barker GJ, Bokde A, Büchel C, Carvalho FM, Conrod P, Fauth-Bühler M, Flor H, Gallinat J, Garavan H, Gowland P, Heinz A, Ittermann B, Lawrence C, Lemaître H, Mann K, Nees F, Paus T, Pausova Z, Rietschel M, Robbins T, Smolka MN, Ströhle A, Schumann G, Bourgeron T. Genomic architecture of human neuroanatomical diversity. Mol Psychiatry 2015; 20:1011-6. [PMID: 25224261 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2014.99] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Human brain anatomy is strikingly diverse and highly inheritable: genetic factors may explain up to 80% of its variability. Prior studies have tried to detect genetic variants with a large effect on neuroanatomical diversity, but those currently identified account for <5% of the variance. Here, based on our analyses of neuroimaging and whole-genome genotyping data from 1765 subjects, we show that up to 54% of this heritability is captured by large numbers of single-nucleotide polymorphisms of small-effect spread throughout the genome, especially within genes and close regulatory regions. The genetic bases of neuroanatomical diversity appear to be relatively independent of those of body size (height), but shared with those of verbal intelligence scores. The study of this genomic architecture should help us better understand brain evolution and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Toro
- 1] Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, Neuroscience Department, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France [2] CNRS URA 2182 'Genes, synapses and cognition', Paris, France [3] Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, Paris, France
| | - J-B Poline
- 1] Henry H. Wheeler, Jr. Brain Imaging Center, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA [2] Neurospin, Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives, Paris, France
| | - G Huguet
- 1] Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, Neuroscience Department, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France [2] CNRS URA 2182 'Genes, synapses and cognition', Paris, France [3] Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, Paris, France
| | - E Loth
- 1] Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry (SGDP) Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK [2] MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK
| | - V Frouin
- Henry H. Wheeler, Jr. Brain Imaging Center, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - T Banaschewski
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - G J Barker
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry (SGDP) Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
| | - A Bokde
- Discipline of Psychiatry, School of Medicine and Trinity College Institute of Neurosciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - C Büchel
- University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - F M Carvalho
- 1] Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry (SGDP) Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK [2] MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK
| | - P Conrod
- 1] Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry (SGDP) Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK [2] Department of Psychiatry, Université de Montreal, CHU Ste Justine Hospital, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - M Fauth-Bühler
- Department of Addictive Behaviour and Addiction Medicine, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - H Flor
- Department of Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - J Gallinat
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Campus Charité Mitte, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - H Garavan
- 1] Discipline of Psychiatry, School of Medicine and Trinity College Institute of Neurosciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland [2] Departments of Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - P Gowland
- Departments of Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - A Heinz
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Campus Charité Mitte, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - B Ittermann
- Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Berlin, Germany
| | - C Lawrence
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - H Lemaître
- 1] Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Medicale, INSERM CEA Unit 1000, 'Imaging & Psychiatry', University Paris Sud, Orsay, France [2] Department of Adolescent Psychopathology and Medicine, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Maison de Solenn, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
| | - K Mann
- Department of Addictive Behaviour and Addiction Medicine, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - F Nees
- Department of Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - T Paus
- 1] School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK [2] Psychology and Psychiatry Department, Rotman Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada [3] Department of Psychiatry, Université de Montreal, CHU Ste Justine Hospital, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Z Pausova
- The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - M Rietschel
- Department of Genetic Epidemiology in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - T Robbins
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - M N Smolka
- 1] Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany [2] Department of Psychology, Neuroimaging Center, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - A Ströhle
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Campus Charité Mitte, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - G Schumann
- 1] Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry (SGDP) Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK [2] MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK [3] Fondamental Foundation, Créteil, France
| | - T Bourgeron
- 1] Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, Neuroscience Department, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France [2] CNRS URA 2182 'Genes, synapses and cognition', Paris, France [3] Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, Paris, France [4] Fondamental Foundation, Créteil, France
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17
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What twin studies tell us about the heritability of brain development, morphology, and function: a review. Neuropsychol Rev 2015; 25:27-46. [PMID: 25672928 PMCID: PMC4412550 DOI: 10.1007/s11065-015-9278-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/06/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The development of brain structure and function shows large inter-individual variation. The extent to which this variation is due to genetic or environmental influences has been investigated in twin studies using structural and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). The current review presents an overview of twin studies using MRI in children, adults and elderly, and focuses on cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. The majority of the investigated brain measures are heritable to a large extent (60–80 %), although spatial differences in heritability are observed as well. Cross-sectional studies suggest that heritability estimates slightly increase from childhood to adulthood. Long-term longitudinal studies are better suited to study developmental changes in heritability, but these studies are limited. Results so far suggest that the heritability of change over time is relatively low or absent, but more studies are needed to confirm these findings. Compared to brain structure, twin studies of brain function are scarce, and show much lower heritability estimates (~40 %). The insights from heritability studies aid our understanding of individual differences in brain structure and function. With the recent start of large genetic MRI consortia, the chance of finding genes that explain the heritability of brain morphology increases. Gene identification may provide insight in biological mechanisms involved in brain processes, which in turn will learn us more about healthy and disturbed brain functioning.
