Ursolic acid from Agastache mexicana aerial parts produces antinociceptive activity involving TRPV1 receptors, cGMP and a serotonergic synergism

Agastache Species (Lamiaceae) as a Valuable Source of Volatile Compounds: GC-MS Profiling and Investigation of In Vitro Antibacterial and Cytotoxic Activities

Nowadays, there is an increasing interest in the study of medicinal and aromatic plants, due to their therapeutic properties that correlate with the presence of different active compounds. Agastache species (sp.) are aromatic plants that belong to the Lamiaceae family, originating from North America and East Asia. The present study aimed to evaluate the composition of essential oils (EOs) obtained from different Romanian cultivated Agastache sp. and to investigate their antibacterial and cytotoxic activities. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) screening revealed that menthone was the dominant constituent of A. foeniculum (31.58%), A. rugosa (39.60%) and A. rugosa 'After Eight' (39.76%) EOs, while estragole was the major constituent of A. foeniculum "Aromat de Buzău" (63.27%) and A. mexicana (41.66%) EOs. The investigation of the antiproliferative effect showed that A. rugosa and A. foeniculum "Aromat de Buzău" EOs had significant cytotoxic activity on MDA-MB-231 and HEPG2 tumour cell lines, with the most promising effect on the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line for A. foeniculum "Aromat de Buzău" EO (IC50 = 203.70 ± 0.24 μg/mL). Regarding the antibacterial activity, A. rugosa EO was most active against E. coli (8.91 ± 3.27 μL/mL) and S. aureus (10.80 ± 0.00 μL/mL). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the cytotoxic effect of Agastache sp. EOs on MDA-MB-231, HCT116 and HEPG2 tumour cell lines. The results of our study provide new and promising information for the subsequent in vivo study of the pharmacological properties of Agastache sp. essential oils.

Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical, and Pharmacological Properties of the Subfamily Nepetoideae (Lamiaceae) in Inflammatory Diseases

Nepetoideae is the most diverse subfamily of Lamiaceae, and some species are well known for their culinary and medicinal uses. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the therapeutic properties of the species of this group regarding inflammatory illnesses. This study aims to collect information on traditional uses through ethnobotanical, pharmacological, and phytochemical information of the subfamily Nepetoideae related to inflammatory diseases. UNAM electronic resources were used to obtain the information. The analysis of the most relevant literature was compiled and organised in tables. From this, about 106 species of the subfamily are traditionally recognised to alleviate chronic pain associated with inflammation. Pharmacological studies have been carried out in vitro and in vivo on approximately 308 species belonging to the genera Salvia, Ocimum, Thymus, Mentha, Origanum, Lavandula, and Melissa. Phytochemical and pharmacological evaluations have been performed and mostly prepared as essential oil or high polarity extracts, whose secondary metabolites are mainly of a phenolic nature. Other interesting and explored metabolites are diterpenes from the abietane, clerodane, and kaurane type; however, they have only been described in some species of the genera Salvia and Isodon. This review reveals that the Nepetoideae subfamily is an important source for therapeutics of the inflammatory process.

Agastache Species: A Comprehensive Review on Phytochemical Composition and Therapeutic Properties

The Agastache genus is part of the Lamiaceae family and is native to North America, while one species, Agastache rugosa (A. rugosa), is native to East Asia. A review on the phytochemistry and bioactivity of Agastache genus was last performed in 2014. Since then, a lot of progress has been made on the characterization of the phytochemical and pharmacological profiles of Agastache species. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to present a summary of the findings on the phytochemistry and biological effects of several Agastache species, including both extracts and essential oil characterization. We performed a comprehensive search using PubMed and Scopus databases, following PRISMA criteria regarding the study selection process. The available data is focused mainly on the description of the chemical composition and bioactivity of A. rugosa, with fewer reports referring to Agastache mexicana (A. mexicana) and Agastache foeniculum (A. foeniculum). Agastache species are characterized by the dominance of flavonoids and phenolic acids, as well as volatile compounds, particularly phenylpropanoids and monoterpenes. Moreover, a series of pharmacological effects, including antioxidant, cytotoxic, antimicrobial, anti-atherosclerotic, and cardioprotective properties, have been reported for species from the Agastache genus.

