Effects of training strategies implemented in a complex videogame on functional connectivity of attentional networks

Unsupervised identification of internal perceptual states influencing psychomotor performance

When humans perform repetitive tasks over long periods, their performance is not constant. People drift in and out of states that might be loosely categorised as engagement, disengagement or 'flow' and these states will be reflected in aspects of their performance (for example, reaction time, accuracy, criteria shifts and potentially longer-term strategy). Until recently it has been challenging to relate these behavioural states to the underlying neural mechanisms that generate them. Here, we acquired magnetoencephalograpy recordings and contemporaneous, dense behavioural data from participants performing an engaging task (Tetris) that required rapid, strategic behavioural responses over the period of an entire game. We asked whether it was possible to infer the presence of distinct behavioural states from the behavioural data and, if so, whether these states would have distinct neural correlates. We used hidden Markov Modelling to segment the behavioural time series into states with unique behavioural signatures, finding that we could identify three distinct and robust behavioural states. We then computed occipital alpha power across each state. These within-participant differences in alpha power were statistically significant, suggesting that individuals shift between behaviourally and neurally distinct states during complex performance, and that visuo-spatial attention change across these states.

Cognitive and gray matter volume predictors of learning across two types of casual video games in older Adults: Action vs Strategy

Video game based and other computerized cognitive interventions are generally efficacious in bolstering cognition in adults over the age of 60, though specific efficacy varies widely by intervention methodology. Furthermore, there is reason to suspect that the process of learning complex tasks like video games is a major factor underpinning training-related transfer to cognition. The current study examined the neurocognitive predictors of learning of video games, and how those predictors may differentially relate to games of different genres. Learning rates from two different types of games, one action and another strategy, were calculated for 32 older adults (mean age = 66.29 years, 65 % Female). An extensive cognitive battery as well as structural measures of regional gray matter volumes were examined to identify the cognitive and the brain structure contributors to the learning rates for each type of game. A broad leftlateralized gray matter volume construct, as well as cognitive constructs of processing speed, episodic memory and reasoning, were found to significantly predict learning of the Strategy game, but not the Action game. Additionally, this gray matter construct was found to entirely mediate the relationships between the Strategy game learning and cognition, esp. episodic memory and reasoning. The contributions of age-sensitive cognitive skills as well as related brain volumes of lateral fronto-parietal regions to Strategy video games implicate the examined game as a potential game training tool in normal aging.

Long-term cognitive training enhances fluid cognition and brain connectivity in individuals with MCI

Amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) is a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Multi-domain cognitive training (CT) may slow cognitive decline and delay AD onset. However, most work involves short interventions, targeting single cognitive domains or lacking active controls. We conducted a single-blind randomized controlled trial to investigate the effect of a 6-month, multi-domain CT on Fluid Cognition, functional connectivity in memory and executive functioning networks (primary outcomes), and white matter microstructural properties (secondary outcome) in aMCI. Sixty participants were randomly assigned to either a multi-domain CT or crossword training (CW) group, and thirty-four participants completed the intervention. We found a significant group-by-time interaction in Fluid Cognition (p = 0.007, F (1,28) = 8.26, Cohen's d = 0.38, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.45-14.4), with 90% of CT patients showing post-intervention improvements (p < 0.01, Cohen's d = 0.7). The CT group also showed better post-intervention Fluid Cognition than healthy controls (HCs, N = 45, p = 0.045). Functional connectivity analyses showed a significant group-by-time interaction (Cohen's d ≥ 0.8) in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and inferior parietal cortex (IPC) networks. Specifically, CT displayed post-intervention increases whereas CW displayed decreases in functional connectivity. Moreover, increased connectivity strength between the left DLPFC and medial PFC was associated with improved Fluid Cognition. At a microstructural level, we observed a decline in fiber density (FD) for both groups, but the CT group declined less steeply (1.3 vs. 2%). The slower decline in FD for the CT group in several tracts, including the cingulum-hippocampus tract, was associated with better working memory. Finally, we identified regions in cognitive control and memory networks for which baseline functional connectivity and microstructural properties were associated with changes in Fluid Cognition. Long-term, multi-domain CT improves cognitive functioning and functional connectivity and delays structural brain decline in aMCI (ClinicalTrials.gov number: NCT03883308).

Brain modulation after exergaming training in advanced forms of Parkinson's disease: a randomized controlled study

BACKGROUND

Physical activity combined with virtual reality and exergaming has emerged as a new technique to improve engagement and provide clinical benefit for gait and balance disorders in people with Parkinson's disease (PD).

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of a training protocol using a home-based exergaming system on brain volume and resting-state functional connectivity (rs-FC) in persons with PD.

METHODS

A single blind randomized controlled trial was conducted in people with PD with gait and/or balance disorders. The experimental (active) group performed 18 training sessions at home by playing a custom-designed exergame with full body movements, standing in front of a RGB-D Kinect® motion sensor, while the control group played using the computer keyboard. Both groups received the same training program. Clinical scales, gait recordings, and brain MRI were performed before and after training. We assessed the effects of both training on both the grey matter volumes (GVM) and rs-FC, within and between groups.

RESULTS

Twenty-three patients were enrolled and randomly assigned to either the active (n = 11) or control (n = 12) training groups. Comparing pre- to post-training, the active group showed significant improvements in gait and balance disorders, with decreased rs-FC between the sensorimotor, attentional and basal ganglia networks, but with an increase between the cerebellar and basal ganglia networks. In contrast, the control group showed no significant changes, and rs-FC significantly decreased in the mesolimbic and visuospatial cerebellar and basal ganglia networks. Post-training, the rs-FC was greater in the active relative to the control group between the basal ganglia, motor cortical and cerebellar areas, and bilaterally between the insula and the inferior temporal lobe. Conversely, rs FC was lower in the active relative to the control group between the pedunculopontine nucleus and cerebellar areas, between the temporal inferior lobes and the right thalamus, between the left putamen and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and within the default mode network.

CONCLUSIONS

Full-body movement training using a customized exergame induced brain rs-FC changes within the sensorimotor, attentional and cerebellar networks in people with PD. Further research is needed to comprehensively understand the neurophysiological effects of such training approaches. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03560089.

