Need for Cognitive Closure decreases risk taking and motivates discounting of delayed rewards

Research on the cognitive neural mechanism of privacy empowerment illusion cues regarding comprehensibility and interpretability for privacy disclosures

In the era of artificial intelligence, privacy empowerment illusion has become a crucial means for digital enterprises and platforms to "manipulate" users and create an illusion of control. This topic has also become an urgent and pressing concern for current research. However, the existing studies are limited in terms of their perspectives and methodologies, making it challenging to fully explain why users express concerns about privacy empowerment illusion but repeatedly disclose their personal information. This study combines the associative-propositional evaluation model (APE) and cognitive load theory, using event-related potential (ERP) technology to investigate the underlying mechanisms of how the comprehensibility and interpretability of privacy empowerment illusion cues affect users' immediate attitudes and privacy disclosure behaviours; these mechanisms are mediated by psychological processing and cognitive load differences. Behavioural research results indicate that in the context of privacy empowerment illusion cues with low comprehensibility, users are more inclined to disclose their private information when faced with high interpretability than they are when faced with low interpretability. EEG results show that in the context of privacy empowerment illusion cues with low comprehensibility, high interpretability induces greater P2 amplitudes than does low interpretability; low interpretability induces greater N2 amplitudes than does high interpretability. This study extends the scopes of the APE model and cognitive load theory in the field of privacy research, providing new insights into privacy attitudes. Doing so offers a valuable framework through which digital enterprises can gain a deeper understanding of users' genuine privacy attitudes and immediate reactions under privacy empowerment illusion situations. This understanding can help increase user privacy protection and improve their overall online experience, making it highly relevant and beneficial.

Heightened threat perceptions and reduced stability in anxiety and fear among U.S. adults who carry handguns

Firearm carrying is often motivated to provide safety and is correlated with increased anxiety related to elevated perceptions of the world as a dangerous place. No studies have investigated affective states among firearm owners as they occur in their natural environments. This study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to examine cognitive-affective states among firearm owners who carry handguns outside their home (n = 35), firearm owners who do not carry (n = 47), and non-firearm owners (n = 62). Participants completed a self-report questionnaire at baseline followed by EMA surveys of mood state with the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) 6 times per day for 28 consecutive days. Carry handgun owners reported significantly higher threat perceptions, measured with the negative cognitions about the world subscale of the shortened Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI), than no-carry handgun owners (Mdiff=2.0, 95% CI=0.8-2.0, d=0.45, p = .001) and non-owners (Mdiff=1.8, 95% CI=0.6-2.9, d=0.42, p = .003). Groups did not significantly differ in mean momentary mood ratings assessed via EMA but stability in high-arousal negative arousal was significantly reduced among carry handgun owners (F(2, 150)= 3.7, p = .026). Results suggest firearm owners who carry handguns view the world as especially dangerous, are more likely to experience shifts in anxiety and fear, and take longer to recover from periods of elevated anxiety and fear.

Impact of the normativeness and intelligibility of privacy interpretation information on the willingness to accept targeted advertising -A cognitive load perspective

From the perspective of the user's psychological load, this study examined the cognitive mechanism by which privacy interpretation information affects the willingness to accept targeted advertising. Our findings provide a reference for enterprises seeking to develop and improve privacy interpretation information and reduce advertising avoidance behaviour. Based on information processing theory and cognitive load theory, this study experimentally collected volunteers' electroencephalography (EEG) data, interpreted the EEG results as representing emotions and cognitive load, and analysed the impact of the normativeness and intelligibility of privacy interpretation information on the willingness to accept targeted advertising. Intelligibility significantly affected this willingness. In the case of acceptable transparency, users were more inclined to avoid targeted advertising under low interpretability. Low interpretability caused them to expend more cognitive effort, which induced a larger N2 amplitude. In the case of unacceptable transparency, the opposite conclusion was drawn. In addition, privacy information with high interpretability was more likely to arouse users' emotions and induce a greater amplitude of late positive potential.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-023-04325-6.

Intuitive thinking impedes cooperation by decreasing cooperative expectations for pro-self but not for pro-social individuals

This study conducted two experiments to explore the effects of intuitive thinking and social value orientation (SVO) on cooperative behavior and assess the mediating effect of cooperative expectations. It manipulated intuitive thinking by increasing the participants' need for cognitive closure, classified SVO using the triple-dominance measure, measured cooperative behavior using the prisoner's dilemma game, and considered cooperative expectations based on participants' assessments of the cooperativeness of their counterparts. Both experiments showed that intuitive thinking increased and decreased the cooperation of pro-social and pro-self individuals, respectively. In pro-self individuals, cooperative expectations mediated the effect of intuitive thinking on cooperation.