Design and Characterization of Lipid-Surfactant-Based Systems for Enhancing Topical Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Ursolic Acid

Skin inflammation is a symptom of many skin diseases, such as eczema, psoriasis, and dermatitis, which cause rashes, redness, heat, or blistering. The use of natural products with anti-inflammatory properties has gained importance in treating these symptoms. Ursolic acid (UA), a promising natural compound that is used to treat skin diseases, exhibits low aqueous solubility, resulting in poor absorption and low bioavailability. Designing topical formulations focuses on providing adequate delivery via application to the skin surface. The aim of this study was to formulate and characterize lipid-surfactant-based systems for the delivery of UA. Microemulsions and liquid crystalline systems (LCs) were characterized by polarized light microscopy (PLM), rheology techniques, and textural and bioadhesive assays. PLM supported the self-assembly of these systems and elucidated their formation. Rheologic examination revealed pseudoplastic and thixotropic behavior appropriate, and assays confirmed the ability of these formulations to adhere to the skin. In vivo studies were performed, and inflammation induced by croton oil was assessed for response to microemulsions and LCs. UA anti-inflammatory activities of ~60% and 50% were demonstrated by two microemulsions and 40% and 35% by two LCs, respectively. These data support the continued development of colloidal systems to deliver UA to ameliorate skin inflammation.

Effect of nitric oxide-cyclic GMP-K+ channel pathway blockers, naloxone and metformin, on the antinociception induced by the diuretic pamabrom

Pamabrom is a diuretic that is effective in treating premenstrual syndrome and primary dysmenorrhea. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of metformin and modulators of the opioid receptor-nitric oxide (NO)-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-K⁺ channel pathway on the local antinociception induced by pamabrom. The rat paw 1% formalin test was used to assess the effects. Rats were treated with local administration of pamabrom (200-800 µg/paw) or indomethacin (200-800 µg/paw). The antinociception of pamabrom or indomethacin was evaluated with and without the local pretreatment of the blockers. Local administration of pamabrom and indomethacin produced dose-dependent antinociception during the second phase of the test. Local pretreatment of the paws with naloxone (50 µg/paw), l-nitro-arginine methyl ester (10-100 µg/paw), or 1H-(1,2,4)-oxadiazolo[4,2-a]quinoxalin-1-one (10-100 µg/paw) reverted the antinociception induced by local pamabrom, but not of indomethacin. Similarly, the K⁺ channel blockers glibenclamide, glipizide, 4-aminopyridine, tetraethylammonium, charybdotoxin, or apamin reverted the pamabrom-induced antinociception, but not of indomethacin. Metformin significantly blocked the antinociception of pamabrom and indomethacin. Our data suggest that pamabrom could activate the opioid receptor-NO-cGMP-K⁺ channel pathway to produce its peripheral antinociception in the formalin test. Likewise, a biguanide-dependent mechanism could be activated by pamabrom and indomethacin to generate antinociception.

Antinociceptive effect of Mansoa alliacea polar extracts involves opioid receptors and nitric oxide in experimental nociception in mice

To evaluate the antinociceptive effect and the possible mechanism of action of two polar extracts of Mansoa alliacea, a medicinal plant used in Perú, Brazil, and Mexico to treat rheumatic pain, we used the formalin and hot-plate tests in mice. We found that ethanolic (MA-EtOH) and aqueous (MA-AQ) extracts of M. alliacea induced antinociceptive effects in both nociceptive tests. The antinociceptive efficacy of the highest dosage (300 mg/kg) of both extracts were also compared by using intraperitoneal and oral administration in the formalin test. Results showed that intraperitoneal injection of the two extracts produced better antinociceptive effects than that obtained by their oral administration. The mechanism of action involved in their antinociceptive activity was determined in the formalin test. Results showed that the presence of A784168 (TRPV1 antagonist) did not alter the antinociceptive effect induced by any of the M. alliacea extracts, whereas naltrexone (opioid antagonist) partially prevented the antinociceptive effect only of MA-EtOH in both phases of the formalin test. Furthermore, the effects of the extracts were diminished by L-NAME (inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase), but not by ODQ (inhibitor of the soluble guanylyl cyclase) or glibenclamide (blocker of K⁺_ATP channels) in the neurogenic phase. However, the effect of MA-AQ was diminished by all the inhibitors in the inflammatory phase. These results support the use of M. alliacea as a potential natural product with efficacy for pain relief depending on the form of preparation and the route of administration by involving opioid receptors and the production of nitric oxide.

