Performance-enhancing and thermoregulatory effects of intracerebroventricular dopamine in running rats

Exercise performance effect of central dopamine is mediated by hypothalamic neuronal activation

Acting centrally, dopamine has been shown to induce ergogenic effects derived from its influence on thermoregulation, motivation, reward, and motor control. Thus, to evaluate the role of the central dopaminergic system in hypothalamic neuronal activation and its relationship with exercise performance, Wistar rats were intracerebroventricularly injected with saline (SAL) or SCH-23390 (SCH, dopamine D1 receptor blocker) at rest and before timed submaximal exercise (∼13 min) or exercise until fatigue. Core body and tail temperatures were recorded throughout the exercise. Hypothalamic Fos immunoreactivity (c-Fos-ir) expression was evaluated in thermoregulatory areas such as the median preoptic nucleus (MnPO), medial preoptic nucleus (MPO), paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SON). Despite unchanged thermoregulatory adjustments, central D1 receptor blockade markedly decreased the exercise time and the workload performed until fatigue. Subsequently to timed exercise, D1 blockade increased neuronal activation in the MnPO, PVN, and SON. However, c-Fos-ir expression in the MnPO, MPO, PVN, and SON was similar between treated and control animals at fatigue. The data indicate that dopamine D1 receptors modulate exercise performance by altering hypothalamic neuronal activation elicited by exercise.

Exercise as a Therapeutic Strategy for Obesity: Central and Peripheral Mechanisms

Obesity is a complex, multifactorial condition involving excessive fat accumulation due to an imbalance between energy intake and expenditure, with its global prevalence steadily rising. This condition significantly increases the risk of chronic diseases, including sarcopenia, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases, highlighting the need for effective interventions. Exercise has emerged as a potent non-pharmacological approach to combat obesity, targeting both central and peripheral mechanisms that regulate metabolism, energy expenditure, and neurological functions. In the central nervous system, exercise influences appetite, mood, and cognitive functions by modulating the reward system and regulating appetite-controlling hormones to manage energy intake. Concurrently, exercise promotes thermogenesis in adipose tissue and regulates endocrine path-ways and key metabolic organs, such as skeletal muscle and the liver, to enhance fat oxidation and support energy balance. Despite advances in understanding exercise's role in obesity, the precise interaction between the neurobiological and peripheral metabolic pathways remains underexplored, particularly in public health strategies. A better understanding of these interactions could inform more comprehensive obesity management approaches by addressing both central nervous system influences on behavior and peripheral metabolic regulation. This review synthesizes recent insights into these roles, highlighting potential therapeutic strategies targeting both systems for more effective obesity interventions.

Estrogen deficiency reduces maximal running capacity and affects serotonin levels differently in the hippocampus and nucleus accumbens in response to acute exercise

Introduction

Estrogen deficiency is associated with unfavorable changes in body composition and metabolic health. While physical activity ameliorates several of the negative effects, loss of ovarian function is associated with decreased physical activity levels. It has been proposed that the changes in brain neurochemical levels and /or impaired skeletal muscle function may underlie this phenomenon.

Methods

We studied the effect of estrogen deficiency induced via ovariectomy (OVX) in female Wistar rats (n = 64). Rats underwent either sham or OVX surgery and were allocated thereafter into four groups matched for body mass and maximal running capacity: sham/control, sham/max, OVX/control, and OVX/max, of which the max groups had maximal running test before euthanasia to induce acute response to exercise. Metabolism, spontaneous activity, and maximal running capacity were measured before (PRE) and after (POST) the surgeries. Three months following the surgery, rats were euthanized, and blood and tissue samples harvested. Proteins were analyzed from gastrocnemius muscle and retroperitoneal adipose tissue via Western blot. Brain neurochemical markers were measured from nucleus accumbens (NA) and hippocampus (HC) using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography.

Results

OVX had lower basal energy expenditure and higher body mass and retroperitoneal adipose tissue mass compared with sham group (p ≤ 0.005). OVX reduced maximal running capacity by 17% (p = 0.005) with no changes in muscle mass or phosphorylated form of regulatory light chain (pRLC) in gastrocnemius muscle. OVX was associated with lower serotonin metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) level in the NA compared with sham (p = 0.007). In response to acute exercise, OVX was associated with low serotonin level in the HC and high level in the NA (p ≤ 0.024).

Discussion

Our results highlight that OVX reduces maximal running capacity and affects the response of brain neurochemical levels to acute exercise in a brain region-specific manner. These results may offer mechanistic insight into why OVX reduces willingness to exercise.

