Human t-DARPP is induced during striatal development

DARPP-32 cells and neuropil define striosomal system and isolated matrix cells in human striatum

The dorsal striatum forms a central node of the basal ganglia interconnecting the neocortex and thalamus with circuits modulating mood and movement. Striatal projection neurons (SPNs) include relatively intermixed populations expressing D1-type or D2-type dopamine receptors (dSPNs and iSPNs) that give rise to the direct (D1) and indirect (D2) output systems of the basal ganglia. Overlaid on this organization is a compartmental organization, in which a labyrinthine system of striosomes made up of sequestered SPNs is embedded within the larger striatal matrix. Striosomal SPNs also include D1-SPNs and D2-SPNs, but they can be distinguished from matrix SPNs by many neurochemical markers. In the rodent striatum the key signaling molecule, DARPP-32, is a exception to these compartmental expression patterns, thought to befit its functions through opposite actions in both D1- and D2-expressing SPNs. We demonstrate here, however, that in the dorsal human striatum, DARPP-32 is concentrated in the neuropil and SPNs of striosomes, especially in the caudate nucleus and dorsomedial putamen, relative to the matrix neuropil in these regions. The generally DARPP-32-poor matrix contains scattered DARPP-32-positive cells. DARPP-32 cell bodies in both compartments proved negative for conventional intraneuronal markers. These findings raise the potential for specialized DARPP-32 expression in the human striosomal system and in a set of DARPP-32-positive neurons in the matrix. If DARPP-32 immunohistochemical positivity predicts differential functional DARPP-32 activity, then the distributions demonstrated here could render striosomes and dispersed matrix cells susceptible to differential signaling through cAMP and other signaling systems in health and disease. DARPP-32 is highly concentrated in cells and neuropil of striosomes in post-mortem human brain tissue, particularly in the dorsal caudate nucleus. Scattered DARPP-32-positive cells are found in the human striatal matrix. Calbindin and DARPP-32 do not colocalize within every spiny projection neuron in the dorsal human caudate nucleus.

Quantitative proteomics revealed extensive microenvironmental changes after stem cell transplantation in ischemic stroke

The local microenvironment is essential to stem cell-based therapy for ischemic stroke, and spatiotemporal changes of the microenvironment in the pathological process provide vital clues for understanding the therapeutic mechanisms. However, relevant studies on microenvironmental changes were mainly confined in the acute phase of stroke, and long-term changes remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the microenvironmental changes in the subacute and chronic phases of ischemic stroke after stem cell transplantation. Herein, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and neural stem cells (NSCs) were transplanted into the ischemic brain established by middle cerebral artery occlusion surgery. Positron emission tomography imaging and neurological tests were applied to evaluate the metabolic and neurofunctional alterations of rats transplanted with stem cells. Quantitative proteomics was employed to investigate the protein expression profiles in iPSCs-transplanted brain in the subacute and chronic phases of stroke. Compared with NSCs-transplanted rats, significantly increased glucose metabolism and neurofunctional scores were observed in iPSCs-transplanted rats. Subsequent proteomic data of iPSCs-transplanted rats identified a total of 39 differentially expressed proteins in the subacute and chronic phases, which are involved in various ischemic stroke-related biological processes, including neuronal survival, axonal remodeling, antioxidative stress, and mitochondrial function restoration. Taken together, our study indicated that iPSCs have a positive therapeutic effect in ischemic stroke and emphasized the wide-ranging microenvironmental changes in the subacute and chronic phases.

Molecular Components of Store-Operated Calcium Channels in the Regulation of Neural Stem Cell Physiology, Neurogenesis, and the Pathology of Huntington's Disease

One of the major Ca²⁺ signaling pathways is store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE), which is responsible for Ca²⁺ flow into cells in response to the depletion of endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ stores. SOCE and its molecular components, including stromal interaction molecule proteins, Orai Ca²⁺ channels, and transient receptor potential canonical channels, are involved in the physiology of neural stem cells and play a role in their proliferation, differentiation, and neurogenesis. This suggests that Ca²⁺ signaling is an important player in brain development. Huntington’s disease (HD) is an incurable neurodegenerative disorder that is caused by polyglutamine expansion in the huntingtin (HTT) protein, characterized by the loss of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in the striatum. However, recent research has shown that HD is also a neurodevelopmental disorder and Ca²⁺ signaling is dysregulated in HD. The relationship between HD pathology and elevations of SOCE was demonstrated in different cellular and mouse models of HD and in induced pluripotent stem cell-based GABAergic MSNs from juvenile- and adult-onset HD patient fibroblasts. The present review discusses the role of SOCE in the physiology of neural stem cells and its dysregulation in HD pathology. It has been shown that elevated expression of STIM2 underlying the excessive Ca²⁺ entry through store-operated calcium channels in induced pluripotent stem cell-based MSNs from juvenile-onset HD. In the light of the latest findings regarding the role of Ca²⁺ signaling in HD pathology we also summarize recent progress in the in vitro differentiation of MSNs that derive from different cell sources. We discuss advances in the application of established protocols to obtain MSNs from fetal neural stem cells/progenitor cells, embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, and induced neural stem cells and the application of transdifferentiation. We also present recent progress in establishing HD brain organoids and their potential use for examining HD pathology and its treatment. Moreover, the significance of stem cell therapy to restore normal neural cell function, including Ca²⁺ signaling in the central nervous system in HD patients will be considered. The transplantation of MSNs or their precursors remains a promising treatment strategy for HD.