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18
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Caldwell JZK, Armstrong JM, Hanson JL, Sutterer MJ, Stodola DE, Koenigs M, Kalin NH, Essex MJ, Davidson RJ. Preschool externalizing behavior predicts gender-specific variation in adolescent neural structure. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0117453. [PMID: 25658357 PMCID: PMC4319931 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 12/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus is believed to underlie the development of much psychopathology. However, to date only limited longitudinal data relate early behavior with neural structure later in life. Our objective was to examine the relationship of early life externalizing behavior with adolescent brain structure. We report here the first longitudinal study linking externalizing behavior during preschool to brain structure during adolescence. We examined the relationship of preschool externalizing behavior with amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex volumes at age 15 years in a community sample of 76 adolescents followed longitudinally since their mothers’ pregnancy. A significant gender by externalizing behavior interaction revealed that males—but not females—with greater early childhood externalizing behavior had smaller amygdala volumes at adolescence (t = 2.33, p = .023). No significant results were found for the hippocampus or the prefrontal cortex. Greater early externalizing behavior also related to smaller volume of a cluster including the angular gyrus and tempoparietal junction across genders. Results were not attributable to the impact of preschool anxiety, preschool maternal stress, school-age internalizing or externalizing behaviors, or adolescent substance use. These findings demonstrate a novel, gender-specific relationship between early-childhood externalizing behavior and adolescent amygdala volume, as well as a cross-gender result for the angular gyrus and tempoparietal junction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Z. K. Caldwell
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Jeffrey M. Armstrong
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Jamie L. Hanson
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Matthew J. Sutterer
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Diane E. Stodola
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Michael Koenigs
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Ned H. Kalin
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Marilyn J. Essex
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Richard J. Davidson
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Center for Investigating Healthy Minds, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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19
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Roalf DR, Vandekar SN, Almasy L, Ruparel K, Satterthwaite TD, Elliott MA, Podell J, Gallagher S, Jackson CT, Prasad K, Wood J, Pogue-Geile MF, Nimgaonkar VL, Gur RC, Gur RE. Heritability of subcortical and limbic brain volume and shape in multiplex-multigenerational families with schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2015; 77:137-46. [PMID: 24976379 PMCID: PMC4247350 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2013] [Revised: 04/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Brain abnormalities of subcortical and limbic nuclei are common in patients with schizophrenia, and variation in these structures is considered a putative endophenotype for the disorder. Multiplex-multigenerational families with schizophrenia provide an opportunity to investigate the impact of shared genetic ancestry, but these families have not been previously examined to study structural brain abnormalities. We estimate the heritability of subcortical and hippocampal brain volumes in multiplex-multigenerational families and the heritability of subregions using advanced shape analysis. METHODS The study comprised 439 participants from two sites who underwent 3T structural magnetic resonance imaging. The participants included 190 European-Americans from 32 multiplex-multigenerational families with schizophrenia and 249 healthy comparison subjects. Subcortical and hippocampal volume and shape were measured in 14 brain structures. Heritability was estimated for volume and shape. RESULTS Volume and shape were heritable in families. Estimates of heritability in subcortical and limbic volumes ranged from .45 in the right hippocampus to .84 in the left putamen. The shape of these structures was heritable (range, .40-.49), and specific subregional shape estimates of heritability tended to exceed heritability estimates of volume alone. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that volume and shape of subcortical and limbic brain structures are potential endophenotypic markers in schizophrenia. The specificity obtained using shape analysis may improve selection of imaging phenotypes that better reflect the underlying neurobiology. Our findings can aid in the identification of specific genetic targets that affect brain structure and function in schizophrenia.
