MicroRNA-206 Regulates Stress-Provoked Aggressive Behaviors in Post-weaning Social Isolation Mice

The role of social isolation stress in escalated aggression in rodent models

Anti-social behavior and violence are major public health concerns. Globally, violence contributes to more than 1.6 million deaths each year. Previous studies have reported that social rejection or neglect exacerbates aggression. In rodent models, social isolation stress is used to demonstrate the adverse effects of social deprivation on physiological, endocrinological, immunological, and behavioral parameters, including aggressive behavior. This review summarizes recent rodent studies on the effect of social isolation stress during different developmental periods on aggressive behavior and the underlying neural mechanisms. Social isolation during adulthood affects the levels of neurosteroids and neuropeptides and increases aggressive behavior. These changes are ethologically relevant for the adaptation to changes in local environmental conditions in the natural habitats. Chronic deprivation of social interaction after weaning, especially during the juvenile to adolescent periods, leads to the disruption of the development of appropriate social behavior and the maladaptive escalation of aggressive behavior. The understanding of neurobiological mechanisms underlying social isolation-induced escalated aggression will aid in the development of therapeutic interventions for escalated aggression.

Early life stress and altered social behaviors: A perspective across species

Childhood and adolescent affiliations guide how individuals engage in social relationships throughout their lifetime and adverse experiences can promote biological alterations that facilitate behavioral maladaptation. Indeed, childhood victims of abuse are more likely to be diagnosed with conduct or mood disorders which are both characterized by altered social engagement. A key domain particularly deserving of attention is aggressive behavior, a hallmark of many disorders characterized by deficits in reward processing. Animal models have been integral in identifying both the short- and long-term consequences of stress exposure and suggest that whether it is disruption to parental care or social isolation, chronic exposure to early life stress increases corticosterone, changes the expression of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, and facilitates structural alterations to the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala, influencing how these brain regions communicate with other reward-related substrates. Herein, we describe how adverse early life experiences influence social behavioral outcomes across a wide range of species and highlight the long-term biological mechanisms that are most relevant to maladaptive aggressive behavior.

MicroRNA-specific targets for neuronal plasticity, neurotransmitters, neurotrophic factors, and gut microbes in the pathogenesis and therapeutics of depression

Depression is of great concern because of the huge burden, and it is impacted by various epigenetic modifications, e.g., histone modification, covalent modifications in DNA, and silencing mechanisms of non-coding protein genes, e.g., microRNAs (miRNAs). MiRNAs are a class of endogenous non-coding RNAs. Alternations in specific miRNAs have been observed both in depressive patients and experimental animals. Also, miRNAs are highly expressed in the central nervous system and can be delivered to different tissues via tissue-specific exosomes. However, the mechanism of miRNAs' involvement in the pathological process of depression is not well understood. Therefore, we summarized and discussed the role of miRNAs in depression. Conclusively, miRNAs are involved in the pathology of depression by causing structural and functional changes in synapses, mediating neuronal regeneration, differentiation, and apoptosis, regulating the gut microbes and the expression of various neurotransmitters and BDNF, and mediating inflammatory and immune responses. Moreover, miRNAs can predict the efficacy of antidepressant medications and explain the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs and aerobic exercise to prevent and assist in treating depression.

The microRNA-29ab1/Zfp36/AR Axis in the Hypothalamus Regulates Male-Typical Behaviors in Mice