Lamiaceae in Mexican Species, a Great but Scarcely Explored Source of Secondary Metabolites with Potential Pharmacological Effects in Pain Relief

The search for molecules that contribute to the relief of pain is a field of research in constant development. Lamiaceae is one of the most recognized families world-wide for its use in traditional medicine to treat diseases that include pain and inflammation. Mexico can be considered one of the most important centers of diversification, and due to the high endemism of this family, it is crucial for the in situ conservation of this family. Information about the most common genera and species found in this country and their uses in folk medicine are scarcely reported in the literature. After an extensive inspection in bibliographic databases, mainly Sciencedirect, Pubmed and Springer, almost 1200 articles describing aspects of Lamiaceae were found; however, 217 articles were selected because they recognize the Mexican genera and species with antinociceptive and/or anti-inflammatory potential to relieve pain, such as Salvia and Agastache. The bioactive constituents of these genera were mainly terpenes (volatile and non-volatile) and phenolic compounds such as flavonoids (glycosides and aglycone). The aim of this review is to analyze important aspects of Mexican genera of Lamiaceae, scarcely explored as a potential source of secondary metabolites responsible for the analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of these species. In addition, we point out the possible mechanisms of action involved and the modulatory pathways investigated in different experimental models. As a result of this review, it is important to mention that scarce information has been reported regarding species of this family from Mexican genera. In fact, despite Calosphace being one of the largest subgenera of Salvia in the world, found mainly in Mexico, it has been barely investigated regarding its potential biological activities and recognized bioactive constituents. The scientific evidence regarding the different bioactive constituents found in species of Lamiaceae demonstrates that several species require further investigation in preclinical studies, and of course also in controlled clinical trials evaluating the efficacy and safety of these natural products to support their therapeutic potential in pain relief and/or inflammation, among other health conditions. Since Mexico is one of the most important centers of diversification, and due to the high endemism of species of this family, it is crucial their rescue, in situ conservation, and investigation of their health benefits.

Pharmacognostic Study on Elsholtzia ciliata (Thumb.) Hyl: Anatomy, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Activities

Elsholtzia ciliata (Thunb.) Hyl, family Lamiaceae, is an important and popular anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). However, there are limited scientific studies on its anatomy and pharmacological activities. Moreover, the information of chemical constituents in relation to its non-volatile constituents are still missing. The current study aimed to evaluate the anatomic, pharmacological and phytochemical profile of Elsholtzia ciliata, providing means for the quality control of this herbal drug. The methodology designed for this study included the preparation of anatomic sections and their description, extraction, chromatography, structural elucidation of isolated compounds by NMR techniques and their quantification by HPLC using pharmacological assays (Formalin, hot plate, DPPH, antimicrobial-Gram positive, Gram Negative and fungus, and MTT assays) to confirm the activities described for this species. Results of the anatomic study are aligned with the pattern expected for plants belonging to the Lamiaceae family; Ursolic acid and Oroxylin were isolated from this plant species. The findings observed in this study indicate that Elsholtzia ciliata possess anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer activities. The chemical compounds isolated from its leaves and the anatomy profile of its parts provide the basis for further quality control for this plant.

A Systematic Approach to Agastache mexicana Research: Biology, Agronomy, Phytochemistry, and Bioactivity

Mexico is the center of origin of the species popularly known as toronjil or lemon balm (Agastache mexicana Linton & Epling). Two subspecies have been identified and are commonly called purple or red (Agastache mexicana Linton & Epling subspecies. mexicana) and white (Agastache mexicana subspecies xolocotziana Bye, E.L. Linares & Ramamoorthy). Plants from these subspecies differ in the size and form of inflorescence and leaves. They also possess differences in their chemical compositions, including volatile compounds. Traditional Mexican medicine employs both subspecies. A. mexicana exhibits a broad range of pharmacological properties, such as anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, and antioxidant. A systematic vision of these plant’s properties is discussed in this review, exposing its significant potential as a source of valuable bioactive compounds. Furthermore, this review provides an understanding of the elements that make up the species’ holistic system to benefit from lemon balm sustainably.