Long-Term Bridge Training Induces Functional Plasticity Changes in the Brain of Early-Adult Individuals

The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of extended bridge expertise on rapid perceptual processing and brain functional plasticity in early adulthood, utilizing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). In this investigation, we compared 6 high-level college bridge players with 25 college students lacking bridge experience, assessing their intelligence and working memory. Additionally, we scrutinized behavioral performance and whole-brain activation patterns during an image perceptual judgment task. Findings indicated significant group and interaction effects at the behavioral level. Bridge players exhibited prolonged reaction times and enhanced accuracy on card tasks. At the neural level, the activation level of bridge players in the occipital lobe exceeded that of ordinary college students, with more pronounced group effects in the motor area and inferior parietal lobule during card tasks. This implies that bridge expertise in early adulthood induces functional plasticity changes in regions associated with visual processing and automated mathematical computation.

Videogame training increases clinical well-being, attention and hippocampal-prefrontal functional connectivity in patients with schizophrenia

Recent research shows that videogame training enhances neuronal plasticity and cognitive improvements in healthy individuals. As patients with schizophrenia exhibit reduced neuronal plasticity linked to cognitive deficits and symptoms, we investigated whether videogame-related cognitive improvements and plasticity changes extend to this population. In a training study, patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls were randomly assigned to 3D or 2D platformer videogame training or E-book reading (active control) for 8 weeks, 30 min daily. After training, both videogame conditions showed significant increases in sustained attention compared to the control condition, correlated with increased functional connectivity in a hippocampal-prefrontal network. Notably, patients trained with videogames mostly improved in negative symptoms, general psychopathology, and perceived mental health recovery. Videogames, incorporating initiative, goal setting and gratification, offer a training approach closer to real life than current psychiatric treatments. Our results provide initial evidence that they may represent a possible adjunct therapeutic intervention for complex mental disorders.

Evidence for a competitive relationship between executive functions and statistical learning

The ability of the brain to extract patterns from the environment and predict future events, known as statistical learning, has been proposed to interact in a competitive manner with prefrontal lobe-related networks and their characteristic cognitive or executive functions. However, it remains unclear whether these cognitive functions also possess a competitive relationship with implicit statistical learning across individuals and at the level of latent executive function components. In order to address this currently unknown aspect, we investigated, in two independent experiments (NStudy1 = 186, NStudy2 = 157), the relationship between implicit statistical learning, measured by the Alternating Serial Reaction Time task, and executive functions, measured by multiple neuropsychological tests. In both studies, a modest, but consistent negative correlation between implicit statistical learning and most executive function measures was observed. Factor analysis further revealed that a factor representing verbal fluency and complex working memory seemed to drive these negative correlations. Thus, the antagonistic relationship between implicit statistical learning and executive functions might specifically be mediated by the updating component of executive functions or/and long-term memory access.

Effects of Sport Stacking on Cognition in Patients With Mild Alzheimer's Disease and MCI: Preliminary Findings of Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE

This mixed-method pilot study aims to investigate the feasibility and preliminary effects of sport stacking on cognitive function in individuals with mild Alzheimer's disease (AD) and those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI).

METHODS

Twenty-four community-dwelling subjects with confirmed mild AD or MCI were evenly randomly assigned to either the 12-week sport stacking intervention group (n = 12) or clinic routine management control group (n = 12). Outcome evaluation included the Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT), Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study-Activities of Daily Living scale (ADCS-ADL), and plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). A qualitative descriptive study was conducted to explore the overall perception and experience of the sport stacking from the subjects' perspective.

RESULTS

Twenty-two subjects completed the trial. At 12 weeks post-intervention, compared to the control group, the sport stacking group had significantly greater improvements in AVLT immediate recall (P < .001, Cohen d = .66) and an increase in plasma BDNF (P < .001, Cohen d = .64). Subgroup analysis indicated that subjects with MCI had significantly greater increases in AVLT immediate recall (P = .005, Cohen d = .72), ADCS-ADL (P = .130, Cohen d = .42) and plasma BDNF (P = .024, Cohen d = .83). Twelve subjects participating in the post-intervention interviews expressed the benefits (e.g., hand-eye coordination and faster reaction) from sport stacking and their enjoyment of it.

CONCLUSION

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study indicating that sport stacking is feasible among individuals with MCI and mild AD. The preliminary effect on episodic memory is encouraging, possibly via upregulation of BDNF.

BOLD cofluctuation 'events' are predicted from static functional connectivity

Recent work identified single time points ("events") of high regional cofluctuation in functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) which contain more large-scale brain network information than other, low cofluctuation time points. This suggested that events might be a discrete, temporally sparse signal which drives functional connectivity (FC) over the timeseries. However, a different, not yet explored possibility is that network information differences between time points are driven by sampling variability on a constant, static, noisy signal. Using a combination of real and simulated data, we examined the relationship between cofluctuation and network structure and asked if this relationship was unique, or if it could arise from sampling variability alone. First, we show that events are not discrete - there is a gradually increasing relationship between network structure and cofluctuation; ∼50% of samples show very strong network structure. Second, using simulations we show that this relationship is predicted from sampling variability on static FC. Finally, we show that randomly selected points can capture network structure about as well as events, largely because of their temporal spacing. Together, these results suggest that, while events exhibit particularly strong representations of static FC, there is little evidence that events are unique timepoints that drive FC structure. Instead, a parsimonious explanation for the data is that events arise from a single static, but noisy, FC structure.

Investigating the behavioral mechanisms of action video game effects in a complex transfer task

Over the past few decades, researchers have argued that playing action video games can substantially improve cognitive abilities and enhance learning. However, consensus has not been reached regarding the mechanisms through which action game experience facilitates superior performance on untrained perceptually and cognitively demanding transfer tasks. We argue that analysis of behaviors engaged in during transfer task performance may provide key insights into answering this question. In the current investigation, we examined potential action game effects in the context of a complex psychomotor task, the Space Fortress (SF) game, that allows for the detailed examination of player behaviors beyond aggregate score reports. Performance (game score) was compared between action video game players (VGPs) and non-gamers (nVGPs) in two different control interface conditions (keyboard or joystick), followed by analyses of behaviors associated with superior performance. Against expectations, VGPs displayed superior performance only in the keyboard condition, suggesting that the action gamer advantage may not generalize to less-familiar control interfaces. Performance advantages were specifically associated with more efficient ship control behaviors by VGPs. Findings highlight how process-tracing approaches may provide insight into the nature of, and mechanisms producing, action gamers' advantages on learning untrained tasks.