Male-typical behaviors such as aggression and mating, which reflect sexual libido in male mice, are regulated by the hypothalamus, a crucial part of the nervous system. Previous studies have demonstrated that microRNAs (miRNAs), especially miR-29, play a vital role in reproduction and the neural control of behaviors. However, it remains unclear whether miR-29 affects reproduction through the hypothalamus-mediated regulation of male-typical behaviors. Here, we constructed two mouse knockout models by ablating either the miR-29ab1 or miR-29b2c cluster. Compared to WT, the ablation of miR-29ab1 in male mice significantly reduced the incidence of aggression by 60% and the incidence of mating by 46.15%. Furthermore, the loss of miR-29ab1 in male mice led to the downregulation of androgen receptor (AR) in the ventromedial hypothalamus. Transcriptomic analysis of the hypothalamus of miR-29ab1-deficient mice revealed inflammatory activation and aberrant expression of genes associated with male-typical behaviors, including Ar, Pgr, Htr4, and Htr2c. Using bioinformatics analysis and dual-luciferase reporter assays, we identified zinc finger protein 36 (Zfp36) as a direct downstream target gene of miR-29ab1. We subsequently showed that ZFP36 colocalized with AR in GT1-7 cells. Furthermore, inhibition of Zfp36 or RelB in GT1-7 cells led to an increase in AR expression. Collectively, our results demonstrate that the miR-29ab1/Zfp36/AR axis in the hypothalamus plays a pivotal role in the regulation of aggression and mating in male mice, providing a potential therapeutic target for treating infertility caused by low libido.

Evidence for the Contribution of the miR-206/BDNF Pathway in the Pathophysiology of Depression

Depression is a complex disorder with substantial impacts on individual health and has major public health implications. Depression results from complex interactions between genetic and environmental factors. Epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation, microRNAs (miRNAs), and histone modifications, can produce heritable phenotypic changes without a change in DNA sequence and recently were proven to mediate lasting increases in the risk of depression following exposure to adverse life events. Of these, miRNAs are gaining attention for their role in the pathogenesis of many stress-associated mental disorders, including depression. One such miRNA is microRNA-206 (miR-206), which is a critical candidate for increasing the susceptibility to stress. Although miR-206 is thought to be a typical muscle-specific miRNA, it is expressed throughout the brain, particularly in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Until now, only a few studies have been conducted on rodents to understand the role of miR-206 in stress-related abnormalities in neurogenesis. However, the precise underlying molecular mechanism of miR-206-mediated depression-like behaviors remains largely unknown. Here, we reviewed recent advances in the field of biomedical and clinical research on the role of miR-206 in the pathogenesis of depression from studies using different tissues and various experimental designs and described how abnormalities in miR-206 expression in these tissues can affect neuronal functions. Moreover, we focused on studies investigating the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) as a functional target of miR-206, where miR-206 has been implicated in the pathogenesis of depression by suppressing the expression of the BDNF. In summary, these studies confirm the existence of a tight correlation between the pathogenesis of depression and the miR-206/BDNF pathway.

Modulating Stress Susceptibility and Resilience: Insights from miRNA Manipulation and Neural Mechanisms in Mice

This study explored the impact of microRNAs, specifically mmu-miR-1a-3p and mmu-miR-155-5p, on stress susceptibility and resilience in mice of different strains. Previous research had established that C57BL/6J mice were stress-susceptible, while NET-KO and SWR/J mice displayed stress resilience. These strains also exhibited variations in the serum levels of mmu-miR-1a-3p and mmu-miR-155-5p. To investigate this further, we administered antagonistic sequences (Antagomirs) targeting these microRNAs to C57/BL/6J mice and their analogs (Agomirs) to NET-KO and SWR/J mice via intracerebroventricular (i.c.v) injection. The impact of this treatment was assessed using the forced swim test. The results showed that the stress-susceptible C57/BL/6J mice could be transformed into a stress-resilient phenotype through infusion of Antagomirs. Conversely, stress-resilient mice displayed altered behavior when treated with Ago-mmu-miR-1a-3p. The study also examined the expression of mmu-miR-1a-3p in various brain regions, revealing that changes in its expression in the cerebellum (CER) were associated with the stress response. In vitro experiments with the Neuro2a cell line indicated that the Antago/Ago-miR-1a-3p and Antago/Ago-miR-155-5p treatments affected mRNAs encoding genes related to cAMP and Ca2+ signaling, diacylglycerol kinases, and phosphodiesterases. The expression changes of genes such as Dgkq, Bdnf, Ntrk2, and Pde4b in the mouse cerebellum suggested a link between cerebellar function, synaptic plasticity, and the differential stress responses observed in susceptible and resilient mice. In summary, this research highlights the role of mmu-miR-1a-3p and mmu-miR-155-5p in regulating stress susceptibility and resilience in mice and suggests a connection between these microRNAs, cerebellar function, and synaptic plasticity in the context of stress response.