Mexican Plants and Derivates Compounds as Alternative for Inflammatory and Neuropathic Pain Treatment-A Review

Despite the availability of many anti-pain drugs, in the form of NSAIDs, steroids, gabapentinoids, opioids, and antidepressants, in this study we address the natural compounds belonging to the group of Mexican medicinal plants or "Mexican folk medicine", used for pain management in Mexico. Our interest in this subject is due to the growing idea that "natural is harmless" and to the large number of side effects exhibited in pharmacotherapy. The objective of this review was to document the scientific evidence about Mexican medicinal plants and their derivatives used for inflammatory and neuropathic pain treatment, as well as the mechanisms of action implicated in their antinociceptive effects, their possible adverse effects, and the main pharmacological aspects of each plant or compound. Our data review suggested that most studies on Mexican medicinal plants have used inflammatory experimental models for testing. The anti-pain properties exerted by medicinal plants lack adverse effects, and their toxicological assays report that they are safe to consume; therefore, more studies should be performed on preclinical neuropathic pain models. Moreover, there is no convincing evidence about the possible mechanisms of action involved in the anti-pain properties exerted by Mexican plants. Therefore, the isolation and pharmacological characterization of these plant derivatives' compounds will be important in the design of future preclinical studies.

Ursolic acid enhances stress resistance, reduces ROS accumulation and prolongs life span in C. elegans serotonin-deficient mutants

INTRODUCTION

Depression and anxiety disorders contribute to the global disease burden. Ursolic acid (UA), a natural compound present in many vegetables, fruits and medicinal plants, was tested in vivo for its effect on (1) enhancing resistance to stress and (2) its effect on life span.

METHODS

The compound was tested for its antioxidant activity in C. elegans. Stress resistance was tested in the heat and osmotic stress assay. Additionally, the influence on normal life span was examined. RT-PCR was used to assess possible serotonin targets.

RESULTS

UA prolonged the life span of C. elegans. Additionally, UA significantly lowered reactive oxygen species (ROS). Molecular docking studies, PCR analysis and microscale thermophoresis (MST) supported the results that UA acts through serotonin receptors to enhance stress resistance.

DISCUSSION

Considering the urgent need for new and safe medications in the treatment of depression and anxiety disorders, our results indicate that UA may be a promising new drug candidate.

Discovery of a Remarkable Methyl Shift Effect in the Vanilloid Activity of Triterpene Amides

As part of a study on triterpenoid conjugates, the dietary pentacyclic triterpenoids oleanolic (2a) and ursolic acids (3a) were coupled with vanillamine, and the resulting amides (2b and 3b, respectively) were assayed for activity on the vanilloid receptor TRPV1. Despite a structural difference limited to the location of a methyl group in their conformationally rigid pentacyclic core, oleanoloyl vanillamide dramatically outperformed ursoloyl vanillamide in terms of potency (EC₅₀ = 35 ± 2 nM for 2b and 5.4 ± 2.3 μM for 3b). Using molecular docking and dynamics, this difference was translated into distinct accommodation modes at the TRPV1 vanillyl ligand pocket, suggesting a critical role of a C-H π^phenyl interaction between the triterpenoid C-29 methyl and Phe591 of TRPV1. Because the molecular mechanisms underlying the activation process of transient receptor channels (TRPs) remain to be fully elucidated, the observation of spatially restricted structure-activity information is of significant relevance to identify the molecular detail of TRPV1 ligand gating.

Domestication of aromatic medicinal plants in Mexico: Agastache (Lamiaceae)-an ethnobotanical, morpho-physiological, and phytochemical analysis

BACKGROUND

Most reports of domesticated plants that involve a domestication gradient or inter-specific hybridization in Mexico have focused on those used as food. This study provides knowledge about these processes in two aromatic medicinal plants, Agastache mexicana (Lamiaceae) and A. m. subsp. xolocotziana, widely used in Mexican traditional medicine for the treatment of gastrointestinal ailments and for their sedative effect. Different populations of A. mexicana along a gradient of domestication are found in the foothills of the Popocatepetl volcano of central Mexico, while in this same area the subsp. xolocotziana grows only in the cultivation, possibly a product of hybridization between A. mexicana and Agastache palmeri. This study links ethnobotanical, morpho-physiological, and phytochemical evidence to document the domestication of both taxa as well as elucidates the possible hybrid origin of the subsp. xolocotziana.