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20
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Swagerman SC, Brouwer RM, de Geus EJC, Hulshoff Pol HE, Boomsma DI. Development and heritability of subcortical brain volumes at ages 9 and 12. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2014; 13:733-42. [DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Revised: 10/09/2014] [Accepted: 10/11/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S. C. Swagerman
- Department of Biological Psychology; VU University Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - R. M. Brouwer
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Department of Psychiatry; University Medical Center Utrecht; Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - E. J. C. de Geus
- Department of Biological Psychology; VU University Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
- Emgo Institute for Health and Care Research; VU University Medical Center; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - H. E. Hulshoff Pol
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Department of Psychiatry; University Medical Center Utrecht; Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - D. I. Boomsma
- Department of Biological Psychology; VU University Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
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21
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Batouli SAH, Trollor JN, Wen W, Sachdev PS. The heritability of volumes of brain structures and its relationship to age: a review of twin and family studies. Ageing Res Rev 2014; 13:1-9. [PMID: 24211464 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2013.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2013] [Revised: 10/15/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Total brain volume (BV) and the volumes of brain substructures are influenced by genes, the magnitude of which changes with age. One approach to the examination of genetic influences on the volumes of brain structures is to determine their heritability using twin and family studies. We reviewed published cross-sectional studies which examined heritability in healthy subjects at different ages. We identified 32 studies, which examined a total of 77 brain volumetric measures. The findings of our review showed that BVs are under significant genetic influence at all ages, although different brain regions showed different heritability levels. Furthermore, the cross-sectional approach of our review found that heritability factor for the majority of BVs declined with age, such as in the total brain and cerebrum, followed by subsequent increment of environmental influences. Overall, this study identified for the first time a cross-sectional pattern for brain structures' heritability changes with age, and suggests the potential for longitudinal investigations in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Amir Hossein Batouli
- Center for Healthy Brain Ageing (CHeBA), School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Julian N Trollor
- Center for Healthy Brain Ageing (CHeBA), School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Department of Developmental Disability Neuropsychiatry, School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Wei Wen
- Center for Healthy Brain Ageing (CHeBA), School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Neuropsychiatric Institute, Prince of Wales Hospital, NSW, Australia; Primary Dementia Collaborative Research Centre, University of New South Wales Medicine, School of Psychiatry, NSW, Australia
| | - Perminder S Sachdev
- Center for Healthy Brain Ageing (CHeBA), School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Neuropsychiatric Institute, Prince of Wales Hospital, NSW, Australia; Primary Dementia Collaborative Research Centre, University of New South Wales Medicine, School of Psychiatry, NSW, Australia.
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22
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Eyler LT, Vuoksimaa E, Panizzon MS, Fennema-Notestine C, Neale MC, Chen CH, Jak A, Franz CE, Lyons MJ, Thompson WK, Spoon KM, Fischl B, Dale AM, Kremen WS. Conceptual and data-based investigation of genetic influences and brain asymmetry: a twin study of multiple structural phenotypes. J Cogn Neurosci 2013; 26:1100-17. [PMID: 24283492 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_00531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Right-left regional cerebral differences are a feature of the human brain linked to functional abilities, aging, and neurodevelopmental and mental disorders. The role of genetic factors in structural asymmetry has been incompletely studied. We analyzed data from 515 individuals (130 monozygotic twin pairs, 97 dizygotic pairs, and 61 unpaired twins) from the Vietnam Era Twin Study of Aging to answer three questions about genetic determinants of brain structural asymmetry: First, does the magnitude of heritability differ for homologous regions in each hemisphere? Despite adequate power to detect regional differences, heritability estimates were not significantly larger in one hemisphere versus the other, except left > right inferior lateral ventricle heritability. Second, do different genetic factors influence left and right hemisphere size in homologous regions? Interhemispheric genetic correlations were high and significant; in only two subcortical regions (pallidum and accumbens) did the estimate statistically differ from 1.0. Thus, there was little evidence for different genetic influences on left and right hemisphere regions. Third, to what extent do genetic factors influence variability in left-right size differences? There was no evidence that variation in asymmetry (i.e., the size difference) of left and right homologous regions was genetically determined, except in pallidum and accumbens. Our findings suggest that genetic factors do not play a significant role in determining individual variation in the degree of regional cortical size asymmetries measured with MRI, although they may do so for volume of some subcortical structures. Despite varying interpretations of existing data, we view the present results as consistent with previous findings.