Chronic ingestion of soy peptide supplementation reduces aggressive behavior and abnormal fear memory caused by juvenile social isolation

Juvenile loneliness is a risk factor for psychopathology in later life. Deprivation of early social experience due to peer rejection has a detrimental impact on emotional and cognitive brain function in adulthood. Accumulating evidence indicates that soy peptides have many positive effects on higher brain function in rodents and humans. However, the effects of soy peptide use on juvenile social isolation are unknown. Here, we demonstrated that soy peptides reduced the deterioration of behavioral and cellular functions resulting from juvenile socially-isolated rearing. We found that prolonged social isolation post-weaning in male C57BL/6J mice resulted in higher aggression and impulsivity and fear memory deficits at 7 weeks of age, and that these behavioral abnormalities, except impulsivity, were mitigated by ingestion of soy peptides. Furthermore, we found that daily intake of soy peptides caused upregulation of postsynaptic density 95 in the medial prefrontal cortex and phosphorylation of the cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein in the hippocampus of socially isolated mice, increased phosphorylation of the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase in the hippocampus, and altered the microbiota composition. These results suggest that soy peptides have protective effects against juvenile social isolation-induced behavioral deficits via synaptic maturation and cellular functionalization.

Postweaning stress affects behavior, brain and gut microbiota of adolescent mice in a sex-dependent manner

Aggression is an instinctive behavior that has been reported to be influenced by early-life stress. However, the potential effects of acute stress during the postweaning period, a key stage for brain development, on defensive aggression and the associated mechanism remain poorly understood. In the present study, aggressive behaviors were evaluated in adolescent mice exposed to postweaning stress. Serum corticosterone and testosterone levels, neural dendritic spine density, and gut microbiota composition were determined to identify the underlying mechanism. Behavioral analysis showed that postweaning stress reduced locomotor activity in mice and decreased defensive aggression in male mice. ELISA results showed that postweaning stress reduced serum testosterone levels in female mice. Golgi staining analysis demonstrated that postweaning stress decreased neural dendritic spine density in the medial prefrontal cortex of male mice. 16S rRNA sequencing results indicated that postweaning stress altered the composition of the gut microbiota in male mice. Combined, these results suggested that postweaning stress alters defensive aggression in male mice, which may be due to changes in neuronal structure as well as gut microbiota composition. Our findings highlight the long-lasting and sex-dependent effects of early-life experience on behaviors.

GDNF and miRNA-29a as biomarkers in the first episode of psychosis: uncovering associations with psychosocial factors

Aim

Schizophrenia involves complex interactions between biological and environmental factors, including childhood trauma, cognitive impairments, and premorbid adjustment. Predicting its severity and progression remains challenging. Biomarkers like glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and miRNA-29a may bridge biological and environmental aspects. The goal was to explore the connections between miRNAs and neural proteins and cognitive functioning, childhood trauma, and premorbid adjustment in the first episode of psychosis (FEP).

Method

This study included 19 FEP patients who underwent clinical evaluation with: the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), the Premorbid Adjustment Scale (PAS), the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment Scale (MoCA). Multiplex assays for plasma proteins were conducted with Luminex xMAP technology. Additionally, miRNA levels were quantitatively determined through RNA extraction, cDNA synthesis, and RT-qPCR on a 7500 Fast Real-Time PCR System.

Results

Among miRNAs, only miR-29a-3p exhibited a significant correlation with PAS-C scores (r = -0.513, p = 0.025) and cognitive improvement (r = -0.505, p = 0.033). Among the analyzed proteins, only GDNF showed correlations with MoCA scores at the baseline and after 3 months (r = 0.533, p = 0.0189 and r = 0.598, p = 0.007), cognitive improvement (r = 0.511, p = 0.025), and CTQ subtests. MIF concentrations correlated with the PAS-C subscale (r = -0.5670, p = 0.011).