Need for cognitive closure is associated with different intra-network functional connectivity patterns: A resting state EEG study

Need for Cognitive Closure (NCC) is a construct referring to the desire for predictability, unambiguity and firm answers to issues. Neuroscientific literature about NCC processes has mainly focused on task-related brain activity. According to the Triple Network model (TN), the main aim of the current study was to investigate resting state (RS) electroencephalographic (EEG) intra-network dynamics associated with NCC. Fifty-two young adults (39 females) were enrolled and underwent EEG recordings during RS. Functional connectivity analysis was computed through exact Low-Resolution Electromagnetic Tomography (eLORETA) software. Our results showed that higher levels of NCC were associated with both i) decreased alpha EEG connectivity within the Central Executive Network (CEN), and ii) increased delta connectivity within the Default Mode Network (DMN). No significant correlations were observed between NCC and functional connectivity in the Salience Network (SN). Our data would seem to suggest that high levels of NCC are characterized by a specific communication pattern within the CEN and the DMN during RS. These neurophysiological patterns might reflect several typical NCC-related cognitive characteristics (e.g., lower flexibility and preference for habitual and rigid response schemas).

Risk-Perception Change Associated with COVID-19 Vaccine's Side Effects: The Role of Individual Differences

The COVID-19 vaccine appears to be a crucial requirement to fight the pandemic. However, a part of the population possesses negative attitudes towards the vaccine. The spread of conspiracy theories and contradictory information about the pandemic have altered the population's perception of risk. The risk-perception of the vaccine's side effects may be affected by individual differences. The complex relationship between risk-perception and individual differences is relevant when people have to make decisions based on ambiguous and constantly changing information, as in the early phases of the Italian vaccination campaign. The present study aimed at measuring the effect of individual differences in risk-perception associated with the COVID-19 vaccine's side effects in a context characterized by information ambiguity. An online survey was conducted to classify a sample of Italian pro-vaccine people into cognitive/behavioral style groups. Furthermore, changes in vaccine risk-perception after inconsistent communications regarding the vaccine's side effects were compared between groups. The results showed that "analytical" individuals did not change their perception regarding the probability of vaccine side effects but changed their perception regarding the severity of side effects; "open" and "polarized" individuals neither changed their perception regarding the probability nor of the severity of side effects, showing a different kind of information processing, which could interfere with an informed decision-making process.

Multivariate morphological brain signatures enable individualized prediction of dispositional need for closure

Need for closure (NFC) reflects stable individual differences in the desire for a quick, definite, and stable answer to a question. A large body of research has documented the association between NFC and various cognitive, emotional and social processes. Despite considerable interest in psychology, little effort has been made to uncover the neural substrates of individual variations in NFC. Herein, we took a data-driven approach to predict NFC trait combining machine learning framework and the whole-brain grey matter volume (GMV) features, which represent a reliable brain imaging measure and have been commonly employed to explore neural basis underlying individual differences of cognition and behaviors. Brain regions contributing to the prediction were then subjected to functional connectivity and decoding analyses for a quantitative inference on their psychophysiological functions. Our results indicated that multivariate patterns of GMV derived from multiple regions across distributed brain systems predicted NFC at individual level. The contributing regions are distributed across the emotional processing network (e.g., striatum), cognitive control network (e.g., lateral prefrontal cortex), social cognition network (e.g., temporoparietal junction) and perceptual processing network (e.g., occipital cortex). The current study provided the first evidence that dispositional NFC is embodied in multiple large-scale brain networks, helping to delineate a more complete picture about the neuropsychological processes that support individual differences in NFC. Beyond these findings, the current interdisciplinary approach to constructing and interpreting neuroimaging-based prediction model of personality traits would be informative to a wide range of future studies on personality.

Linking the behavioral immune system to COVID-19 vaccination intention: The mediating role of the need for cognitive closure and vaccine hesitancy

Vaccination has become one of the most effective ways of controlling the spread of COVID-19. Consequently, revealing the evolutionary and cognitive antecedents of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and vaccination intention has become crucial. Drawing on the theory of behavioral immune system (BIS), we investigate whether perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) is associated with vaccination intentions through the need for cognitive closure (NCC) and vaccine hesitancy. The data was collected from 525 adults from Turkey. The structural equation modeling results indicate that of the two dimensions of PVD, germ aversion predicts COVID-19 vaccination intention through sequential mediation of NCC and vaccine hesitancy. Perceived infectability, on the other hand, is directly and positively related to vaccination intention. By showing the mediating role of NCC, our results offer an insight as to why germ aversion translates into vaccine hesitancy, and low vaccination intention. We discuss the potential benefits of considering the roles of BIS and NCC in campaigns and policies targeted at increasing COVID-19 vaccine uptake and suggest implications for such practices.