Is the Immunological Response a Bottleneck for Cell Therapy in Neurodegenerative Diseases?

Neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's (PD) and Huntington's disease (HD) are characterized by a selective detrimental impact on neurons in a specific brain area. Currently, these diseases have no cures, although some promising trials of therapies that may be able to slow the loss of brain cells are underway. Cell therapy is distinguished by its potential to replace cells to compensate for those lost to the degenerative process and has shown a great potential to replace degenerated neurons in animal models and in clinical trials in PD and HD patients. Fetal-derived neural progenitor cells, embryonic stem cells or induced pluripotent stem cells are the main cell sources that have been tested in cell therapy approaches. Furthermore, new strategies are emerging, such as the use of adult stem cells, encapsulated cell lines releasing trophic factors or cell-free products, containing an enriched secretome, which have shown beneficial preclinical outcomes. One of the major challenges for these potential new treatments is to overcome the host immune response to the transplanted cells. Immune rejection can cause significant alterations in transplanted and endogenous tissue and requires immunosuppressive drugs that may produce adverse effects. T-, B-lymphocytes and microglia have been recognized as the main effectors in striatal graft rejection. This review aims to summarize the preclinical and clinical studies of cell therapies in PD and HD. In addition, the precautions and strategies to ensure the highest quality of cell grafts, the lowest risk during transplantation and the reduction of a possible immune rejection will be outlined. Altogether, the wide-ranging possibilities of advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs) could make therapeutic treatment of these incurable diseases possible in the near future.

Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Neurons Are Functionally Mature In Vitro and Integrate into the Mouse Striatum Following Transplantation

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) are a powerful tool for modelling human development. In recent years, hPSCs have become central in cell-based therapies for neurodegenerative diseases given their potential to replace affected neurons. However, directing hPSCs into specific neuronal types is complex and requires an accurate protocol that mimics endogenous neuronal development. Here we describe step-by-step a fast feeder-free neuronal differentiation protocol to direct hPSCs to mature forebrain neurons in 37 days in vitro (DIV). The protocol is based upon a combination of specific morphogens, trophic and growth factors, ions, neurotransmitters and extracellular matrix elements. A human-induced PSC line (Ctr-Q33) and a human embryonic stem cell line (GEN-Q18) were used to reinforce the potential of the protocol. Neuronal activity was analysed by single-cell calcium imaging. At 8 DIV, we obtained a homogeneous population of hPSC-derived neuroectodermal progenitors which self-arranged in bi-dimensional neural tube-like structures. At 16 DIV, we generated hPSC-derived neural progenitor cells (NPCs) with mostly a subpallial identity along with a subpopulation of pallial NPCs. Terminal in vitro neuronal differentiation was confirmed by the expression of microtubule associated protein 2b (Map 2b) by almost 100% of hPSC-derived neurons and the expression of specific-striatal neuronal markers including GABA, CTIP2 and DARPP-32. HPSC-derived neurons showed mature and functional phenotypes as they expressed synaptic markers, voltage-gated ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors. Neurons displayed diverse spontaneous activity patterns that were classified into three major groups, namely "high", "intermediate" and "low" firing neurons. Finally, transplantation experiments showed that the NPCs survived and differentiated within mouse striatum for at least 3 months. NPCs integrated host environmental cues and differentiated into striatal medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs), which successfully integrated into the endogenous circuitry without teratoma formation. Altogether, these findings demonstrate the potential of this robust human neuronal differentiation protocol, which will bring new opportunities for the study of human neurodevelopment and neurodegeneration, and will open new avenues in cell-based therapies, pharmacological studies and alternative in vitro toxicology.

Dopamine response gene pathways in dorsal striatum MSNs from a gene expression viewpoint: cAMP-mediated gene networks

BACKGROUND

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) comprise the main body (95% in mouse) of the dorsal striatum neurons and represent dopaminoceptive GABAergic neurons. The cAMP (cyclic Adenosine MonoPhosphate)-mediated cascade of excitation and inhibition responses observed in MSN intracellular signal transduction is crucial for neuroscience research due to its involvement in the motor and behavioral functions. In particular, all types of addictions are related to MSNs. Shedding the light on the mechanics of the above-mentioned cascade is of primary importance for this research domain.