Conclusion

GDNF and miR-29a-3p are promising as biomarkers for understanding and addressing cognitive deficits in psychosis. This study links miRNA and MIF to premorbid adjustment and reveals GDNF's unique role in connection with childhood trauma.

Interleukin-17A stimulation induces alterations in Microglial microRNA expression profiles

BACKGROUND

Increased maternal interleukin (IL)-17A and activated microglia are pivotal factors contributing to the pathological phenotypes of maternal immune activation (MIA), developing neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring. This study aimed to determine whether IL-17A affects the microglial microRNA (miRNA) profiles.

METHODS

The miRNA expression profiles of primary cultured microglia stimulated with recombinant IL-17A were examined comprehensively using miRNA sequencing and validated through qRT-PCR. The expressions of miRNAs target genes identified using bioinformatics, were investigated in microglia transfected with mimic miRNA. The target gene's expression was also examined in the fetal brains of the MIA mouse model induced by maternal lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration.

RESULTS

Primary cultured microglia expressed the IL-17A receptor and increased proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide synthase 2 upon treatment with IL-17A. Among the three miRNAs with |log2FC | >1, only mmu-miR-206-3p expression was significantly up-regulated by IL-17A. Transfection with the mmu-miR-206-3p mimic resulted in a significant decrease in the expression of Hdac4 and Igf1, target genes of mmu-miR-206-3p. Hdac4 expression also significantly decreased in the LPS-induced MIA model.

CONCLUSIONS

IL-17A affected microglial miRNA profiles with upregulated mmu-miR-206-3p. These findings suggest that targeting the IL-17A/mmu-miR-206-3p pathway may be a new strategy for predicting MIA-related neurodevelopmental deficits and providing preventive interventions.

IMPACT

Despite the growing evidence of interleukin (IL)-17A and microglia in the pathology of maternal immune activation (MIA), the downstream of IL-17A in microglia is not fully known. IL-17A altered microRNA profiles and upregulated the mmu-miR-206-3p expression in microglia. The mmu-miR-206-3p reduced autism spectrum disorder (ASD) related gene expressions, Hdac4 and Igf1. The Hdac4 expression was also reduced in the brain of MIA offspring. The hsa-miR-206 sequence is consistent with that of mmu-miR-206-3p. This study may provide clues to pathological mechanisms leading to predictions and interventions for ASD children born to mothers with IL-17A-related disorders.

A Comprehensive Review on the Importance of MiRNA-206 in the Animal Model and Human Diseases

MicroRNA-206 (miR-206) is a microRNA that is involved in many human diseases, such as myasthenia gravis, osteoarthritis, depression, cancers, etc. Both inhibition effects and progression roles of miR-206 have been reported for the past few years. High expression of miR-206 was observed in patients with osteoarthritis, gastric cancer and epithelial ovarian cancer compared to normal people. The study also showed that miR-206 promotes cancer progression in breast cancer patients and avascular necrosis of the femoral head. Meanwhile, several studies have shown that expression levels of miR-206 were down-regulated in laryngeal carcinoma cell multiplication, as well as in hepatocellular carcinoma, non-small lung cancer and infantile hemangioma. Moreover, miR-206 was up-regulated in the mild stage of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients and then down-regulated in the moderate and severe stages, indicating that miR-206 has the double effects of starting and aggravating the disease. In neuropsychiatric disorders, such as depression, miR-206 also plays an important role in the progression of the disease; the level of miR-206 is most highly expressed in the brains of patients with depression. In the current review, we summarize the role of miR-206 in various diseases, and miR-206 may be developed as a new biomarker for diagnosing diseases in the near future.