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Batouli SAH, Sachdev PS, Wen W, Wright MJ, Ames D, Trollor JN. Heritability of brain volumes in older adults: the Older Australian Twins Study. Neurobiol Aging 2013; 35:937.e5-18. [PMID: 24231518 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2013.10.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Revised: 10/10/2013] [Accepted: 10/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to brain structure change throughout the lifespan. Brain structures have been reported to be highly heritable in middle-aged individuals and younger; however, the influence of genes on brain structure is less studied in older adults. We performed a magnetic resonance imaging study of 236 older twins, with a mean age of 71.4 ± 5.7 years, to examine the heritability of 53 brain global and lobar volumetric measures. Total brain volume (63%) and other volumetric measures were moderately to highly heritable in late life, and these genetic influences tended to decrease with age, suggesting a greater influence of environmental factors as age advanced. Genetic influences were higher in men and on the left hemisphere compared with the right. In multivariate models, common genetic factors were observed for global and lobar total and gray matter volumes. This study examined the genetic contribution to 53 brain global and lobar volumetric measures in older twins for the first time, and the influence of age, sex, and laterality on these genetic contributions, which are useful information for a better understanding of the process of brain aging and helping individuals to have a healthy aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Amir Hossein Batouli
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CHeBA), School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Perminder S Sachdev
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CHeBA), School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
| | - Wei Wen
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CHeBA), School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | | | - David Ames
- Director, National Ageing Research Institute and University of Melbourne, Australia; Professor of Ageing and health, Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Australia
| | - Julian N Trollor
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CHeBA), School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Head, Department of Developmental Disability Neuropsychiatry, School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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Bryant C, Giovanello KS, Ibrahim JG, Chang J, Shen D, Peterson BS, Zhu H. Mapping the genetic variation of regional brain volumes as explained by all common SNPs from the ADNI study. PLoS One 2013; 8:e71723. [PMID: 24015190 PMCID: PMC3756017 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Typically twin studies are used to investigate the aggregate effects of genetic and environmental influences on brain phenotypic measures. Although some phenotypic measures are highly heritable in twin studies, SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) identified by genome-wide association studies (GWAS) account for only a small fraction of the heritability of these measures. We mapped the genetic variation (the proportion of phenotypic variance explained by variation among SNPs) of volumes of pre-defined regions across the whole brain, as explained by 512,905 SNPs genotyped on 747 adult participants from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI). We found that 85% of the variance of intracranial volume (ICV) (p = 0.04) was explained by considering all SNPs simultaneously, and after adjusting for ICV, total grey matter (GM) and white matter (WM) volumes had genetic variation estimates near zero (p = 0.5). We found varying estimates of genetic variation across 93 non-overlapping regions, with asymmetry in estimates between the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Several regions reported in previous studies to be related to Alzheimer's disease progression were estimated to have a large proportion of volumetric variance explained by the SNPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Bryant
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Kelly S. Giovanello
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Joseph G. Ibrahim
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Jing Chang
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Dinggang Shen
- Department of Radiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Bradley S. Peterson
- The Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, The New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Hongtu Zhu
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Heritability of subcortical brain measures: a perspective for future genome-wide association studies. Neuroimage 2013; 83:98-102. [PMID: 23770413 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Revised: 05/31/2013] [Accepted: 06/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Several large imaging-genetics consortia aim to identify genetic variants influencing subcortical brain volumes. We investigated the extent to which genetic variation accounts for the variation in subcortical volumes, including thalamus, amygdala, putamen, caudate nucleus, globus pallidus and nucleus accumbens and obtained the stability of these brain volumes over a five-year period. The heritability estimates for all subcortical regions were high, with the highest heritability estimates observed for the thalamus (.80) and caudate nucleus (.88) and lowest for the left nucleus accumbens (.44). Five-year stability was substantial and higher for larger [e.g., thalamus (.88), putamen (.86), caudate nucleus (.87)] compared to smaller [nucleus accumbens (.45)] subcortical structures. These results provide additional evidence that subcortical structures are promising starting points for identifying genetic variants that influence brain structure.