Imposed load versus voluntary investment: Executive control and attention management in dual-task performance

Dual task performance is one of the most frequently used paradigm in the evaluation of coping with concurrent task demands. The Breakfast Task experimented in this paper, was originally developed as a general indicator of coping ability with high demand executive control and attention management requirements. It is a computer-based simulation, in which the performer is required to cook several food items while concurrently setting table for guests. The task was employed in different studies, to compare young to old adults, monolinguals to bilinguals, influence of Parkinson disease and brain injury. However, in a closer examination, it is a dual task setting, in which cooking reflects coping with imposed load while table setting is an indicator of strategy free, voluntary invested effort. Models of workload did not examine the impact of such asymmetric flexibility on concurrent performance. Three experiments with elaborated versions of the breakfast task, show that the difference between the tasks affects concurrent performance formats in response to manipulations of task difficulty, priority change and practice. These results and their implications are discussed in reference to limited capacity, resource and executive control models of multitasking and task load.

Performance after training in a complex cognitive task is enhanced by high-definition transcranial random noise stimulation

Interest for neuromodulation, and transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS) in particular, is growing. It concerns patients rehabilitation, but also healthy people who want or need to improve their cognitive and learning abilities. However, there is no consensus yet regarding the efficacy of tRNS on learning and performing a complex task. In particular, the most effective electrode montage is yet to be determined. Here, we examined the effect of two different tRNS montages on learning rate, short- and long-term performance in a video game (Space Fortress) that engages multiple cognitive abilities. Sixty-one participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups (sham vs. simple-definition tRNS vs. high-definition tRNS) in a double-blind protocol. Their performance on the Space Fortress task was monitored during a 15-day experiment with baseline (day 1), stimulation (day 2 to 4), short- (day 5) and long-term (day 15) evaluations. Our results show that the high-definition tRNS group improved more on the long term than simple-definition tRNS group, tended to learn faster and had better performance retention compared to both simple-definition tRNS and sham groups. This study is the first to report that high-definition tRNS is more effective than conventional simple-definition tRNS to enhance performance in a complex task.

A direct test of competitive versus cooperative episodic-procedural network dynamics in human memory

Classical lesion studies led to a consensus that episodic and procedural memory arises from segregated networks identified with the hippocampus and the caudate nucleus, respectively. Neuroimaging studies, however, show that competitive and cooperative interactions occur between networks during memory tasks. Furthermore, causal experiments to manipulate connectivity between these networks have not been performed in humans. Although nodes common to both networks, such as the precuneus and ventrolateral thalamus, may mediate their interaction, there is no experimental evidence for this. We tested how network-targeted noninvasive brain stimulation affects episodic-procedural network interactions and how these network manipulations affect episodic and procedural memory in healthy young adults. Compared to control (vertex) stimulation, hippocampal network-targeted stimulation increased within-network functional connectivity and hippocampal connectivity with the caudate. It also increased episodic, relative to procedural, memory, and this persisted one week later. The differential effect on episodic versus procedural memory was associated with increased functional connectivity between the caudate, precuneus, and ventrolateral thalamus. These findings provide direct evidence of episodic-procedural network competition, mediated by regions common to both networks. Enhanced hippocampal network connectivity may boost episodic, but decrease procedural, memory by co-opting resources shared between networks.

A Random Forest approach to identify metrics that best predict match outcome and player ranking in the esport Rocket League

Notational analysis is a popular tool for understanding what constitutes optimal performance in traditional sports. However, this approach has been seldom used in esports. The popular esport "Rocket League" is an ideal candidate for notational analysis due to the availability of an online repository containing data from millions of matches. The purpose of this study was to use Random Forest models to identify in-match metrics that predicted match outcome (performance indicators or "PIs") and/or in-game player rank (rank indicators or "RIs"). We evaluated match data from 21,588 Rocket League matches involving players from four different ranks. Upon identifying goal difference (GD) as a suitable outcome measure for Rocket League match performance, Random Forest models were used alongside accompanying variable importance methods to identify metrics that were PIs or RIs. We found shots taken, shots conceded, saves made, and time spent goalside of the ball to be the most important PIs, and time spent at supersonic speed, time spent on the ground, shots conceded and time spent goalside of the ball to be the most important RIs. This work is the first to use Random Forest learning algorithms to highlight the most critical PIs and RIs in a prominent esport.

Functional Connectivity Within the Fronto-Parietal Network Predicts Complex Task Performance: A fNIRS Study

Performance in complex tasks is essential for many high risk operators. The achievement of such tasks is supported by high-level cognitive functions arguably involving functional activity and connectivity in a large ensemble of brain areas that form the fronto-parietal network. Here we aimed at determining whether the functional connectivity at rest within this network could predict performance in a complex task: the Space Fortress video game. Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) data from 32 participants were recorded during a Resting-State period, the completion of a simple version of Space Fortress (monotask) and the original version (multitask). The intrinsic functional connectivity within the fronto-parietal network (i.e., during the Resting-State) was a significant predictor of performance at Space Fortress multitask but not at its monotask version. The same pattern was observed for the functional connectivity during the task. Our overall results suggest that Resting-State functional connectivity within the fronto-parietal network could be used as an intrinsic brain marker for performance prediction of a complex task achievement, but not for simple task performance.

Digital health interventions (DHI) for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children - a comparative review of literature among various treatment and DHI

The objective of this study is to compare game-based digital therapeutic device and other DHI like (smartphone apps, wearable technologies) for ADHD with the current pharmacological and behavior therapy. The FDA has approved a game-based digital therapeutic device - EndeavorRx, for the treatment of ADHD in pediatric patients belonging to the age group of 8-12 years old. This has been primarily recommended for the treatment of inattentive or combined-type ADHD who have demonstrated an attention issue. This is the first game-based therapeutic device to be approved by the FDA for any type of condition. According to the FDA, this has been shown to improve attention which is measured by computer-based testing. Objective: The objective of this study is to compare a game-based digital therapeutic device and other DHI (smartphone apps, wearable technologies) with the current pharmacological and behavior therapy used in the treatment of ADHD.