Social isolation-induced transcriptomic changes in mouse hippocampus impact the synapse and show convergence with human genetic risk for neurodevelopmental phenotypes

Early life stress (ELS) can impact brain development and is a risk factor for neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia. Post-weaning social isolation (SI) is used to model ELS in animals, using isolation stress to disrupt a normal developmental trajectory. We aimed to investigate how SI affects the expression of genes in mouse hippocampus and to investigate how these changes related to the genetic basis of neurodevelopmental phenotypes. BL/6J mice were exposed to post-weaning SI (PD21-25) or treated as group-housed controls (n = 7-8 per group). RNA sequencing was performed on tissue samples from the hippocampus of adult male and female mice. Four hundred and 1,215 differentially-expressed genes (DEGs) at a false discovery rate of < 0.05 were detected between SI and control samples for males and females respectively. DEGS for both males and females were significantly overrepresented in gene ontologies related to synaptic structure and function, especially the post-synapse. DEGs were enriched for common variant (SNP) heritability in humans that contributes to risk of neuropsychiatric disorders (schizophrenia, bipolar disorder) and to cognitive function. DEGs were also enriched for genes harbouring rare de novo variants that contribute to autism spectrum disorder and other developmental disorders. Finally, cell type analysis revealed populations of hippocampal astrocytes that were enriched for DEGs, indicating effects in these cell types as well as neurons. Overall, these data suggest a convergence between genes dysregulated by the SI stressor in the mouse and genes associated with neurodevelopmental disorders and cognitive phenotypes in humans.

Gut microbiota-induced microRNA-206-3p increases anxiety-like behaviors by inhibiting expression of Cited2 and STK39

BACKGROUND

Anxiety disorder is highly prevalent worldwide and represents a chronic and functionally disabling condition, with high levels of psychological stress characterized by cognitive and physiological symptoms. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the clinical significance of gut microbiota regulating microRNA (miR)-206-3p as a biomarker in the anxiety-like behaviors.

METHODS

Initially, bioinformatics analysis was performed to predict the related factors for gut microbiota affecting anxiety-like behaviors. Next, the anxiety-like behaviors in mice were measured by multiple experiments. Western blot analysis, immunohistochemistry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were utilized to measure the levels of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and neutrophil expressed (NE) in brain tissues and serum and cAMP responsive element binding protein 1 (CREB) phosphorylation in brain tissues of germ-free (GF) mice. Dual-luciferase reporter gene assay was employed to verify the relationship between miR-206-3p and Cbp/p300 interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp rich carboxy-terminal domain 2 (Cited2)/serine/threonine kinase 39 (STK39). Ectopic expression and depletion experiments of miR-206-3p were conducted to determine the expression of miR-206-3p and mRNA and protein levels of Cited2, and STK39 in HT22 cells and brain tissues. Finally, transmission electron microscope (TEM) was used to observe the effects of miR-206-3p on hippocampal mitochondria and synapses.

RESULTS

Gut microbiota could elevate miR-206-3p expression in brain tissues to increase the anxiety-like behaviors. GF mice displayed the increased levels of 5-HT, BDNF, and NE in brain tissues and serum and CREB phosphorylation in brain tissues. Cited2/STK39 was identified as the target genes of miR-206-3p. Upregulated miR-206-3p increased anxiety-like behaviors by promoting degeneration of mitochondria and synapses in hippocampus via downregulation of Cited2 and STK39.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the key findings of the current study demonstrate that gut microbiota aggravated anxiety-like behaviors via the miR-206-3p/Cited2/STK39 axis.

Effective biomarkers and therapeutic targets of nerve-immunity interaction in the treatment of depression: an integrated investigation of the miRNA-mRNA regulatory networks