METHOD

We analyze three groups of data derived from (1) 80 semi-structured interviews aimed at documenting the selection criteria related to the use and management of A. mexicana; (2) a cultivation experiment under homogeneous conditions, evaluating 21 floral, vegetative, and seed characters (that were important according to ethnobotanical information) in 97 plants corresponding to 13 populations of the taxa under study; and (3) the chemical profiles of the essential oils of these plants by means of a thin-layer chromatography.

RESULTS

By linking the three types of evidence, two evolutionary processes are distinguished: (1) A. mexicana occurs in the encouraged-cultivated phases of the domestication gradient and (2) A. m. subsp. xolocotziana may have originated through inbreeding depression or hybridization. These two cultivated plants show a domestication syndrome based upon organoleptic differentiation due to their dissimilar phytochemical composition and gigantism in flowers, seeds, and rhizomes (the last enhancing their asexual reproductive capacity). In addition to this, A. mexicana exhibits more intense floral pigmentation and foliar gigantism while subsp. xolocotziana presents floral albinism and partial seed sterility.

CONCLUSION

Two divergent evolutionary processes are reported for the domestication of A. mexicana as a result of the intensification of its use and management. The selection processes of these plants have resulted in alternation of the organoleptic properties based upon the divergence of the phytochemical composition. Also, gigantism has been selected in culturally preferred plant parts and in correlated structures. The preceding characteristics reinforce the joint use of these plants in infusion in Mexican traditionalmedicine for the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases and for their sedative effects.

Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms of Neuroprotection by Ursolic Acid: Addressing Brain Injury, Cerebral Ischemia, Cognition Deficit, Anxiety, and Depression

Ursolic acid (UA) is a pentacyclic triterpene which is found in common herbs and medicinal plants that are reputed for a variety of pharmacological effects. Both as an active principle of these plants and as a nutraceutical ingredient, the pharmacology of UA in the CNS and other organs and systems has been extensively reported in recent years. In this communication, the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory axis of UA's pharmacology is appraised for its therapeutic potential in some common CNS disorders. Classic examples include the traumatic brain injury (TBI), cerebral ischemia, cognition deficit, anxiety, and depression. The pharmacological efficacy for UA is demonstrated through the therapeutic principle of one drug → multitargets → one/many disease(s). Both specific enzymes and receptor targets along with diverse pharmacological effects associated with oxidative stress and inflammatory signalling are scrutinised.

Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) as therapeutic and prophylactic agent

Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) is a medicinal plant native to the Mediterranean region and cultivated around the world. Besides the therapeutic purpose, it is commonly used as a condiment and food preservative. R. officinalis L. is constituted by bioactive molecules, the phytocompounds, responsible for implement several pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiproliferative, antitumor and protective, inhibitory and attenuating activities. Thus, in vivo and in vitro studies were presented in this Review, approaching the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of R. officinalis L. on some physiological disorders caused by biochemical, chemical or biological agents. In this way, methodology, mechanisms, results, and conclusions were described. The main objective of this study was showing that plant products could be equivalent to the available medicines.

Chemistry and Biology of Selected Mexican Medicinal Plants

Herbal medicines are an integral element of alternative medical care in Mexico, and the best testimony to their efficacy and cultural value is their persistence in contemporary Mexican marketplaces where the highest percentages of medicinal and aromatic plants are sold. This chapter summarizes current trends in research on medicinal plants in Mexico, with emphasis on work carried out at the authors' laboratories. The most relevant phytochemical and pharmacological profiles of a selected group of plants used widely for treating major national health problems are described.From this contribution, it is evident that in the last five decades a significant amount of research on medicinal plants has been performed by Mexican scientists. Such efforts have led to the publication of many research papers in noted peer-reviewed journals and technical books. The isolation and structural characterization of hundreds of bioactive secondary metabolites have been accomplished, and most importantly, these studies have tended to support the ethnomedical uses of many different species. A multidisciplinary approach for investigating these plants has led to an increased emphasis on areas such as phytopharmacology, phytotoxicology, quality control, regulation, and conservation issues for these valuable resources. The medicinal plants analyzed so far have shown a very broad chemical diversity of their constituents, which have a high potential for exhibiting novel mechanistic effects biologically. The chapter shows also that there is need to conduct additional clinical studies on herbal drugs, in particular because the longstanding traditional evidence for their safety is not always sufficient to assure their rational use. There is also need to move to "omics" approaches for investigating the holistic effect and the influence of groups of phytochemicals on the whole organism. Mexican scientists may be expected to have bright prospects in this regard, which will imbue medicinal plant research with a new dynamism in the future.