Neurobiological influence of comorbid conditions in young patients diagnosed with gaming disorder: A whole-brain functional connectivity study based on a data driven method

Gaming disorder, which is characterized by multiple cognitive and behavioral symptoms, often has comorbid psychiatric conditions such as depression and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurobiological effects of the comorbid disorders so far reported are not converging, exhibiting positive and negative alterations of the connectivity in brain networks. In this study, we conducted resting-state functional magnetic-resonance imaging and whole brain functional connectivity analyses for young participants consisting of 40 patients diagnosed with the gaming disorder, with and without comorbid conditions, and 29 healthy controls. Compared to healthy controls, the gaming disorder-alone patients had partially diminished connectivities in the reward system and executive control network, within which there existed central nodes that served as a hub of diminished connections. In the gaming disorder patients who had comorbidity of autism spectrum disorder, the diminished connections were enlarged, with alteration of the hub nodes, to the entire brain areas involved in the reward system including cortical, subcortical and limbic areas that are crucial for reward processing, and to the whole cortical areas composing the executive control network. These observations suggest that the neurodevelopmental condition coexisting with the gaming disorder induced substantial impairment of the neural organizations associated with executive/cognitive and emotional functions, which are plausibly causal to the behavioral addiction, by rearranging and diminishing functional connectivities in the network.

Effects of computer gaming on cognition, brain structure, and function: a critical reflection on existing literature

Video gaming as a popular form of leisure activity and its effect on cognition, brain function, and structure has come into focus in the field of neuroscience. Visuospatial cognition and attention seem to benefit the most, whereas for executive functions, memory, and general cognition, the results are contradictory. The particular characteristics of video games driving these effects remain poorly understood. We critically discuss major challenges for the existing research, namely, the lack of precise definitions of video gaming, the lack of distinct choice of cognitive ability under study, and the lack of standardized study protocols. Less research exists on neural changes in addition to cognitive changes due to video gaming. Existing studies reveal evidence for the involvement of similar brain regions in functional and structural changes. There seems to be a predominance in the hippocampal, prefrontal, and parietal brain regions; however, studies differ immensely, which makes a meta-analytic interpretation vulnerable. We conclude that theoretical work is urgently needed.


Competitive and cooperative interactions between medial temporal and striatal learning systems

The striatum and medial temporal lobes (MTL) exhibit dissociable roles during learning. Whereas the striatum and its network of thalamic relays and cortical nodes are necessary for nondeclarative learning, the MTL and associated network are required for declarative learning. Several studies have suggested that these networks are functionally competitive during learning. Since these discoveries, however, evidence has accumulated that they can operate in a cooperative fashion. In this review, we discuss evidence for both competition and cooperation between these systems during learning, with the aim of reconciling these seemingly contradictory findings. Examples of cooperation between the striatum and MTL have been provided, especially during consolidation and generalization of knowledge, and do not appear to be precluded by differences in functional specialization. However, whether these systems cooperate or compete does seem to depend on the phase of learning and cognitive or motor aspects of the task. The involvement of other regions, such as midbrain dopaminergic nuclei and the prefrontal cortex, may promote and mediate cooperation between the striatum and the MTL during learning. Building on this body of research, we propose a model for striatum-MTL interactions in learning and memory and attempt to predict, in general terms, when cooperation or competition will occur.

The effect of cognitive training on the brain's local connectivity organization in healthy older adults

Cognitive training has been shown effective in improving the cognitive function of older adults. While training related plasticity of the brain has been observed at different levels, it is still open to exploration whether local functional connectivity (FC) may be affected by training. Here, we examined the neuroimaging data from a previous randomized-controlled double-blinded behavioural study, in which healthy older adults participated in a 3-month cognitive training program. Resting-state fMRI was acquired at baseline and one year after training. The local FC in the brain was estimated using the regional homogeneity (ReHo), and the high ReHo clusters (HRCs) were extracted to quantify the level of local FC integration. Results showed that: (i) HRCs exhibited a power-law size distribution; (ii) local FC were less integrated in older participants than in younger participants; (iii) local FC in older participants of the training group became more integrated after training than the control group; (iv) the baseline local FC integration was positively correlated with educational level. These results indicated a training-related alteration in local FC.

The high-working load states induced by action real-time strategy gaming: An EEG power spectrum and network study

Action Real-time Strategy Gaming (ARSG) is a cognitively demanding task that requires attention, sensorimotor skills, high-level team coordination, and strategy-making abilities. Thus, ARSG can offer important, new insights into learning-related neural plasticity. However, little research has examined how the brain allocates cognitive resources in ARSG. By analyzing power spectrums and electroencephalograph (EEG) functional connectivity (FC) networks, this study compared multiple conditions (resting, movie watching, ARSG, and Life simulation gaming - LSG) in two experiments. Consistent with previous research, we found that brain waves appeared to be de-assimilated after activation. Furthermore, results showed that ARSG was associated with higher activation and workload as indicated by θ-waves, and required higher attention as reflected by β-waves. Furthermore, as participants began ARSG, the allocation of cognitive resource gradually prioritized the frontal area, which controls attention, decision-making, monitoring, and mnemonic processing, while participants also showed an enhanced ability to process information under the ARSG condition as indicated by network characteristics. These electrophysiological changes observed in ARSG were not found under LSG. Thus, this study applied both power spectrum and EEG FC networks analyses to ARSG research, revealing characteristics of brain waves in typical areas and how the brain gradually changes from low-working load states to high-working load states based on real-time EEG recordings.

Acceptability of a Plasticity-Focused Serious Game Intervention for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: User Requirements Analysis

Background

Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT) is a first-line treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Despite a solid evidence base, TF-CBT response and attrition rates vary considerably. Plasticity-focused interventions, including the use of serious games, have the potential to improve TF-CBT response and treatment retention.

Objective

The aim of this study was to assess the acceptability of a mobile phone–delivered plasticity-focused serious game to improve response to TF-CBT for PTSD, and carry out a user requirements analysis should the development of a prototype be warranted.

Methods

We conducted 2 one-to-one interviews (n=2), one focus group involving service users who had received a diagnosis of PTSD (n=3) and one focus group involving psychological trauma service clinicians (n=4).

Results

We found that the concept of a plasticity-focused mobile phone intervention for PTSD is acceptable to patients and clinicians. Service users and clinicians both believed that the usage should be guided by a therapist, and both contributed useful inputs regarding the audiovisual aspects of the proposed serious game. It was accepted that the game would not be suitable for all patients and that clinicians would need to appropriately prescribe the usage of the game.