Background: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is an emotional condition that interferes with sufferers’ work and daily life. Numerous studies have found that miRNAs play a significant role in the development of MDD and can be utilized as a biomarker for its diagnosis and therapy. However, there have been few studies on nerve-immunity interaction treatment for the brains of MMD patients. Methods: The work is performed on microarray data. We analyzed the differences of miRNAs (GSE58105, GSE81152, GSE152267, and GSE182194) and mRNA (GSE19738, GSE32280, GSE44593, GSE53987, and GSE98793) in MDD and healthy samples from GEO datasets. FunRich was used to predict the transcription factors and target genes of the miRNAs, and TF and GO enrichment analyses were performed. Then, by comparing the differential expression of the anticipated target genes and five mRNAs, intersecting mRNAs were discovered. The intersecting genes were submitted to GO and KEGG analyses to determine their functions. These intersecting potential genes and pathways that linked to MDD in neurological and immunological aspects have been identified for future investigation. Results: We discovered five hub genes: KCND2, MYT1L, GJA1, CHL1, and SNAP25, which were all up-regulated genes. However, in MMD, the equivalent miRNAs, hsa-miR-206 and hsa-miR-338-3p, were both down-regulated. These miRNAs can activate or inhibit the T cell receptor signal pathway, JAK-STAT and other signal pathways, govern immune-inflammatory response, neuronal remodeling, and mediate the onset and development of MMD Conclusions: The results of a thorough bioinformatics investigation of miRNAs and mRNAs in MDD showed that miR-338-3P and miR-206 might be effective biomarkers and possible therapeutic targets for the treatment of MDD via nerve-immunity interaction.

Targeting PSD95/nNOS by ZL006 alleviates social isolation-induced heightened attack behavior in mice

RATIONALE

Deregulated attack behaviors have devastating social consequences; however, satisfactory clinical management for the behavior is still an unmet need so far. Social isolation (SI) has been common during the COVID-19 pandemic and may have detrimental effects on mental health, including eliciting heightened attack behavior.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to explore whether injection of ZL006 can alleviate SI-induced escalation of attack behavior in mice.

METHODS

Pharmacological tools, biochemical methods, and behavioral tests were used to explore the potential therapeutic effects of ZL006 targeting postsynaptic density 95 (PSD95)/neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) pathway on escalation of attack behavior induced by SI in mice.

RESULTS

ZL006 mitigated SI-induced escalated attack behaviors and elevated nitric oxide (NO) level in the cortex of the SI mice. The beneficial effects of ZL006 lasted for at least 72 h after a single injection of ZL006. Potentiation of NO levels by L-arginine blocked the effects of ZL006. Moreover, a sub-effective dose of 7-NI in combination with a sub-effective dose of ZL006 decreased both SI-induced escalated attack behaviors and NO levels in mice subjected to SI.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights the importance of the PSD95/nNOS pathway in mediating SI-induced escalation of attack behavior. ZL006 may be a promising therapeutic strategy for treating aggressive behaviors.

Epigenetic mechanisms impacted by chronic stress across the rodent lifespan

Exposures to stress at all stages of development can lead to long-term behavioural effects, in part through changes in the epigenome. This review describes rodent research suggesting that stress in prenatal, postnatal, adolescent and adult stages leads to long-term changes in epigenetic regulation in the brain which have causal impacts on rodent behaviour. We focus on stress-induced epigenetic changes that have been linked to behavioural deficits including poor learning and memory, and increased anxiety-like and depressive-like behaviours. Interestingly, aspects of these stress-induced behavioural changes can be transmitted to offspring across several generations, a phenomenon that has been proposed to result via epigenetic mechanisms in the germline. Here, we also discuss evidence for the differential impact of stress on the epigenome in males and females, conscious of the fact that the majority of published studies have only investigated males. This has led to a limited picture of the epigenetic impact of stress, highlighting the need for future studies to investigate females as well as males.

A Glimpse Into the Sexual Dimorphisms in Major Depressive Disorder Through Epigenetic Studies

Depression is an umbrella term used to describe a mood disorder with a broad spectrum of symptoms including a persistent feeling of sadness, loss of interest, and deficits in social behavior. Epigenetic research bridges the environmental and genetic landscape and has the potential to exponentially improve our understanding of such a complex disorder. Depression is also a sexually dimorphic disorder and variations exist within epigenetic modification sites between sexes. These sex-specific mediators may impact behavioral symptomology and could serve as therapeutic targets for treatments to improve behavioral deficits. This mini review will focus on the social behavior perspective of depression and specifically explore the sexually different epigenetic modifications on depression.