Chronic supplementation of noni in diabetic type 1-STZ rats: effects on glycemic levels, kidney toxicity and exercise performance

Noni is a fruit with potential medicinal use preventing elevated blood glucose levels in diabetes mellitus. Its effects have been attributed to an antioxidant property in several other diseases. However, the effects of noni-chronic supplementation on exercise performance in the presence of diabetes conditions are not known. Thirty-two male Wistar rats were used to verify the effects of chronic noni (Morinda citrifolia L) juice administration on glycemia, triglyceride levels, and its relation to physical performance. In addition, it was verified if chronic noni supplementation is safe for clinical use through kidney morphology analysis. In half of the rats, diabetes mellitus (DM) was induced with STZ. All rats were submitted to an incremental workload running test (IWT) until fatigued so that oxygen consumption and performance indexes (exercise time to fatigue and workload) could be analyzed before noni administration. Then, the control and DM groups received a placebo (saline solution) or noni juice (dilution 2:1) at a dose of 2 mL/kg once a day for 60 days. The result was four groups: control + placebo (CP), control + noni (CN), DM + placebo (DMP), and DM + noni (DMN). Our dose was based on in previous study by Nayak et al. (2011) that observed a significant reduction in glycemia with 2 ml/kg of the noni juice without any toxicity effect cited. Groups were then given a third IWT to verify the effect of the noni juice on exercise performance (exercise time to fatigue, workload, maximal oxygen consumption) and glycemia. Twenty-four hours after the third test, all animals were euthanized and blood and kidneys were removed for posterior analysis. The DM induction with STZ impaired the performance by 39%. Noni administration improved the time to fatigue and workload in DM rats beyond reducing hyperglycemia. These results could be associated with an improved energy efficiency promoted by noni ingestion, since the oxygen consumption was not different between the groups, although the exercise was longer in animals with noni ingestion. Our results provided evidence that chronic noni administration causes kidney damage since increased Bowman's space area in the control rats, suggesting glomerular hyperfiltration at the same magnitude as the non-treated DM group.In conclusion, chronic noni ingestion promoted glycemic control and improved the performance in DM rats but caused kidney toxicity.

Core body temperatures of rats subjected to treadmill exercise to fatigue or exhaustion: The journal Temperature toolbox

This study systematically reviewed the literature reporting the changes in rats' core body temperature (TCORE) induced by either incremental- or constant-speed running to fatigue or exhaustion. In addition, multiple linear regression analyses were used to determine the factors contributing to the TCORE values attained when exercise was interrupted. Four databases (EMBASE, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science) were searched in October 2021, and this search was updated in August 2022. Seventy-two studies (n = 1,538 rats) were included in the systematic review. These studies described heterogeneous experimental conditions; for example, the ambient temperature ranged from 5 to 40°C. The rats quit exercising with TCORE values varying more than 8°C among studies, with the lowest and highest values corresponding to 34.9°C and 43.4°C, respectively. Multiple linear regression analyses indicated that the ambient temperature (p < 0.001), initial TCORE (p < 0.001), distance traveled (p < 0.001; only incremental exercises), and running speed and duration (p < 0.001; only constant exercises) contributed significantly to explaining the variance in the TCORE at the end of the exercise. In conclusion, rats subjected to treadmill running exhibit heterogeneous TCORE when fatigued or exhausted. Moreover, it is not possible to determine a narrow range of TCORE associated with exercise cessation in hyperthermic rats. Ambient temperature, initial TCORE, and physical performance-related variables are the best predictors of TCORE at fatigue or exhaustion. From a broader perspective, this systematic review provides relevant information for selecting appropriate methods in future studies designed to investigate exercise thermoregulation in rats.

Impact of Long-Rope Jumping on Monoamine and Attention in Young Adults

Previous research has shown that rope jumping improves physical health; however, little is known about its impact on brain-derived monoamine neurotransmitters associated with cognitive regulation. To address these gaps in the literature, the present study compared outcomes between 15 healthy participants (mean age, 23.1 years) after a long-rope jumping exercise and a control condition. Long-rope jumping also requires co-operation between people, attention, spatial cognition, and rhythm sensation. Psychological questionnaires were administered to both conditions, and Stroop task performance and monoamine metabolite levels in the saliva and urine were evaluated. Participants performing the exercise exhibited lower anxiety levels than those in the control condition. Saliva analyses showed higher 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (a norepinephrine metabolite) levels, and urine analyses revealed higher 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (a serotonin metabolite) levels in the exercise condition than in the control. Importantly, urinary 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid level correlated with salivary and urinary 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol levels in the exercise condition. Furthermore, cognitive results revealed higher Stroop performance in the exercise condition than in the control condition; this performance correlated with salivary 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol levels. These results indicate an association between increased 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol and attention in long-rope jumping. We suggest that long-rope jumping predicts central norepinephrinergic activation and related attention maintenance.