Conclusions

The findings highlight the acceptability of the proposed serious game and clarify the user requirements for such an intervention. It is the intention of the authors to carry out a user experience evaluation using a prototype serious game in a clinical population.

Cognitive ability is associated with changes in the functional organization of the cognitive control brain network

Cognitive control is one of the most important skills in day-to-day social and intellectual functioning but we are yet to understand the neural basis of the group of behaviors required to carry this out. Here, we probed changes over time in the brain network associated with cognitive control (the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the dorsal posterior parietal cortex, and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex) using both behavioral assays and functional brain imaging during a selective working memory task in 69 healthy participants within the age range 18-38 years (mean: 25, SD: ±6), assessed twice, 2 years apart. We aimed to explore the relationship of changing network activation and connectivity with behavioral tasks associated with cognitive control in this otherwise neurodevelopmentally stable group. We found that increased connectivity between frontoparietal cognitive control network regions during the working memory task was associated with improved memory and executive functions over the 2-year period and that this association was not impacted by age, gender, or baseline performance. These results provide evidence that changes in the functional organization of the cognitive control brain network occur despite the absence of neurodevelopment, aging or targeted cognitive training effects, and could modulate cognitive performance in early to mid-adulthood. Understanding how and why this change is occurring could provide insights into the mechanisms through which cognitive control ability is cultivated over time. This could aid in the development of interventions in cases where cognitive control is impaired.

Effects of task complexity and age-differences on task-related functional connectivity of attentional networks

Studies investigating the strength and membership of regions within multiple functional networks primarily focus on either resting state or single cognitive tasks. The goals of the current study were to investigate whether task-related functional connectivity changes with task complexity, and whether this connectivity-complexity relationship is age-sensitive. We assessed seed-to-voxel functional connectivity for the default mode network (DMN) and two attentional networks [cingulo-opercular (CO), fronto-parietal (FP)] in three cognitive control tasks of increasing complexity (Single task, Dual task, and Memory Updating), across younger and older adults (N = 52; N_Young = 23; N_Old = 29). The three tasks systematically varied in cognitive control demands due to differing maintenance, switching, and updating requirements. Functional connectivity for all networks, resulting from task > rest contrasts, increased with greater task complexity, irrespective of age and gray matter volume. Moreover, between-network connectivity for DMN, CO, and FP regions was greatest for working memory updating, the most complex task. Regarding age-related differences in accuracy, none were observed for Single or Dual tasks, but older adults had poorer accuracy in Memory Updating. More anterior frontal clusters of functional connectivity were observed for older, compared to younger, adults; these were limited to seeds of the two attentional networks. Importantly, increased connectivity in these additional frontal regions in older adults were non-compensatory, because they were associated with detrimental task performance, especially Memory Updating. For the Memory Updating > Rest, the younger > older contrast resulted in greater DMN seed connectivity to regions in the other two attentional networks, implicating increased reliance on between-network connectivity for the DMN seeds during complex cognitive tasks. Our results also implicate functional connectivity between attentional networks and the cerebellum during cognitive control. Reliability of multiple seeds in the seed-to-voxel connectivity is also discussed.

Cognitive Flexibility Predicts PTSD Symptoms: Observational and Interventional Studies

Introduction: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent, severe and tenacious psychopathological consequence of traumatic events. Neurobehavioral mechanisms underlying PTSD pathogenesis have been identified, and may serve as risk-resilience factors during the early aftermath of trauma exposure. Longitudinally documenting the neurobehavioral dimensions of early responses to trauma may help characterize survivors at risk and inform mechanism-based interventions. We present two independent longitudinal studies that repeatedly probed clinical symptoms and neurocognitive domains in recent trauma survivors. We hypothesized that better neurocognitive functioning shortly after trauma will be associated with less severe PTSD symptoms a year later, and that an early neurocognitive intervention will improve cognitive functioning and reduce PTSD symptoms. Methods: Participants in both studies were adult survivors of traumatic events admitted to two general hospitals' emergency departments (EDs) in Israel. The studies used identical clinical and neurocognitive tools, which included assessment of PTSD symptoms and diagnosis, and a battery of neurocognitive tests. The first study evaluated 181 trauma-exposed individuals one-, six-, and 14 months following trauma exposure. The second study evaluated 97 trauma survivors 1 month after trauma exposure, randomly allocated to 30 days of web-based neurocognitive intervention (n = 50) or control tasks (n = 47), and re-evaluated all subjects three- and 6 months after trauma exposure. Results: In the first study, individuals with better cognitive flexibility at 1 month post-trauma showed significantly less severe PTSD symptoms after 13 months (p = 0.002). In the second study, the neurocognitive training group showed more improvement in cognitive flexibility post-intervention (p = 0.019), and lower PTSD symptoms 6 months post-trauma (p = 0.017), compared with controls. Intervention- induced improvement in cognitive flexibility positively correlated with clinical improvement (p = 0.002). Discussion: Cognitive flexibility, shortly after trauma exposure, emerged as a significant predictor of PTSD symptom severity. It was also ameliorated by a neurocognitive intervention and associated with a better treatment outcome. These findings support further research into the implementation of mechanism-driven neurocognitive preventive interventions for PTSD.

Playing Super Mario 64 increases hippocampal grey matter in older adults

Maintaining grey matter within the hippocampus is important for healthy cognition. Playing 3D-platform video games has previously been shown to promote grey matter in the hippocampus in younger adults. In the current study, we tested the impact of 3D-platform video game training (i.e., Super Mario 64) on grey matter in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) of older adults. Older adults who were 55 to 75 years of age were randomized into three groups. The video game experimental group (VID; n = 8) engaged in a 3D-platform video game training over a period of 6 months. Additionally, an active control group took a series of self-directed, computerized music (piano) lessons (MUS; n = 12), while a no-contact control group did not engage in any intervention (CON; n = 13). After training, a within-subject increase in grey matter within the hippocampus was significant only in the VID training group, replicating results observed in younger adults. Active control MUS training did, however, lead to a within-subject increase in the DLPFC, while both the VID and MUS training produced growth in the cerebellum. In contrast, the CON group displayed significant grey matter loss in the hippocampus, cerebellum and the DLPFC.