Epigenetics of childhood trauma: Long term sequelae and potential for treatment

Childhood trauma (CT) can have persistent effects on the brain and is one of the major risk factors for neuropsychiatric diseases in adulthood. Recent advances in the field of epigenetics suggest that epigenetic factors such as DNA methylation and histone modifications, as well as regulatory processes involving non-coding RNA are associated with the long-term sequelae of CT. This narrative review summarizes current knowledge on the epigenetic basis of CT and describes studies in animal models and human subjects examining how the epigenome and transcriptome are modified by CT in the brain. It discusses psychological and pharmacological interventions that can counteract epigenetic changes induced by CT and the need to establish longitudinal assessment after CT for developing more effective diagnostics and treatment strategies based on epigenetic targets.

Social Stress and Aggression in Murine Models

Throughout life, animals engage in a variety of social interactions ranging from the affiliative mother-offspring interaction and juvenile play to aggressive conflict. Deprivation of the appropriate social interaction during early development is stressful and disrupts the development of appropriate social behaviors and emotional responses later in life. Additionally, agonistic encounters can induce stress responses in both dominant and subordinate individuals. This review focuses on the social stress that escalates aggressive behavior of animals and discusses the known neurobiological and physiological mechanisms underlying the link between social stress and aggression. Social instigation, a brief exposure to a rival without physical contact, induces aggressive arousal in dominant animals and escalates aggressive behaviors in the following agonistic encounter. Furthermore, the experience of winning an aggressive encounter is known to be as rewarding as addictive drugs, and the experience of repeatedly winning induces addiction-like behavioral and neurobiological changes and leads to abnormal aggressive behaviors. Social isolation stress in early development from neonatal to juvenile and adolescent periods also affects aggressive behavior, but these effects largely depend on the strain, sex, and species as well as the stage of development in which isolation stress is experienced. In conclusion, understanding neurobiological mechanisms underlying the link between social stress and aggression will provide an important insight for the development of more effective and tolerable treatments for maladaptive aggression in humans.

When "Stay at Home" Can Be Dangerous: Data on Domestic Violence in Italy during COVID-19 Lockdown

The global pandemic caused by a new strain of Coronavirus has brought the Italian government to adopt quarantine, isolation, and lockdown strategies as restrictive measures to reduce the virus spread. Being forced to stay at home could significantly increase the likelihood of episodes of home-based violence and could also be accompanied by a limited possibility of complaints or defense by the victim. The present study aimed to document, through the use of newspaper articles, the characteristics of domestic violence during the lockdown period related to COVID-19 in Italy (from 9 March 2020 up to 18 May 2020) and compare the results with the same period in 2019. The results showed an increase in domestic violence during the lockdown period compared to the same period the year before and highlighted the differences between the dynamics and violent behavior between the two periods examined. The results and limitations of this research are discussed with reference to the literature.

Regulation of stress-provoked aggressive behavior using endocannabinoids

Reactive impulsive aggression is characterized by outbursts of rage and violence when subjects encounter threatening stressful events. Although impulsive aggression and violence create a high-cost burden on health and society, relatively little is known about treatment. Early adolescent social isolation (SI) alters brain development and functions. It induces hyper-excitatory in the ventral hippocampus (vHip) to promote acute stress-provoked outbursts of aggression, referred to as impulsive aggression, in mouse models. Cannabinoid type 1 receptors (CB1Rs) act on presynaptic sites and suppress neurotransmitter release into synapses. Given that CB1R activation inhibits neurotransmitter releases and modulates excitatory network activity, we tested the hypothesis that CB1R activation reduces impulsive aggression in SI mice through decreasing excitatory activity in the vHip. Here, we report that CB1R agonists, WIN-552122 (WIN) or arachidonylcyclopropylamide (ACPA), ameliorated acute stress-provoked attack behavior in the resident-intruder test without affecting general locomotion activity. Increasing endocannabinoids (eCBs) by inhibiting degradation enzymes in the vHip reduced impulsive aggression, and the effect was blunted by administration of AM251, a CB1R antagonist. Acute stress in SI mice induced c-Fos expression, a marker of neuronal activation, on vHip neurons projecting to the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), a well-known brain area that controls attack behavior. eCB augmentation inhibited c-Fos expression in VMH-projecting vHip neurons surrounded by CB1Rs. These results suggest that enhancing eCB signaling in order to activate CB1Rs suppresses impulsive aggression via suppressing vHip→VMH neural activity and point to a role of CB1R activation in ameliorating impulsive aggression in adults who have had adverse experiences during early adolescence.