Cold Exposure After Exercise Impedes the Neuroprotective Effects of Exercise on Thermoregulation and UCP4 Expression in an MPTP-Induced Parkinsonian Mouse Model

Moderate exercise and mild hypothermia have protective effects against brain injury and neurodegeneration. Running in a cold environment alters exercise-induced hyperthermia and outcomes; however, evaluations of post-exercise cold exposure related to exercise benefits for the brain are relatively rare. We investigated the effects of 4°C cold exposure after exercise on exercise-induced thermal responses and neuroprotection in an MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine)-induced Parkinsonian mouse model. Male C57BL/6J mice were pretreated with MPTP for five consecutive days and follow-up treadmill exercise for 4 weeks. After 1-h running at a 22°C temperature, the mice were exposed to a 4°C environment for 2 h. An MPTP injection induced a transient drop in body and brain temperatures, while mild brain hypothermia was found to last for 4 weeks after MPTP treatment. Preventing brain hypothermia by exercise or 4°C exposure was associated with an improvement in MPTP-induced striatal uncoupling protein 4 (UCP4) downregulation and nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration. However, 4°C exposure after exercise abrogated the exercise-induced beneficial effects and thermal responses in MPTP-treated mice, including a low amplitude of exercise-induced brain hyperthermia and body temperature while at rest after exercise. Our findings elucidate that post-exercise thermoregulation and UCP4 expression are important in the neuroprotective effects of exercise against MPTP toxicity.

Involvement of brainstem noradrenergic system in cutaneous heat loss during exercise

The involvement of brainstem noradrenergic system in thermoregulation during exercise was evaluated by assessing the neuronal activation of A1, A2, locus coeruleus (LC) during exercise. Male Wistar rats weighing 280-330 g were used in the present study. Ninety minutes after exercise bout until fatigue, animals were anaesthesiated and brain removed and processed immunohistochemically for Fos protein and tyrosine hydroxylase in A1, A2 and LC and for Fos in POA subregions. Core and tail temperature were recorded during all running period by telemetry system. Heat storage rate (HSR, cal.min^-1), maximum tail vasoconstriction (°C) and vasodilatation threshold (°C) were calculated and correlated with Fos expression in all nuclei studied. Fos expression in LC correlated inversely with maximum tail skin vasoconstriction (r = -0.787, p < 0.03) and HSR (r = -0.834, p < 0.02) and positively to time to fatigue (r = 0.862, p < 0.01). A1 nucleus showed an inverse correlation with tail skin vasodilatation threshold (r = -0.861, p < 0.01). Fos expression in LC correlated inversely with Fos expression in the median (MnPO, r = -0.909, p < 0.01) and medial preoptic nucleus (MPOM, r = -0.942, p < 0.05). Our results bring further evidences that noradrenergic neurons from LC and A1 nuclei are involved in cutaneous heat loss mechanisms during exercise. LC nucleus probably modulates the sympathetic tonus of tail artery and integrates the central network LC / POA that could represent an important circuitry of temperature regulation during exercise. Also, noradrenergic neurons from A1 nucleus could be involved in cutaneous heat loss during exercise by modulating of vasodilatation threshold.

Exercise capacity in different stages of hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to investigate the exercise capacity of hypertensive rats at different stages of development of hypertension and to determine the most suitable index to evaluate the exercise capacity in different strains.

METHODS

Male spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) and normotensive Wistar rats (NWR) of 5, 8, 12 and 16 weeks were submitted to the exercise capacity test. The exercise running time was measured and the workload was calculated.

RESULTS

Normotensive and hypertensive rats when assess the exercise capacity by exercise running time exhibited a reduction in exercise performance over time. Moreover, hypertensive rats showed lower exercise capacity compared to normotensive control when analyzed by workload.

CONCLUSIONS

The present results indicate that hypertensive rats exhibit reduced exercise capacity compared to normotensive rats regardless of age assessed. Beside that, in experiments with strains with different body mass the most reliable index to assess exercise capacity is workload.

Effect of a Moderate-Intensity Aerobic Training on Joint Biomarkers and Functional Adaptations in Rats Subjected to Induced Knee Osteoarthritis

Background

Knee osteoarthritis (_kOA) is a common chronic disease that induces changes in redox status and inflammatory biomarkers, cell death, and motor impairment. Aerobic training can be a non-pharmacological alternative to prevent the progression of the disease.

Objective

To evaluate the effects of an 8 weeks moderate-intensity treadmill aerobic training program on redox status and inflammatory biomarkers and motor performance in _kOA-like changes induced by monosodium iodoacetate (MIA) in rats.