Minor Nortriterpenoids from the Twigs and Leaves of Rhododendron latoucheae

A hyphenated NMR technique (analytical HPLC with a DAD connected to MS, SPE, and NMR) has proven effective for the full structural analysis and identification of minor natural products in complex mixtures. Application of this hyphenated technique to the CH₂Cl₂-soluble fraction of Rhododendron latoucheae led to the identification of 15 new minor ursane-type 28-nortriterpenoids (1-15). Compounds 1 and 12 inhibited HSV-1 with IC₅₀ values of 6.4 and 0.4 μM, respectively.

The Confrontation between Ethnopharmacology and Pharmacological Tests of Medicinal Plants Associated with Mental and Neurological Disorders

For neurological disorders, pharmacological tests have shown promising results in the reduction of side effects when using plants with known therapeutic effects in the treatment of some types of dementia. Therefore, the goals of this study are to gather data about the major medicinal plants used in the nervous system as described in ethnopharmacological surveys from South America and Brazil and to compare this data with the results from pharmacological tests on the active principles of those same plants found in the scientific literature. After collecting the data about each plant, their respective popular indication was compared with the results found through pharmacological tests. The discrepancy rate between the effects observed by ethnopharmacological and pharmacological methods in this study is greater than 50%. In conclusion, despite the importance of ethnopharmacological data, it is important to make comparisons with pharmacological tests for the same plants, since the pharmacological studies, although few, have shown a high rate of discrepancy in the results.

Chemical characterization, pharmacological effects, and toxicity of an ethanol extract of Celtis pallida Torr. (Cannabaceae) aerial parts

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Celtis pallida Torr (Cannabaceae) is employed as a folk medicine for the treatment of inflammation, pain, skin infections, and diarrhea, among other diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this work was to assess the chemical composition, the in vitro and in vivo toxicity, the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal, antinociceptive, locomotor, and sedative effects of an ethanolic extract obtained from Celtis pallida aerial parts (CPE).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The composition of CPE was carried out by GC-MS. The in vitro and in vivo toxic activity of CPE was estimated with the comet assay (10-1000 µg/ml) for 5 h in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and the acute toxicity test (500-5000 mg/kg p.o.), for 14 days, respectively. The antimicrobial effect of CPE was evaluated using the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assay, whereas the antidiarrheal activity (10-200 mg/kg p.o.) was calculated using the castor oil test. The antinociceptive effects of CPE (50-200 mg/kg p.o.) were estimated with the acetic acid and formalin tests, as well as the hot plate test. The sedative and locomotor activities of CPE (50-200 mg/kg p.o.) were assessed with the pentobarbital-induced sleeping time test and the rotarod test, respectively.

RESULTS

The main compound found in CPE was the triterpene ursolic acid (22% of the extract). CPE at concentrations of 100 µg/ml or higher induced genotoxicity in vitro and showed low in vivo toxicity (LD₅₀ > 5000 mg/kg p.o.). Additionally, CPE lacked (MIC > 400 µg/ml) antimicrobial activity but exerts antinociceptive (ED₅₀ = 12.5 ± 1.5 mg/kg) and antidiarrheal effects (ED₅₀ = 2.8 mg/kg), without inducing sedative effects or altering the locomotor activity. The antinociceptive activity of CPE suggests the participation of adrenoceptors, as well as the nitric oxide/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) pathway.

CONCLUSION

C. pallida exerts its antinociceptive effects probably mediated by the nitric oxide/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) pathway.