Neural Basis of Video Gaming: A Systematic Review

Background: Video gaming is an increasingly popular activity in contemporary society, especially among young people, and video games are increasing in popularity not only as a research tool but also as a field of study. Many studies have focused on the neural and behavioral effects of video games, providing a great deal of video game derived brain correlates in recent decades. There is a great amount of information, obtained through a myriad of methods, providing neural correlates of video games.

Objectives: We aim to understand the relationship between the use of video games and their neural correlates, taking into account the whole variety of cognitive factors that they encompass.

Methods: A systematic review was conducted using standardized search operators that included the presence of video games and neuro-imaging techniques or references to structural or functional brain changes. Separate categories were made for studies featuring Internet Gaming Disorder and studies focused on the violent content of video games.

Results: A total of 116 articles were considered for the final selection. One hundred provided functional data and 22 measured structural brain changes. One-third of the studies covered video game addiction, and 14% focused on video game related violence.

Conclusions: Despite the innate heterogeneity of the field of study, it has been possible to establish a series of links between the neural and cognitive aspects, particularly regarding attention, cognitive control, visuospatial skills, cognitive workload, and reward processing. However, many aspects could be improved. The lack of standardization in the different aspects of video game related research, such as the participants' characteristics, the features of each video game genre and the diverse study goals could contribute to discrepancies in many related studies.

Multivariate Associations of Fluid Intelligence and NAA

Understanding the neural and metabolic correlates of fluid intelligence not only aids scientists in characterizing cognitive processes involved in intelligence, but it also offers insight into intervention methods to improve fluid intelligence. Here we use magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) to measure N-acetyl aspartate (NAA), a biochemical marker of neural energy production and efficiency. We use principal components analysis (PCA) to examine how the distribution of NAA in the frontal and parietal lobes relates to fluid intelligence. We find that a left lateralized frontal-parietal component predicts fluid intelligence, and it does so independently of brain size, another significant predictor of fluid intelligence. These results suggest that the left motor regions play a key role in the visualization and planning necessary for spatial cognition and reasoning, and we discuss these findings in the context of the Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory of intelligence.

Mechanisms of Practice-Related Reductions of Dual-Task Interference with Simple Tasks: Data and Theory

In dual-task situations, interference between two simultaneous tasks impairs performance. With practice, however, this impairment can be reduced. To identify mechanisms leading to a practice-related improvement in sensorimotor dual tasks, the present review applied the following general hypothesis: Sources that impair dual-task performance at the beginning of practice are associated with mechanisms for the reduction of dual-task impairment at the end of practice. The following types of processes provide sources for the occurrence of this impairment: (a) capacity-limited processes within the component tasks, such as response-selection or motor response stages, and (b) cognitive control processes independent of these tasks and thus operating outside of component-task performance. Dual-task practice studies show that, under very specific conditions, capacity-limited processes within the component tasks are automatized with practice, reducing the interference between two simultaneous tasks. Further, there is evidence that response-selection stages are shortened with practice. Thus, capacity limitations at these stages are sources for dual-task costs at the beginning of practice and are overcome with practice. However, there is no evidence demonstrating the existence of practice-related mechanisms associated with capacity-limited motor-response stages. Further, during practice, there is an acquisition of executive control skills for an improved allocation of limited attention resources to two tasks as well as some evidence supporting the assumption of improved task coordination. These latter mechanisms are associated with sources of dual-task interference operating outside of component task performance at the beginning of practice and also contribute to the reduction of dual-task interference at its end.

Massive cortical reorganization in sighted Braille readers

The brain is capable of large-scale reorganization in blindness or after massive injury. Such reorganization crosses the division into separate sensory cortices (visual, somatosensory...). As its result, the visual cortex of the blind becomes active during tactile Braille reading. Although the possibility of such reorganization in the normal, adult brain has been raised, definitive evidence has been lacking. Here, we demonstrate such extensive reorganization in normal, sighted adults who learned Braille while their brain activity was investigated with fMRI and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Subjects showed enhanced activity for tactile reading in the visual cortex, including the visual word form area (VWFA) that was modulated by their Braille reading speed and strengthened resting-state connectivity between visual and somatosensory cortices. Moreover, TMS disruption of VWFA activity decreased their tactile reading accuracy. Our results indicate that large-scale reorganization is a viable mechanism recruited when learning complex skills.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.10762.001

According to most textbooks, our brain is divided into separate areas that are dedicated to specific senses. We have a visual cortex for vision, a tactile cortex for touch, and so on. However, researchers suspect that this division might not be as fixed as the textbooks say. For example, blind people can switch their 'leftover' visual cortex to non-visual purposes, such as reading Braille – a tactile alphabet.

Can this switch in functional organization also happen in healthy people with normal vision? To investigate this, Siuda-Krzywicka, Bola et al. taught a group of healthy, sighted people to read Braille by touch, and monitored the changes in brain activity that this caused using a technique called functional magnetic resonance imaging. According to textbooks, tactile reading should engage the tactile cortex. Yet, the experiment revealed that the brain activity critical for reading Braille by touch did not occur in the volunteers’ tactile cortex, but in their visual cortex.

Further experiments used a technique called transcranial magnetic stimulation to suppress the activity of the visual cortex of the volunteers. This impaired their ability to read Braille by touch. This is a clear-cut proof that sighted adults can re-program their visual cortex for non-visual, tactile purposes.

These results show that intensive training in a complex task can overcome the sensory division-of-labor of our brain. This indicates that our brain is much more flexible than previously thought, and that such flexibility might occur when we learn everyday, complex skills such as driving a car or playing a musical instrument.

The next question that follows from this work is: what enables the brain’s activity to change after learning to read Braille? To understand this, Siuda-Krzywicka, Bola et al. are currently exploring how the physical structure of the brain changes as a result of a person acquiring the ability to read Braille by touch.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.10762.002

To Switch or Not to Switch: Role of Cognitive Control in Working Memory Training in Older Adults

It is currently not known what are the best working memory training strategies to offset the age-related declines in fluid cognitive abilities. In this randomized clinical double-blind trial, older adults were randomly assigned to one of two types of working memory training – one group was trained on a predictable memory updating task (PT) and another group was trained on a novel, unpredictable memory updating task (UT). Unpredictable memory updating, compared to predictable, requires greater demands on cognitive control (Basak and Verhaeghen, 2011a). Therefore, the current study allowed us to evaluate the role of cognitive control in working memory training. All participants were assessed on a set of near and far transfer tasks at three different testing sessions – before training, immediately after the training, and 1.5 months after completing the training. Additionally, individual learning rates for a comparison working memory task (performed by both groups) and the trained task were computed. Training on unpredictable memory updating, compared to predictable, significantly enhanced performance on a measure of episodic memory, immediately after the training. Moreover, individuals with faster learning rates showed greater gains in this episodic memory task and another new working memory task; this effect was specific to UT. We propose that the unpredictable memory updating training, compared to predictable memory updating training, may a better strategy to improve selective cognitive abilities in older adults, and future studies could further investigate the role of cognitive control in working memory training.