Methods

Twenty-seven rats were randomly divided into three groups: SHAM; induced _kOA (OA); and induced _kOA + aerobic training (OAE). Motor performance was evaluated by the number of falls on rotarod test, the total time of displacement and the number of failures on a 100 cm footbridge. Data for cytokines and histology were investigated locally, whereas plasma was used for redox status biomarkers.

Results

The OA group, compared to the SHAM group, increased 1.13 times the total time of displacement, 6.05 times the number of failures, 2.40 times the number of falls. There was also an increase in cytokine and in thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) (IL1β: 5.55-fold, TNF: 2.84-fold, IL10: 1.27-fold, IL6: 1.50-fold, TBARS: 1.14-fold), and a reduction of 6.83% in the total antioxidant capacity (FRAP), and of 35% in the number of chondrocytes. The aerobic training improved the motor performance in all joint function tests matching to SHAM scores. Also, it reduced inflammatory biomarkers and TBARS level at values close to those of the SHAM group, with no change in FRAP level. The number of falls was explained by IL1β and TNF (58%), and the number of failures and the total time of displacement were also explained by TNF (29 and 21%, respectively).

Conclusion

All findings indicate the efficacy of moderate-intensity aerobic training to regulate inflammatory biomarkers associated with improved motor performance in induced _kOA-like changes, thus preventing the loss of chondrocytes.

Supplementation with Saccharomyces boulardii Increases the Maximal Oxygen Consumption and Maximal Aerobic Speed Attained by Rats Subjected to an Incremental-Speed Exercise

Benefits to the host metabolism resulting from Saccharomyces boulardii (Sb) supplementation have been described; however, no study has investigated the effects of this supplementation on aerobic metabolism and performance during physical exercise. Thus, in the present study, we addressed the effects of Sb supplementation on the rate of oxygen consumption (VO₂), mechanical efficiency (external work divided by VO₂), and aerobic performance of rats subjected to fatiguing, incremental-speed exercise. Twenty-six male Wistar rats were randomly divided into two groups: (1) non-supplemented, in which rats received 0.1 mL of a saline solution, and (2) Sb-supplemented, in which rats received 0.1 mL of a suspension containing 8.0 log₁₀ colony-forming units. The rats received the treatments by gavage for 10 consecutive days; they were then subjected to fatiguing treadmill running. Sb supplementation did not change the VO₂ values or mechanical efficiency during submaximal exercise intensities. In contrast, at fatigue, VO_2MAX was increased by 12.7% in supplemented rats compared with controls (p = 0.01). Moreover, Sb improved aerobic performance, as evidenced by a 12.4% increase in maximal running speed attained by the supplemented rats (p < 0.05). We conclude that Sb supplementation for 10 days increases VO_2MAX and aerobic performance in rats.

Physical training improves exercise tolerance, cardiac function and promotes changes in neurotrophins levels in chagasic mice

AIMS

To investigate the effects of moderate aerobic physical training on cardiac function and morphology as well as on the levels of glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) of animals infected with the Y strain of Trypanosoma cruzi.

MAIN METHODS

Twenty-eight male C57BL/6 mice were distributed into 4 groups: sedentary control (SC), trained control (TC), sedentary infected (CHC) and trained infected (CHT). The infection was performed by intraperitoneal injection of trypomastigote forms and the animals were adapted to treadmill in the week before the beginning of the training protocol, initiated 45 days post infection. Maximal exercise test (TEM) was performed at the baseline as well as at the end of the 4th, 8th and 12th weeks of training. At the end of the 12th week, all animals were evaluated for cardiac morphology and function by echocardiography.

KEY FINDINGS

CHC group showed a larger area of right ventricle (RVA), increased end-systolic volume and reduction in ejection fraction (EF), stroke volume (SV), cardiac output (CO) and fractional area change (FAC). The training reduced the RVA and improved the FAC of chagasic animals. GDNF level was higher in TC and CHC groups compared to SC in heart and BDNF levels were higher in CHC compared to SC in heart and serum.

SIGNIFICANCE

Physical training ameliorated the cardiac function of infected animals and promoted adjusts in BDNF and GDNF levels. These findings evidenced these neurotrophins as possible biomarkers of cardiac function responsive to exercise stimulus.