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Early adolescent social isolation (SI) promotes impulsive aggression.

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Treatment of CB1R agonists reduces impulsive aggression in SI mice.

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Increasing endocannabinoids (eCBs) to activate CB1Rs reduces impulsive aggression.

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Augmenting eCBs suppresses stress-provoked neuronal activation in the hippocampus.

The important roles of microRNAs in depression: new research progress and future prospects

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are non-encoding, single-stranded RNA molecules of about 22 nucleotides in length encoded by endogenous genes involved in posttranscriptional gene expression regulation. Studies have shown that miRNAs participate in a series of important pathophysiological processes, including the pathogenesis of depression. This article systematically summarized the research results published in the field of miRNAs and depression, which mainly involved three topics: circulating miRNAs as markers for diagnosis and prognosis of depression, the regulatory roles of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of depression, and the roles of miRNAs in the mechanisms of depression treatment. By summarizing and analyzing the research literature in recent years, we found that some circulating miRNAs can be potential biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognostic evaluation of depression. miRNAs that disorderly expressed during the disease play important roles in the depression pathogenesis, and miRNAs also play roles in the mechanisms of psychotherapy and drug therapy for depression. Elucidating the important roles of miRNAs in depression will bring people's understanding of the pathogenesis of depression to a new level. In addition, these miRNAs may be developed as new biomarkers for diagnosing depression, or as drug targets, or these molecules may be used as new drugs, which may provide new means for the treatment of depression. KEY MESSAGES: • The research results of miRNAs and depression are reviewed. • Circulating miRNAs can be potential biomarkers for depression. • MiRNAs play important roles in the depression pathogenesis. • MiRNAs play important roles in drug therapy for depression.

Long-Term Impact of Social Isolation and Molecular Underpinnings

Prolonged periods of social isolation can have detrimental effects on the physiology and behavior of exposed individuals in humans and animal models. This involves complex molecular mechanisms across tissues in the body which remain partly identified. This review discusses the biology of social isolation and describes the acute and lasting effects of prolonged periods of social isolation with a focus on the molecular events leading to behavioral alterations. We highlight the role of epigenetic mechanisms and non-coding RNA in the control of gene expression as a response to social isolation, and the consequences for behavior. Considering the use of strict quarantine during epidemics, like currently with COVID-19, we provide a cautionary tale on the indiscriminate implementation of such form of social isolation and its potential damaging and lasting effects in mental health.

Effects of Early-Life Stress on the Brain and Behaviors: Implications of Early Maternal Separation in Rodents

Early-life stress during the prenatal and postnatal periods affects the formation of neural networks that influence brain function throughout life. Previous studies have indicated that maternal separation (MS), a typical rodent model equivalent to early-life stress and, more specifically, to child abuse and/or neglect in humans, can modulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, affecting subsequent neuronal function and emotional behavior. However, the neural basis of the long-lasting effects of early-life stress on brain function has not been clarified. In the present review, we describe the alterations in the HPA-axis activity-focusing on serum corticosterone (CORT)-and in the end products of the HPA axis as well as on the CORT receptor in rodents. We then introduce the brain regions activated during various patterns of MS, including repeated MS and single exposure to MS at various stages before weaning, via an investigation of c-Fos expression, which is a biological marker of neuronal activity. Furthermore, we discuss the alterations in behavior and gene expression in the brains of adult mice exposed to MS. Finally, we ask whether MS repeats itself and whether intergenerational transmission of child abuse and neglect is possible.