Assessment of the Anticonvulsant Potency of Ursolic Acid in Seizure Threshold Tests in Mice

Ursolic acid (UA) is a plant derived compound which is also a component of the standard human diet. It possesses a wide range of pharmacological properties, i.e., antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antitumor, which have been used in folk medicine for centuries. Moreover, influence of UA on central nervous system-related processes, i.e., pain, anxiety and depression, was proved in experimental studies. UA also revealed anticonvulsant properties in animal models of epilepsy and seizures. The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of UA on seizure thresholds in three acute seizure models in mice, i.e., the 6 Hz-induced psychomotor seizure threshold test, the maximal electroshock threshold (MEST) test and the timed intravenous pentylenetetrazole (iv PTZ) infusion test. We also examined its effect on the muscular strength (assessed in the grip strength test) and motor coordination (estimated in the chimney test) in mice. UA at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg significantly increased the seizure thresholds in the 6 Hz and MEST tests. The studied compound did not influence the seizure thresholds in the iv PTZ test. Moreover, UA did not affect the motor coordination and muscular strength in mice. UA displays only a weak anticonvulsant potential which is dependent on the used seizure model.

Chemical Composition and Antinociceptive Potential of Plinia edulis Fruits Peels

The present study deals with the chemical composition and antinociceptive effects of Plinia edulis fruit peels, analyzed by writhing, formalin, glutamate and capsaicin tests and comparison with two reference analgesic drugs, acetylsalicylic acid and acetaminophen. Phytochemical analyses of the nonpolar fraction (dichloromethane) obtained from the peels of P. edulis fruits revealed the presence of two triterpenes, maslinic acid and ursolic acid. The methanol extract of P. edulis peels showed a pronounced antinociceptive activity in the writhing test, with inhibition of 91.3% at 10 mg/kg, and its dichloromethane and ethyl acetate fractions presented inhibition of 68.3% and 51.5%, respectively. Maslinic acid showed a dose-dependent effect with inhibition of 60.8% at a dose of 10 mg/kg and ID50 value of 3.31 (2.75 to 4.0) mg/kg. The dichloromethane fraction, evaluated in the formalin-induced pain model at a dose of 10 mg/kg, showed a significant effect on both phases of pain. Maslinic acid was evaluated at different doses (1, 3 and 6 mg/kg) and presented a dose-dependent profile in both phases of pain, being more effective than the reference drug (acetaminophen), which was evaluated at 10 mg/kg. The dichloromethane fraction also inhibited the pain induced by glutamate and capsaicin by around 54% and 44%, respectively, whereas maslinic acid was more effective against glutamate, with 62.5% inhibition at 6 mg/kg, and 32% inhibition against capsaicin-induced pain. The results demonstrated that the pronounced antinociceptive effect presented by P. edulis fruits peels is related, at least in part, to the presence of the triterpenes evidenced in this study.

Gastroprotective activity of the methanol extract from peels of Plinia edulis (Vell.) Sobral fruits and its isolated triterpenes: maslinic and ursolic acids

According to the Brazilian folk medicine, the leaves of Plinia edulis (Vell.) Sobral (Myrtaceae), known as cambuca, are indicated in the treatment of gastric disorders. Infusions of P. edulis leaves were previously demonstrated to contain both maslinic (MA) and ursolic acids (UA). Both triterpenes have also been identified in the methanolic extract of peels from P. edulis fruit (MEPPE); however, the antiulcer effects of MEPPE have not yet been studied. This study therefore evaluates the gastroprotective potential of MEPPE, MA, and UA using ethanol/HCl- and indomethacin-induced gastric ulcers in mice. In addition, the in vitro effects of these compounds on the H+, K+-ATPase activity and on the free radical DPPH were measured. When used at concentration of 100 μg/mL, both MEPPE and UA were found to reduce the DPPH radical levels by 78.66 and 60.14%, respectively. However, MA did not reduce DPPH radical levels. Our results illustrated the antiulcer effects of MEPPE, MA, and UA against experimental ulcer models when administered by either the oral or the intraperitoneal routes. In addition, MEPPE reduced the size of ethanol/HCl-induced ulcers in a dose-dependent manner (log half-maximal effective oral dose, LogED50 = 1.09). Interestingly, UA promoted gastroprotection at lower doses than MA by increasing the production of mucin levels at 692%; however, it does not alter the activity of H+, K+-ATPase. In contrast, both MEPPE and MA, when incubated at concentrations of 10 and 100 μg/mL, inhibited H+, K+-ATPase activity in 61.81, 68.37, 54.04, and 70.45%, respectively. These results confirm that MEPPE, MA, and UA display gastroprotective activity through different modes of action; MA inhibits H+, K+-ATPase activity, whereas UA favour the mucus barrier.