Rats with higher intrinsic exercise capacities exhibit greater preoptic dopamine levels and greater mechanical and thermoregulatory efficiencies while running

The present study investigated whether intrinsic exercise capacity affects the changes in thermoregulation, metabolism and central dopamine (DA) induced by treadmill running. Male Wistar rats were subjected to three incremental exercises and ranked as low-performance (LP), standard-performance (SP), and high-performance (HP) rats. In the first experiment, abdominal (TABD) and tail (TTAIL) temperatures were registered in these rats during submaximal exercise (SE) at 60% of maximal speed. Immediately after SE, rats were decapitated and concentrations of DA and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) were determined in the preoptic area (POA). In the second experiment, oxygen consumption was measured and mechanical efficiency (ME) was calculated in these rats during an incremental exercise. HP rats ran for longer periods and were fatigued with higher TABD values, with no difference in TTAIL. Nevertheless, thermoregulatory efficiency was higher in HP rats, compared with other groups. DA and DOPAC concentrations in the POA were increased by SE, with higher levels in HP compared with LP and SP rats. V̇o2 also differed between groups, with HP rats displaying a lower consumption throughout the incremental exercise but a higher V̇o2 at fatigue. ME, in turn, was consistently higher in HP than in LP and SP rats. Thus, our results show that HP rats have greater TABD values at fatigue, which seem to be related to a higher dopaminergic activity in the POA. Moreover, HP rats exhibited a greater thermoregulatory efficiency during exercise, which can be attributed to a lower V̇o2, but not to changes in tail heat loss mechanisms.

NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our findings reveal that rats with higher intrinsic exercise capacities have greater thermoregulatory efficiencies and increased dopaminergic activity in the preoptic area, a key brain area in thermoregulatory control, while exercising. Moreover, higher intrinsic exercise capacities are associated with decreased oxygen consumption for a given exercise intensity, which indicates greater mechanical efficiencies. Collectively, these findings help to advance our knowledge of why some rats of a given strain can exercise for longer periods than others.

Physical exercise-induced fatigue: the role of serotonergic and dopaminergic systems

Brain serotonin and dopamine are neurotransmitters related to fatigue, a feeling that leads to reduced intensity or interruption of physical exercises, thereby regulating performance. The present review aims to present advances on the understanding of fatigue, which has recently been proposed as a defense mechanism instead of a “physiological failure” in the context of prolonged (aerobic) exercises. We also present recent advances on the association between serotonin, dopamine and fatigue. Experiments with rodents, which allow direct manipulation of brain serotonin and dopamine during exercise, clearly indicate that increased serotoninergic activity reduces performance, while increased dopaminergic activity is associated with increased performance. Nevertheless, experiments with humans, particularly those involving nutritional supplementation or pharmacological manipulations, have yielded conflicting results on the relationship between serotonin, dopamine and fatigue. The only clear and reproducible effect observed in humans is increased performance in hot environments after treatment with inhibitors of dopamine reuptake. Because the serotonergic and dopaminergic systems interact with each other, the serotonin-to-dopamine ratio seems to be more relevant for determining fatigue than analyzing or manipulating only one of the two transmitters. Finally, physical training protocols induce neuroplasticity, thus modulating the action of these neurotransmitters in order to improve physical performance.

Intrinsic exercise capacity in rats influences dopamine neuroplasticity induced by physical training

The study evaluates whether the intrinsic capacity for physical exercise influences dopamine neuroplasticity induced by physical training. Male rats were submitted to three progressive tests until fatigue. Based on the maximal time of exercise (TE), rats were considered as low performance (LP), standard performance (SP) or high performance (HP) to exercise. Eight animals from each group (LP, SP, and HP) were randomly subdivided in sedentary (SED) or trained (TR). Physical training was performed for 6 wk. After that, concentrations of dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT), and their metabolites and mRNA levels of D1 receptor ( Drd1), D2 receptor ( Drd2), dopamine transporter ( Dat), tyrosine hydroxylase ( Th), glia cell line neurotrophic factor ( Gdnf), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( Bdnf) were determined in the caudate-putamen (CPu). TE was increased with training in all performance groups. However, the relative increase was markedly higher in LP rats, and this was associated with a training-induced increase in dopaminergic activity in the CPu, which was determined by the 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC)/DA ratio. An opposite monoamine response was found in HP-TR rats, in which physical training decreased the DOPAC/DA ratio in the CPu. Moreover, LP-SED rats displayed higher levels of Drd2 in the CPu compared with the other SED groups, and this higher expression was decreased by physical training. Physical training also decreased Dat and increased Gdnf in the CPu of LP rats. Physical training decreased Bdnf in the CPu only in HP rats. Thus, we provide evidence that the intrinsic capacity to exercise affects the neuroplasticity of the dopaminergic system in response to physical training. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The findings reported reveal that dopaminergic neuroplasticity in caudate-putamen induced by physical training is influenced by the intrinsic capacity to exercise in rats. To evaluate the dopaminergic neuroplasticity, we analyzed mRNA levels of D1 receptor, D2 receptor, dopamine transporter, tyrosine hydroxylase, glia cell line neurotrophic factor, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor as well as concentrations of dopamine, serotonin, and their metabolites. These results expand our knowledge about the interrelationship between genetic background, physical training, and dopaminergic neuroplasticity.