RESULTS

A mouse model of chronic social conflicts in daily agonistic interactions was used to analyze dorsal striatum neurons genes implicated in cAMP-mediated phosphorylation activation pathways specific for MSNs. Based on expression correlation analysis, we succeeded in dissecting Drd1- and Drd2-dopaminoceptive neurons (D1 and D2, correspondingly) gene pathways. We also found that D1 neurons genes clustering are split into two oppositely correlated states, passive and active ones, the latter apparently corresponding to D1 firing stage upon protein kinase A (PKA) activation. We observed that under defeat stress in chronic social conflicts the loser mice manifest overall depression of dopamine-mediated MSNs activity resulting in previously reported reduced motor activity, while the aggressive mice with positive fighting experience (aggressive mice) feature an increase in both D1-active phase and D2 MSNs genes expression leading to hyperactive behavior pattern corresponded by us before. Based on the alternative transcript isoforms expression analysis, it was assumed that many genes (Drd1, Adora1, Pde10, Ppp1r1b, Gnal), specifically those in D1 neurons, apparently remain transcriptionally repressed via the reversible mechanism of promoter CpG island silencing, resulting in alternative promoter usage following profound reduction in their expression rate.

CONCLUSION

Based on the animal stress model dorsal striatum pooled tissue RNA-Seq data restricted to cAMP related genes subset we elucidated MSNs steady states exhaustive projection for the first time. We correspond the existence of D1 active state not explicitly outlined before, and connected with dynamic dopamine neurotransmission cycles. Consequently, we were also able to indicate an oscillated postsynaptic dopamine vs glutamate action pattern in the course of the neurotransmission cycles.

Cellular Models: HD Patient-Derived Pluripotent Stem Cells

Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder caused by expanded polyglutamine (polyQ)-encoding repeats in the Huntingtin (HTT) gene. Traditionally, HD cellular models consisted of either patient cells not affected by disease or rodent neurons expressing expanded polyQ repeats in HTT. As these models can be limited in their disease manifestation or proper genetic context, respectively, human HD pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) are currently under investigation as a way to model disease in patient-derived neurons and other neural cell types. This chapter reviews embryonic stem cell (ESC) and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) models of disease, including published differentiation paradigms for neurons and their associated phenotypes, as well as current challenges to the field such as validation of the PSCs and PSC-derived cells. Highlighted are potential future technical advances to HD PSC modeling, including transdifferentiation, complex in vitro multiorgan/system reconstruction, and personalized medicine. Using a human HD patient model of the central nervous system, hopefully one day researchers can tease out the consequences of mutant HTT (mHTT) expression on specific cell types within the brain in order to identify and test novel therapies for disease.

Darpp-32 and t-Darpp protein products of PPP1R1B: Old dogs with new tricks

The PPP1R1B gene is located on chromosome 17q12 (39,626,208-39,636,626[GRCh38/hg38]), which codes for multiple transcripts and two experimentally-documented proteins Darpp-32 and t-Darpp. Darpp-32 (Dopamine and cAMP Regulated Phosphoprotein), discovered in the early 1980s, is a protein whose phosphorylation is upregulated in response to cAMP in dopamine-responsive tissues in the brain. It's phosphorylation profile modulates its ability to bind and inhibit Protein Phosphatase 1 activity, which, in turn, controls the activity of hundreds of phosphorylated proteins. PPP1R1B knockout mice exhibit subtle learning defects. In 2002, the second protein product of PPP1R1B was discovered in gastric cancers: t-Darpp (truncated Darpp-32). The start codon of t-Darpp is amino acid residue 37 of Darpp-32 and it lacks the domain responsible for modulating Protein Phosphatase 1. Aside from gastric cancers, t-Darpp and/or Darpp-32 is overexpressed in tumor cells from breast, colon, esophagus, lung and prostate tissues. More than one research team has demonstrated that these proteins, through mechanisms that to date remain cloudy, activate AKT, a protein whose phosphorylation leads to cell survival and blocks apoptosis. Furthermore, in Her2 positive breast cancers (an aggressive form of breast cancer), t-Darpp/Darpp-32 overexpression causes resistance to the frequently-administered anti-Her2 drug, trastuzumab (Herceptin), likely through AKT activation. Here we briefly describe how Darpp-32 and t-Darpp were discovered and report on the current state of knowledge of their involvement in cancers. We present a case for the development of an anti-t-Darpp therapeutic agent and outline the unique challenges this endeavor will likely encounter.