Will E-Cigarette Modified Risk Messages with a Nicotine Warning Polarize Smokers' Beliefs about the Efficacy of Switching Completely to E-Cigarettes in Reducing Smoking-Related Risks?

In the U.S., e-cigarette companies can apply for permission to use reduced or modified risk messages (MRMs) in their marketing materials. Because e-cigarette marketing materials should have a nicotine addictiveness warning, MRMs and a nicotine warning could appear together-resulting in a conflicting message. When reading a conflicting message, individuals assimilate evidence supporting their pre-existing beliefs and eventually develop stronger beliefs, diverging more from those with different pre-existing beliefs (i.e., polarization). This study examined if exposure to e-cigarette MRMs with a nicotine warning polarizes smokers' initially opposing beliefs about the efficacy of switching completely to e-cigarettes in reducing smoking-related risks, and if this polarization depends on individuals' need for closure. An online experiment randomized 761 U.S. adult smokers to either three MRMs with a nicotine warning or three control messages. People reported their perceived efficacy of switching completely to e-cigarettes at pre- and posttest and need for closure at pretest. Linear regression showed no polarization effects. Nonetheless, need for closure and pretest efficacy beliefs influenced message response: MRMs with a nicotine warning only enhanced efficacy beliefs of smokers with low pretest efficacy beliefs and low need for closure. Evaluation of e-cigarette mixed communication should consider individuals' motivational and cognitive differences.

Fighting Coronavirus One Personality at a Time: Need for Structure, Trait Victimhood, and Adherence to COVID-19 Health Guidelines

Following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, authorities have issued several guidelines to curb the pandemic's disastrous effects. However, measures' effectiveness is dependent upon people's adherence to them. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the potential factors that explain guideline adherence. In the present brief research report, we investigated need for structure and trait victimhood, i.e., the tendency to feel like a victim, and their effect on fear of the pandemic, which in turn, predicted guideline adherence. Furthermore, the association between fear and guideline adherence was shaped by participants' global self-efficacy: higher levels of self-efficacy predicted more guideline adherence regardless of fear levels. The present findings may be relevant to health messaging endeavors aiming to improve compliance with guidelines.

"Do I have enough food?" How need for cognitive closure and gender impact stockpiling and food waste during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-national study in India and the United States of America

Food waste is considered to be one of the biggest issues affecting individuals around the globe. The COVID-19 pandemic, with the consequent lockdown processes, has recently triggered individuals to stockpile foodstuffs. Recent data shows, however, that individuals have not consumed a good proportion of the stockpiled food, resulting in increasing amounts of products ending up wasted. Using a cross-national survey conducted in the United States and India, we investigate how individuals' levels of need for cognitive closure (NFC) relate to food stockpiling and waste during the COVID-19 pandemic. Through a sequential mediation model, we show how individuals high in NFC did not perceive to have enough food at home, ending up buying more food than usual and, eventually, wasting more. Individuals' gender and country of residence moderate such phenomenon, with the effect being more pronounced among Indian (rather than American) women. We discuss how gender roles in different countries can correlate with the stockpiling and food waste processes. We conclude the manuscript by suggesting how public communication and policy making could develop targeted programs to mitigate such issues.

Knowledge, Concerns, and Behaviors of Individuals During the First Week of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic in Italy

IMPORTANCE

At the beginning of a public health crisis, such as the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, it is important to collect information about people's knowledge, worries, and behaviors to examine their influence on quality of life and to understand individual characteristics associated with these reactions. Such information could help to guide health authorities in providing informed interventions and clear communications.

OBJECTIVES

To document the initial knowledge about COVID-19 and recommended health behaviors; to assess worries (ie, one's perception of the influence of the worries of others on oneself), social appraisal, and preventive behaviors, comparing respondents from areas under different movement restrictions during the first week after the outbreak; and to understand how worries, perceived risk, and preventive behaviors were associated with quality of life and individual characteristics among Italian adults.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This convenience sample, nonprobablistic survey study recruited adult participants with a snowballing sampling method in any Italian region during the first week of the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy from February 26, 2020, to March 4, 2020. Data were analyzed from March 5 to 12, 2020.