Influence of Time-of-Day on Maximal Exercise Capacity Is Related to Daily Thermal Balance but Not to Induced Neuronal Activity in Rats

In the present study, we investigated whether the daily fluctuations of internal body temperature (T_b) and spontaneous locomotor activity (SLA) interact with the thermal and neuronal adjustments induced by high-intensity aerobic exercise until fatigue. The body temperature and SLA of adult Wistar rats (n = 23) were continuously recorded by telemetry for 48 h. Then, the rats were subjected to a protocol of graded exercise until fatigue or rest on the treadmill during light and dark-phases. T_b, tail skin temperature and ambient temperature during each experimental session were recorded. At the end of the last experimental session, the animals were anaesthetized; the brains were perfused and removed for immunohistochemical analysis of c-fos neuronal activation. The daily rhythms of SLA and T_b were strongly correlated (r = 0.88 and p < 0.001), and this was followed by a daily oscillation in both the ratio and the correlation index between these variables (p < 0.001). Exercise capacity was associated with a lower resting T_b (p < 0.01) and was higher in the light-phase (p < 0.001), resulting in an increased capacity to accumulate heat during exercise (p < 0.01). Independent of time-of-day, high intensity exercise strongly activated the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN), the supra-optic nucleus (SON) and the locus coeruleus (LC) (p < 0.001) but not the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Taken together, our results points toward a role of the circadian system in a basal activity control of the thermoregulatory system as an important component for the onset of physical activities. In fact, rather than directly limiting the adjustments induced by exercise the present study brings new evidence that the effect of time-of-day on exercise performance occurs at the threshold level for each thermoregulatory system effector activity. This assumption is based on the observed resilience of the central clock to high-intensity exercise and the similarities in exercise-induced neuronal activation in the PVN, SON, and LC.

Thermoregulatory responses in exercising rats: methodological aspects and relevance to human physiology

Rats are used worldwide in experiments that aim to investigate the physiological responses induced by a physical exercise session. Changes in body temperature regulation, which may affect both the performance and the health of exercising rats, are evident among these physiological responses. Despite the universal use of rats in biomedical research involving exercise, investigators often overlook important methodological issues that hamper the accurate measurement of clear thermoregulatory responses. Moreover, much debate exists regarding whether the outcome of rat experiments can be extrapolated to human physiology, including thermal physiology. Herein, we described the impact of different exercise intensities, durations and protocols and environmental conditions on running-induced thermoregulatory changes. We focused on treadmill running because this type of exercise allows for precise control of the exercise intensity and the measurement of autonomic thermoeffectors associated with heat production and loss. Some methodological issues regarding rat experiments, such as the sites for body temperature measurements and the time of day at which experiments are performed, were also discussed. In addition, we analyzed the influence of a high body surface area-to-mass ratio and limited evaporative cooling on the exercise-induced thermoregulatory responses of running rats and then compared these responses in rats to those observed in humans. Collectively, the data presented in this review represent a reference source for investigators interested in studying exercise thermoregulation in rats. In addition, the present data indicate that the thermoregulatory responses of exercising rats can be extrapolated, with some important limitations, to human thermal physiology.

Heat stroke during treatment with olanzapine, trihexyphenidyl, and trazodone in a patient with schizophrenia

OBJECTIVE

Heat stroke is a medical emergency. Psychiatric patients are particularly susceptible to heat stroke. Therefore, awareness and preventive measures of heat stroke are important for both clinicians and patients. Case description A 49-year-old man with schizophrenia, who was under maintenance treatment with olanzapine 20 mg/day, trihexyphenidyl 4 mg/day, and trazodone 50 mg/day, suffered from heat stroke in a heat wave and required intensive care. He recovered with the medical treatment provided. Discussion Several factors could have contributed to the impaired thermoregulation and the occurrence of heat stroke in this case: schizophrenia, the psychotropic regimen, and lack of preventive measures. Possible differential diagnoses of heat stroke in this case include infection, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, and serotonin syndrome.

CONCLUSION

Heat stroke can occur during the maintenance treatment of olanzapine, trihexyphenidyl, and trazodone for schizophrenia. Clinicians should be proactive to reduce the risk of heat stroke in psychiatric patients.