Dissection and Preparation of Human Primary Fetal Ganglionic Eminence Tissue for Research and Clinical Applications

Here, we describe detailed dissection and enzymatic dissociation protocols for the ganglionic eminences from the developing human brain to generate viable quasi-single cell suspensions for subsequent use in transplantation or cell culture. These reliable and reproducible protocols can provide tissue for use in the study of the developing human brain, as well as for the preparation of donor cells for transplantation in Huntington's disease (HD). For use in the clinic as a therapy for HD, the translation of these protocols from the research laboratory to the GMP suite is described, including modification to reagents used and appropriate monitoring and tissue release criteria.

t-Darpp is an elongated monomer that binds calcium and is phosphorylated by cyclin-dependent kinases 1 and 5

t‐Darpp (truncated isoform of dopamine‐ and cAMP‐regulated phosphoprotein) is a protein encoded by the PPP1R1B gene and is expressed in breast, colon, esophageal, gastric, and prostate cancers, as well as in normal adult brain striatal cells. Overexpression of t‐Darpp in cultured cells leads to increased protein kinase A activity and increased phosphorylation of AKT (protein kinase B). In HER2+ breast cancer cells, t‐Darpp confers resistance to the chemotherapeutic agent trastuzumab. To shed light on t‐Darpp function, we studied its secondary structure, oligomerization status, metal‐binding properties, and phosphorylation by cyclin‐dependent kinases 1 and 5. t‐Darpp exhibits 12% alpha helix, 29% beta strand, 24% beta turn, and 35% random coil structures. It binds calcium, but not other metals commonly found in biological systems. The T39 site, critical for t‐Darpp activation of the AKT signaling pathway, is a substrate for phosphorylation by cyclin‐dependent kinase 1 and cyclin‐dependent kinase 5. Gel filtration chromatography, sedimentation equilibrium analysis, blue native gel electrophoresis, and glutaraldehyde‐mediated cross‐linking experiments demonstrate that the majority of t‐Darpp exists as a monomer, but forms low levels (< 3%) of hetero‐oligomers with its longer isoform Darpp‐32. t‐Darpp has a large Stokes radius of 4.4 nm relative to its mass of 19 kDa, indicating that it has an elongated structure.

Is there a place for human fetal-derived stem cells for cell replacement therapy in Huntington's disease?

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disease that offers an excellent paradigm for cell replacement therapy because of the associated relatively focal cell loss in the striatum. The predominant cells lost in this condition are striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs). Transplantation of developing MSNs taken from the fetal brain has provided proof of concept that donor MSNs can survive, integrate and bring about a degree of functional recovery in both pre-clinical studies and in a limited number of clinical trials. The scarcity of human fetal tissue, and the logistics of coordinating collection and dissection of tissue with neurosurgical procedures makes the use of fetal tissue for this purpose both complex and limiting. Alternative donor cell sources which are expandable in culture prior to transplantation are currently being sought. Two potential donor cell sources which have received most attention recently are embryonic stem (ES) cells and adult induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, both of which can be directed to MSN-like fates, although achieving a genuine MSN fate has proven to be difficult. All potential donor sources have challenges in terms of their clinical application for regenerative medicine, and thus it is important to continue exploring a wide variety of expandable cells. In this review we discuss two less well-reported potential donor cell sources; embryonic germ (EG) cells and fetal neural precursors (FNPs), both are which are fetal-derived and have some properties that could make them useful for regenerative medicine applications.

The involvement of DARPP-32 in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is one of the most devastating heterogeneous psychiatric disorders. The dopamine hypothesis is the longest standing pathoetiologic theory of schizophrenia based on neurochemical evidences of elevated brain striatal dopamine synthesis capacity and increased dopamine release in response to stress. Dopamine and cyclic AMP-regulated phosphoprotein of relative molecular mass 32,000 (DARPP-32) is a cytosolic protein highly enriched in the medium spiny neurons of the neostriatum, considered as the most important integrator between the cortical input and the basal ganglia, and associated with motor control. Accumulating evidences has indicated the involvement of DARPP-32 in the development of schizophrenia; i. DARPP-32 phosphorylation is regulated by several neurotransmitters, including dopamine and glutamate, neurotransmitters implicated in schizophrenia pathogenesis; ii. decrease of both total and phosphorylated DARPP-32 in the prefrontal cortex are observed in schizophrenic animal models; iii. postmortem brain studies indicated decreased expression of DARPP-32 protein in the superior temporal gyrus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in patients with schizophrenia; iv. DARPP-32 phosphorylation is increased upon therapy with antipsychotic drugs, such as haloperidol and risperidone which improve behavioral performance in experimental animal models and patients; v. Genetic analysis of the gene coding for DARPP-32 propose an association with schizophrenia. Cumulatively, these findings implicate DARPP-32 protein in schizophrenia and propose it as a potential therapeutic target. Here, we summarize the possible roles of DARPP-32 during the development of schizophrenia and make some recommendations for future research. We propose that DARPP-32 and its interacting proteins may serve as potential therapeutic targets in the treatment of schizophrenia.