EXPOSURES

Information was collected from citizens living in the quarantine zone (ie, red zone), area with restricted movements (ie, yellow zone), and COVID-19-free regions (ie, green zone).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Levels of knowledge on the virus, contagion-related worries, social appraisal, and preventive behaviors were assessed with ratings of quality of life (measured using the Short Form Health Survey). Additionally, some individual characteristics that may be associated with worries and behaviors were assessed, including demographic characteristics, personality traits (measured using Big Five Inventory-10), perceived health control (measured using the internal control measure in the Health Locus of Control scale), optimism (measured using the Revised Life Orientation Test), and the need for cognitive closure (measured using the Need for Closure Scale).

RESULTS

A total of 3109 individuals accessed the online questionnaire, and 2886 individuals responded to the questionnaire at least partially (mean [SD] age, 30.7 [13.2] years; 2203 [76.3%] women). Most participants were well informed about the virus characteristics and suggested behaviors, with a mean (SD) score of 77.4% (17.3%) correct answers. Quality of life was similar across the 3 zones (effect size = 0.02), but mental health was negatively associated with contagion-related worries (β = -0.066), social appraisal (β = -0.221), and preventive behaviors (β = -0.066) in the yellow zone (R2 = 0.108). Social appraisal was also associated with reduced psychological well-being in the green zone (β = -0.205; R2 = 0.121). In the yellow zone, higher worries were negatively correlated with emotional stability (β = -0.165; R2 = 0.047). Emotional stability was also negatively associated with perceived susceptibility in the yellow (β = -0.108; R2 = 0.040) and green (β = -0.170; R2 = 0.087) zones. Preventative behaviors and social appraisal were also associated with the need for cognitive closure in both yellow (preventive behavior: β = 0.110; R2 = 0.023; social appraisal β = 0.115; R2 = 0.104) and green (preventive behavior: β = 0.174; R2 = 0.022; social appraisal: 0.261; R2 = 0.137) zones.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

These findings suggest that during the first week of the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy, people were well informed and had a relatively stable level of worries. Quality of life did not vary across the areas, although mental well-being was challenged by the social appraisal and worries related to the contagion. Increased scores for worries and concerns were associated with more cognitive rigidity and emotional instability.

Assessing a domain-specific risk-taking construct: A meta-analysis of reliability of the DOSPERT scale

The DOSPERT scale has been used extensively to understand individual differences in risk attitudes across varying decision domains since 2002. The present study reports a reliability generalization meta-analysis to summarize the internal consistency of both the initial and the revised versions of DOSPERT. It also examined factors that can influence the reliability of the DOSPERT and its subscales. A total of 104 samples (N = 30,109) that reported 465 coefficient alphas were analyzed. Results of meta-regression models showed that the overall coefficient alpha of the DOSPERT total scores was satisfactory, regardless of the scale and study characteristics. Coefficient alphas varied significantly across domain subscales, with values ranging from .68 for the social domain to .80 for the recreational domain. In addition, the alpha coefficients of subscales varied significantly depending on various study characteristics. Finally, we report the meta-analysis of the intercorrelations among DOSPERT subscales and reveal that intercorrelations among the subscales are heterogeneous. We discuss the theoretical implications of the present findings.

Event-related potentials in response to feedback following risk-taking in the hot version of the Columbia Card Task

Given the importance of risk-taking in individuals' personal and professional life, several behavioral tasks for measuring the construct have been developed. Recently, a new task was introduced, the Columbia Card Task (CCT). This task measures participants' risk levels and establishes how sensitive participants are to gains, losses, and probabilities when taking risk. So far, the CCT has been examined in behavioral studies and in combination with several (neuro)biological techniques. However, no electroencephalography (EEG) research has been done on the task. The present study fills this gap and helps to validate this relatively new experimental task. To this end, n = 126 students were asked to complete self-reports (reward responsiveness, impulsiveness, and sensation-seeking) and to perform the CCT (and other risk tasks) in an EEG setup. The results show that feedback appraisal after risky decision-making in the CCT was accompanied by a feedback-related negativity (FRN) and a P300, which were stronger in response to negative than positive feedback. Correlations between the FRN and P300 difference wave on the one hand and risk-related self-reports and behavior on the other were nonsignificant and small, but were mostly in the expected direction. This pattern did not change after excluding participants with psychiatric/neurological disorders and outliers. Excluding participants with reversed (positive > negative) difference waves strengthened FRN correlations. The impact such individuals can have on the data should be taken into account in future studies. Regarding the CCT in particular, future studies should also address its oddball structure and its masking of true values (censoring).