Central dopaminergic neurotransmission plays an important role in thermoregulation and performance during endurance exercise

Dopamine (DA) has been widely investigated for its potential role in determining exercise performance. It was originally thought that DA's ergogenic effect was by mediating psychological responses. Recently, some studies have also suggested that DA may regulate physiological responses, such as thermoregulation. Hyperthermia has been demonstrated as an important limiting factor during endurance exercise. DA is prominent in the thermoregulatory centre, and changes in DA concentration have been shown to affect core temperature regulation during exercise. Some studies have proposed that DA or DA/noradrenaline (NA) reuptake inhibitors can improve exercise performance, despite hyperthermia during exercise in the heat. DA/NA reuptake inhibitors also increase catecholamine release in the thermoregulatory centre. Intracerebroventricularly injected DA has been shown to improve exercise performance through inhibiting hyperthermia-induced fatigue, even at normal ambient temperatures. Further, caffeine has been reported to increase DA release in the thermoregulatory centre and improves endurance exercise performance despite increased core body temperature. Taken together, DA has been shown to have ergogenic effects and increase heat storage and hyperthermia tolerance. The mechanisms underlying these effects seem to involve limiting/overriding the inhibitory signals from the central nervous system that result in cessation of exercise due to hyperthermia.

Administration of caffeine inhibited adenosine receptor agonist-induced decreases in motor performance, thermoregulation, and brain neurotransmitter release in exercising rats

We examined the effects of an adenosine receptor agonist on caffeine-induced changes in thermoregulation, neurotransmitter release in the preoptic area and anterior hypothalamus, and endurance exercise performance in rats. One hour before the start of exercise, rats were intraperitoneally injected with either saline alone (SAL), 10 mg kg(-1) caffeine and saline (CAF), a non-selective adenosine receptor agonist (5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine [NECA]: 0.5 mg kg(-1)) and saline (NECA), or the combination of caffeine and NECA (CAF+NECA). Rats ran until fatigue on the treadmill with a 5% grade at a speed of 18 m min(-1) at 23 °C. Compared to the SAL group, the run time to fatigue (RTTF) was significantly increased by 52% following caffeine administration and significantly decreased by 65% following NECA injection (SAL: 91 ± 14.1 min; CAF: 137 ± 25.8 min; NECA: 31 ± 13.7 min; CAF+NECA: 85 ± 11.8 min; p<0.05). NECA decreased the core body temperature (Tcore), oxygen consumption, which is an index of heat production, tail skin temperature, which is an index of heat loss, and extracellular dopamine (DA) release at rest and during exercise. Furthermore, caffeine injection inhibited the NECA-induced decreases in the RTTF, Tcore, heat production, heat loss, and extracellular DA release. Neither caffeine nor NECA affected extracellular noradrenaline or serotonin release. These results support the findings of previous studies showing improved endurance performance and overrides in body limitations after caffeine administration, and imply that the ergogenic effects of caffeine may be associated with the adenosine receptor blockade-induced increases in brain DA release.

Exercise activates compensatory thermoregulatory reaction in rats: a modeling study

The importance of exercise is increasingly emphasized for maintaining health. However, exercise itself can pose threats to health such as the development of exertional heat shock in warm environments. Therefore, it is important to understand how the thermoregulation system adjusts during exercise and how alterations of this can contribute to heat stroke. To explore this we measured the core body temperature of rats (Tc) running for 15 min on a treadmill at various speeds in two ambient temperatures (Ta = 25°C and 32°C). We assimilated the experimental data into a mathematical model that describes temperature changes in two compartments of the body, representing the muscles and the core. In our model the core body generates heat to maintain normal body temperature, and dissipates it into the environment. The muscles produce additional heat during exercise. According to the estimation of model parameters, at Ta = 25°C, the heat generation in the core was progressively reduced with the increase of the treadmill speed to compensate for a progressive increase in heat production by the muscles. This compensation was ineffective at Ta = 32°C, which resulted in an increased rate of heat accumulation with increasing speed, as opposed to the Ta = 25°C case. Interestingly, placing an animal on a treadmill increased heat production in the muscles even when the treadmill speed was zero. Quantitatively, this "ready-to-run" phenomenon accounted for over half of the heat generation in the muscles observed at maximal treadmill speed. We speculate that this anticipatory response utilizes stress-related circuitry.

Effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on tyrosine hydroxylase and related mechanisms in the forced swimming-induced fatigue rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginsenoside Rg3 has shown multiple pharmacological activities and been considered as one of the most promising approaches for fatigue treatment. However, little is known about the cellular and molecular mechanisms of Rg3 on anti-fatigue and the effect of Rg3 on dopaminergic system has not been reported yet. The major aim of this study is to investigate the effect of Rg3 on TH expression and the related biochemical parameters, such as PKAα, ERK1/2, Akt and α-synuclein in brain of fatigue rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Weight-loaded forced swimming was performed to establish an animal model of fatigue. Rg3 (10mg/kg, 50mg/kg and 100mg/kg) was intragastrically administrated before swimming. The effect of Rg3 on the expression and phosphorylation of TH and TH-related proteins in fatigue rats or in SH-SY5Y cells was assessed with western blotting. HPLC was used to examine the level of DA and DOPAC in the fatigue rats tissues.