Canceled connections: Lesion-derived network mapping helps explain differences in performance on a complex decision-making task

Studies of patients with brain damage have highlighted a broad neural network of limbic and prefrontal areas as important for adaptive decision-making. However, some patients with damage outside these regions have impaired decision-making behavior, and the behavioral impairments observed in these cases are often attributed to the general variability in behavior following brain damage, rather than a deficit in a specific brain-behavior relationship. A novel approach, lesion-derived network mapping, uses healthy subject resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) data to infer the areas that would be connected with each patient's lesion area in healthy adults. Here, we used this approach to investigate whether there was a systematic pattern of connectivity associated with decision-making performance in patients with focal damage in areas not classically associated with decision-making. These patients were categorized a priori into "impaired" or "unimpaired" groups based on their performance on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Lesion-derived network maps based on the impaired patients showed overlap in somatosensory, motor and insula cortices, to a greater extent than patients who showed unimpaired IGT performance. Akin to the classic concept of "diaschisis" (von Monakow, 1914), this focus on the remote effects that focal damage can have on large-scale distributed brain networks has the potential to inform not only differences in decision-making behavior, but also other cognitive functions or neurological syndromes where a distinct phenotype has eluded neuroanatomical classification and brain-behavior relationships appear highly heterogeneous.

Explore Interregional EEG Correlations Changed by Sport Training Using Feature Selection

This paper investigated the interregional correlation changed by sport training through electroencephalography (EEG) signals using the techniques of classification and feature selection. The EEG data are obtained from students with long-time professional sport training and normal students without sport training as baseline. Every channel of the 19-channel EEG signals is considered as a node in the brain network and Pearson Correlation Coefficients are calculated between every two nodes as the new features of EEG signals. Then, the Partial Least Square (PLS) is used to select the top 10 most varied features and Pearson Correlation Coefficients of selected features are compared to show the difference of two groups. Result shows that the classification accuracy of two groups is improved from 88.13% by the method using measurement of EEG overall energy to 97.19% by the method using EEG correlation measurement. Furthermore, the features selected reveal that the most important interregional EEG correlation changed by training is the correlation between left inferior frontal and left middle temporal with a decreased value.

Modeling distinct imaging hemodynamics early after TBI: the relationship between signal amplitude and connectivity

Over the past decade, fMRI studies of cognitive change following traumatic brain injury (TBI) have investigated blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) activity during working memory (WM) performance in individuals in early and chronic phases of recovery. Recently, BOLD fMRI work has largely shifted to focus on WM and resting functional connectivity following TBI. However, fundamental questions in WM remain. Specifically, the effects of injury on the basic relationships between local and interregional functional neuroimaging signals during WM processing early following moderate to severe TBI have not been examined. This study employs a mixed effects model to examine prefrontal cortex and parietal lobe signal change during a WM task, the n-back, and whether there is covariance between regions of high amplitude signal change, (synchrony of elicited activity (SEA) very early following TBI. We also examined whether signal change and SEA differentially predict performance during WM. Overall, percent signal change in the right prefrontal cortex (rPFC) was and important predictor of both reaction time (RT) and SEA in early TBI and matched controls. Right prefrontal cortex (rPFC) percent signal change positively predicted SEA within and between persons regardless of injury status, suggesting that the link between these neurodynamic processes in WM-activated regions remains unaffected even very early after TBI. Additionally, rPFC activity was positively related to RT within and between persons in both groups. Right parietal (rPAR) activity was negatively related to RT within subjects in both groups. Thus, the local signal intensity of the rPFC in TBI appears to be a critical property of network functioning and performance in WM processing and may be a precursor to recruitment observed in chronic samples. The present results suggest that as much research moves toward large scale functional connectivity modeling, it will be essential to develop integrated models of how local and distant neurodynamics promote WM performance after TBI.

Cognitive stimulation of the default-mode network modulates functional connectivity in healthy aging

A cognitive-stimulation tool was created to regulate functional connectivity within the brain Default-Mode Network (DMN). Computerized exercises were designed based on the hypothesis that repeated task-dependent coactivation of multiple DMN regions would translate into regulation of resting-state network connectivity. Forty seniors (mean age: 65.90 years; SD: 8.53) were recruited and assigned either to an experimental group (n=21) who received one month of intensive cognitive stimulation, or to a control group (n=19) who maintained a regime of daily-life activities explicitly focused on social interactions. An MRI protocol and a battery of neuropsychological tests were administered at baseline and at the end of the study. Changes in the DMN (measured via functional connectivity of posterior-cingulate seeds), in brain volumes, and in cognitive performance were measured with mixed models assessing group-by-timepoint interactions. Moreover, regression models were run to test gray-matter correlates of the various stimulation tasks. Significant associations were found between task performance and gray-matter volume of multiple DMN core regions. Training-dependent up-regulation of functional connectivity was found in the posterior DMN component. This interaction was driven by a pattern of increased connectivity in the training group, while little or no up-regulation was seen in the control group. Minimal changes in brain volumes were found, but there was no change in cognitive performance. The training-dependent regulation of functional connectivity within the posterior DMN component suggests that this stimulation program might exert a beneficial impact in the prevention and treatment of early AD neurodegeneration, in which this neurofunctional pathway is progressively affected by the disease.

The Effects of Video Games on Cognition and Brain Structure: Potential Implications for Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Video games are now a ubiquitous form of entertainment that has occasionally attracted negative attention. Video games have also been used to test cognitive function, as therapeutic interventions for neuropsychiatric disorders, and to explore mechanisms of experience-dependent structural brain changes. Here, we review current research on video games published from January 2011 to April 2014 with a focus on studies relating to mental health, cognition, and brain imaging. Overall, there is evidence that specific types of video games can alter brain structure or improve certain aspects of cognitive functioning. Video games can also be useful as neuropsychological assessment tools. While research in this area is still at a very early stage, there are interesting results that encourage further work in this field, and hold promise for utilizing this technology as a powerful therapeutic and experimental tool.