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Networks of anatomical covariance. Neuroimage 2013; 80:489-504. [PMID: 23711536 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2013] [Revised: 05/08/2013] [Accepted: 05/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Functional imaging or diffusion-weighted imaging techniques are widely used to understand brain connectivity at the systems level and its relation to normal neurodevelopment, cognition or brain disorders. It is also possible to extract information about brain connectivity from the covariance of morphological metrics derived from anatomical MRI. These covariance patterns may arise from genetic influences on normal development and aging, from mutual trophic reinforcement as well as from experience-related plasticity. This review describes the basic methodological strategies, the biological basis of the observed covariance as well as applications in normal brain and brain disease before a final review of future prospects for the technique.
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Abstract
Two studies (Golestani et al., 2007; Wong et al., 2008) have reported a positive correlation between the ability to perceive foreign speech sounds and the volume of Heschl's gyrus (HG), the structure that houses the auditory cortex. More precisely, participants with larger left Heschl's gyri learned consonantal or tonal contrasts faster than those with smaller HG. These studies leave open the question of the impact of experience on HG volumes. In the current research, we investigated the effect of early language exposure on Heschl's gyrus by comparing Spanish-Catalan bilinguals who have been exposed to two languages since childhood, to a group of Spanish monolinguals matched in education, socio-economic status, and musical experience. Manual volumetric measurements of HG revealed that bilinguals have, on average, larger Heschl's gyri than monolinguals. This was corroborated, for the left Heschl's gyrus, by a voxel-based morphometry analysis showing larger gray matter volumes in bilinguals than in monolinguals. Since the bilinguals in this study were not a self-selected group, this observation provides a clear demonstration that learning a second language is a causal factor in the increased size of the auditory cortex.
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Blokland GAM, de Zubicaray GI, McMahon KL, Wright MJ. Genetic and environmental influences on neuroimaging phenotypes: a meta-analytical perspective on twin imaging studies. Twin Res Hum Genet 2012; 15:351-71. [PMID: 22856370 PMCID: PMC4291185 DOI: 10.1017/thg.2012.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Because brain structure and function are affected in neurological and psychiatric disorders, it is important to disentangle the sources of variation in these phenotypes. Over the past 15 years, twin studies have found evidence for both genetic and environmental influences on neuroimaging phenotypes, but considerable variation across studies makes it difficult to draw clear conclusions about the relative magnitude of these influences. Here we performed the first meta-analysis of structural MRI data from 48 studies on >1,250 twin pairs, and diffusion tensor imaging data from 10 studies on 444 twin pairs. The proportion of total variance accounted for by genes (A), shared environment (C), and unshared environment (E), was calculated by averaging A, C, and E estimates across studies from independent twin cohorts and weighting by sample size. The results indicated that additive genetic estimates were significantly different from zero for all meta-analyzed phenotypes, with the exception of fractional anisotropy (FA) of the callosal splenium, and cortical thickness (CT) of the uncus, left parahippocampal gyrus, and insula. For many phenotypes there was also a significant influence of C. We now have good estimates of heritability for many regional and lobar CT measures, in addition to the global volumes. Confidence intervals are wide and number of individuals small for many of the other phenotypes. In conclusion, while our meta-analysis shows that imaging measures are strongly influenced by genes, and that novel phenotypes such as CT measures, FA measures, and brain activation measures look especially promising, replication across independent samples and demographic groups is necessary.
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Waters-Metenier S, Toulopoulou T. Putative structural neuroimaging endophenotypes in schizophrenia: a comprehensive review of the current evidence. FUTURE NEUROLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.2217/fnl.11.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The genetic contribution to schizophrenia etiopathogenesis is underscored by the fact that the best predictor of developing schizophrenia is having an affected first-degree relative, which increases lifetime risk by tenfold, as well as the observation that when both parents are affected, the risk of schizophrenia increases to approximately 50%, compared with 1% in the general population. The search to elucidate the complex genetic architecture of schizophrenia has employed various approaches, including twin and family studies to examine co-aggregation of brain abnormalities, studies on genetic linkage and studies using genome-wide association to identify genetic variations associated with schizophrenia. ‘Endophenotypes’, or ‘intermediate phenotypes’, are potentially narrower constructs of genetic risk. Hypothetically, they are intermediate in the pathway between genetic variation and clinical phenotypes and can supposedly be implemented to assist in the identification of genetic diathesis for schizophrenia and, possibly, in redefining clinical phenomenology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheena Waters-Metenier
- Department of Psychosis Studies, King’s College London, King’s Health Partners, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK
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