RESULTS

TH and phosphorylated TH were decreased in different brain regions of which ventral midbrain were less affected in weight-loaded forced swimming rats. Pretreatment with Rg3 significantly suppressed fatigue-induced decrease expression of TH and TH phosphorylation. Also treatment with Rg3 reversed the decrease expression of PKAα as well as the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and Akt which were induced by weight-loaded forced swimming. Moreover, weight-loaded swimming could induce the increase expression of α-synuclein in hippocampus and midbrain, while suppressed α-synuclein expression in striatum and prefrontal cortex. Furthermore, Rg3 could induce the increase of TH expression and phosphorylation which was accompanied with elevated expression and phosphorylation of related kinase proteins in vitro, while the inhibitors of kinase proteins could suppress these effects of Rg3. In addition, HPLC results showed that Rg3 could reverse the weight-loaded swimming-induced increase of DOPAC/DA ratio.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that fatigue can induce the decrease of DA which might partially result from the change of TH expression and phosphorylation, and Rg3 can reverse these fatigue-induced changes. The underling mechanisms may include the activity changes of PKAα, ERK1/2, Akt and α-synuclein.

Physical exercise performance in temperate and warm environments is decreased by an impaired arterial baroreflex

The present study aimed to investigate whether running performance in different environments is dependent on intact arterial baroreceptor reflexes. We also assessed the exercise-induced cardiovascular and thermoregulatory responses in animals lacking arterial baroafferent signals. To accomplish these goals, male Wistar rats were subjected to sinoaortic denervation (SAD) or sham surgery (SHAM) and had a catheter implanted into the ascending aorta to record arterial pressure and a telemetry sensor implanted in the abdominal cavity to record core temperature. After recovering from these surgeries, the animals were subjected to constant- or incremental-speed exercises performed until the voluntary interruption of effort under temperate (25° C) and warm (35° C) conditions. During the constant-speed exercises, the running time until the rats were fatigued was shorter in SAD rats in both environments. Although the core temperature was not significantly different between the groups, tail skin temperature was higher in SAD rats under temperate conditions. The denervated rats also displayed exaggerated increases in blood pressure and double product compared with the SHAM rats; in particular, in the warm environment, these exaggerated cardiovascular responses in the SAD rats persisted until they were fatigued. These SAD-mediated changes occurred in parallel with increased variability in the very low and low components of the systolic arterial pressure power spectrum. The running performance was also affected by SAD during the incremental-speed exercises, with the maximal speed attained being decreased by approximately 20% in both environments. Furthermore, at the maximal power output tolerated during the incremental exercises, the mean arterial pressure, heart rate and double product were exaggerated in the SAD relative to SHAM rats. In conclusion, the chronic absence of the arterial baroafferents accelerates exercise fatigue in temperate and warm environments. Our findings also suggest that an augmented cardiovascular strain accounted for the early interruption of exercise in the SAD rats.

Physical exercise attenuates MPTP-induced deficits in mice

Two experiments were performed to investigate the effects of physical exercise upon the hypokinesia induced by two different types of MPTP administration to C57/BL6 mice. In the first, mice were administered either the standard MPTP dose (2 × 20 or 2 × 40 mg/kg, 24-h interval) or vehicle (saline, 5 ml/kg); and over the following 3 weeks were given daily 30-min period of wheel running exercise over five consecutive days/week or placed in a cage in close proximity to the running wheels. Spontaneous motor activity testing in motor activity test chambers indicated that exercise attenuated the hypokinesic effects of both doses of MPTP upon spontaneous activity or subthreshold L: -Dopa-induced activity. In the second experiment, mice were either given wheel running activity on four consecutive days (30-min period) or placed in a cage nearby and on the fifth day, following motor activity testing over 60 min, injected with either MPTP (1 × 40 mg/kg) or vehicle. An identical procedure was maintained over the following 4 weeks with the exception that neither MPTP nor vehicle was injected after the fifth week. The animals were left alone (without either exercise or MPTP) and tested after 2- and 4-week intervals. Weekly exercise blocked, almost completely, the progressive development of severe hypokinesia in the MPTP mice and partially restored normal levels of activity after administration of subthreshold L: -Dopa, despite the total absence of exercise following the fifth week. In both experiments, MPTP-induced loss of dopamine was attenuated by the respective regime of physical exercise with dopamine integrity more effectively preserved in the first experiment. The present findings are discussed in the context of physical exercise influences upon general plasticity and neuroreparative propensities as well as those specific for the nigrostriatal pathway.