Educational games for brain health: revealing their unexplored potential through a neurocognitive approach

Educational games link the motivational nature of games with learning of knowledge and skills. Here, we go beyond effects on these learning outcomes. We review two lines of evidence which indicate the currently unexplored potential of educational games to promote brain health: First, gaming with specific neurocognitive demands (e.g., executive control), and second, educational learning experiences (e.g., studying foreign languages) improve brain health markers. These markers include cognitive ability, brain function, and brain structure. As educational games allow the combination of specific neurocognitive demands with educational learning experiences, they seem to be optimally suited for promoting brain health. We propose a neurocognitive approach to reveal this unexplored potential of educational games in future research.

An ecological approach to cognitive enhancement: complex motor training

Cognitive training has received a lot of attention recently, yielding findings that can be conflicting and controversial. In this paper, we present a novel approach to cognitive training based on complex motor activities. In a randomized controlled design, participants were assigned to one of three conditions: aerobic exercise, working memory training or designed sport--an intervention specifically tailored to include both physical and cognitive demands. After training for eight weeks, the designed sport group showed the largest gains in all cognitive measures, illustrating the efficacy of complex motor activities to enhance cognition. Designed sport training also revealed impressive health benefits, namely decreased heart rate and blood pressure. In this period of skepticism over the efficacy of computerized cognitive training, we discuss the potential of ecological interventions targeting both cognition and physical fitness, and propose some possible applications.

Brain enhancement through cognitive training: a new insight from brain connectome

Owing to the recent advances in neurotechnology and the progress in understanding of brain cognitive functions, improvements of cognitive performance or acceleration of learning process with brain enhancement systems is not out of our reach anymore, on the contrary, it is a tangible target of contemporary research. Although a variety of approaches have been proposed, we will mainly focus on cognitive training interventions, in which learners repeatedly perform cognitive tasks to improve their cognitive abilities. In this review article, we propose that the learning process during the cognitive training can be facilitated by an assistive system monitoring cognitive workloads using electroencephalography (EEG) biomarkers, and the brain connectome approach can provide additional valuable biomarkers for facilitating leaners' learning processes. For the purpose, we will introduce studies on the cognitive training interventions, EEG biomarkers for cognitive workload, and human brain connectome. As cognitive overload and mental fatigue would reduce or even eliminate gains of cognitive training interventions, a real-time monitoring of cognitive workload can facilitate the learning process by flexibly adjusting difficulty levels of the training task. Moreover, cognitive training interventions should have effects on brain sub-networks, not on a single brain region, and graph theoretical network metrics quantifying topological architecture of the brain network can differentiate with respect to individual cognitive states as well as to different individuals' cognitive abilities, suggesting that the connectome is a valuable approach for tracking the learning progress. Although only a few studies have exploited the connectome approach for studying alterations of the brain network induced by cognitive training interventions so far, we believe that it would be a useful technique for capturing improvements of cognitive functions.

Wearable functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): expanding vistas for neurocognitive augmentation

Contemporary studies with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) provide a growing base of evidence for enhancing cognition through the non-invasive delivery of weak electric currents to the brain. The main effect of tDCS is to modulate cortical excitability depending on the polarity of the applied current. However, the underlying mechanism of neuromodulation is not well understood. A new generation of functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) systems is described that are miniaturized, portable, and include wearable sensors. These developments provide an opportunity to couple fNIRS with tDCS, consistent with a neuroergonomics approach for joint neuroimaging and neurostimulation investigations of cognition in complex tasks and in naturalistic conditions. The effects of tDCS on complex task performance and the use of fNIRS for monitoring cognitive workload during task performance are described. Also explained is how fNIRS + tDCS can be used simultaneously for assessing spatial working memory. Mobile optical brain imaging is a promising neuroimaging tool that has the potential to complement tDCS for realistic applications in natural settings.

Intervention-induced enhancement in intrinsic brain activity in healthy older adults

This study examined the effects of a multimodal intervention on spontaneous brain activity in healthy older adults. Seventeen older adults received a six-week intervention that consisted of cognitive training, Tai Chi exercise, and group counseling, while 17 older adults in a control group attended health knowledge lectures. The intervention group demonstrated enhanced memory and social support compared to the control group. The amplitude of low frequency fluctuations (ALFF) in the middle frontal gyrus, superior frontal gyrus, and anterior cerebellum lobe was enhanced for the intervention group, while the control group showed reduced ALFF in these three regions. Moreover, changes in trail-making performance and well-being could be predicted by the intervention-induced changes in ALFF. Additionally, individual differences in the baseline ALFF were correlated with intervention-related changes in behavioral performance. These findings suggest that a multimodal intervention is effective in improving cognitive functions and well-being and can induce functional changes in the aging brain. The study extended previous training studies by suggesting resting-state ALFF as a marker of intervention-induced plasticity in older adults.

Identifying training modalities to improve multitasking in older adults

Studies that have measured the effects of attentional training have relied on a range of training formats, which may vary in their efficacy. In particular, it is unclear whether programs that practice dual-tasking are more effective in improving divided attention than programs focusing on flexible allocation priority training. The aims of this study were as follows: (1) to compare the efficacy of different types of attentional training formats and (2) to assess transfer to distal measures. Forty-two healthy older adults were randomly assigned to one of three training groups. In the SINGLE training condition, participants practiced a visual detection and an alphanumeric equation task in isolation. In the FIXED training condition, participants practiced both tasks simultaneously with equal attention allocated to each. In the VARIABLE training condition, participants varied the attentional priority allocated to each task. After training, all participants improved their performance on the alphanumeric equation task when performed individually, including those in the SINGLE training condition. Participants in the FIXED training condition improved their divided attention, but only the participants in the VARIABLE training condition showed a greater capacity to vary their attentional priorities according to the instructions. Regarding transfer, all groups improved their performance on the 2-back condition, but only the VARIABLE and FIXED conditions resulted in better performance on the 1-back condition. Overall, the study supports the notion that attentional control capacities in older adults are plastic and can be improved with appropriate training and that the type of training determines its impact on divided attention.