Mechanism of action of relaxant effect of Agastache mexicana ssp.mexicana essential oil in guinea-pig trachea smooth muscle

CONTEXT

Agastache mexicana ssp. mexicana (Kunth) Lint & Epling (Lamiaceae), popularly known as 'toronjil morado', is used in Mexican traditional medicine for the treatment of several diseases such as hypertension, anxiety and respiratory disorders.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigates the relaxant action mechanism of A. mexicana ssp. mexicana essential oil (AMEO) in guinea-pig isolated trachea model.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

AMEO was analyzed by GC/MS. The relaxant effect of AMEO (5-50 μg/mL) was tested in guinea-pig trachea pre-contracted with carbachol (3 × 10 ^- 6 M) or histamine (3 × 10 ^- 5 M) in the presence or absence of glibenclamide (10 ^- 5 M), propranolol (3 × 10 ^- 6 M) or 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine (10 ^- 5 M). The antagonist effect of AMEO (10-300 μg/mL) against contractions elicited by carbachol (10 ^- 15-10 ^- 3 M), histamine (10 ^- 15-10 ^- 3 M) or calcium (10-300 μg/mL) was evaluated.

RESULTS

Essential oil composition was estragole, d-limonene and linalyl anthranilate. AMEO relaxed the carbachol (EC₅₀=18.25 ± 1.03 μg/mL) and histamine (EC₅₀=13.3 ± 1.02 μg/mL)-induced contractions. The relaxant effect of AMEO was not modified by the presence of propranolol, glibenclamide or 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine, suggesting that effect of AMEO is not related to β₂-adrenergic receptors, ATP-sensitive potassium channels or adenylate cyclase activation. AMEO was more potent to antagonize histamine (pA₂' = -1.507 ± 0.122) than carbachol (pA₂' = -2.180 ± 0.357). Also, AMEO antagonized the calcium chloride-induced contractions.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that relaxant effect of AMEO might be due to blockade of calcium influx in guinea-pig trachea smooth muscle. It is possible that estragole and d-limonene could contribute majority in the relaxant effect of AMEO.

Therapeutic Potential of Ursolic Acid to Manage Neurodegenerative and Psychiatric Diseases

Ursolic acid is a pentacyclic triterpenoid found in several plants. Despite its initial use as a pharmacologically inactive emulsifier in pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries, several biological activities have been reported for this compound so far, including anti-tumoural, anti-diabetic, cardioprotective and hepatoprotective properties. The biological effects of ursolic acid have been evaluated in vitro, in different cell types and against several toxic insults (i.e. 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, amyloid-β peptides, kainic acid and others); in animal models of brain-related disorders (Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, depression, traumatic brain injury) and ageing; and in clinical studies with cancer patients and for muscle atrophy. Most of the protective effects of ursolic acid are related to its ability to prevent oxidative damage and excessive inflammation, common mechanisms associated with multiple brain disorders. Additionally, ursolic acid is capable of modulating the monoaminergic system, an effect that might be involved in its ability to prevent mood and cognitive dysfunctions associated with neurodegenerative and psychiatric conditions. This review presents and discusses the available evidence of the possible beneficial effects of ursolic acid for the management of neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. We also discuss the chemical features, major sources and potential limitations of the use of ursolic acid as a pharmacological treatment for brain-related diseases.

Rhodoterpenoids A‒C, Three New Rearranged Triterpenoids from Rhododendron latoucheae by HPLC‒MS‒SPE‒NMR

Rhodoterpenoids A‒C (1‒3), three new rearranged triterpenoids, together with one new biogenetically related compound, rhodoterpenoid D (4), were isolated and efficiently elucidated from Rhododendron latoucheae by high-performance liquid chromatography−mass spectrometry−solid-phase extraction−nuclear magnetic resonance (HPLC‒MS‒SPE‒NMR). Compounds 1 and 2 possess an unprecedented skeleton with a 5/7/6/6/6-fused pentacyclic ring system, while compound 3 contains a unique 6/7/6/6/6-fused pentacyclic carbon backbone. Their structures were determined by extensive spectroscopic methods and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) analyses. Plausible biogenetic pathways for 1‒4 were proposed. Compounds 1 and 4 showed potential activity against herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) with IC₅₀ values of 8.62 and 6.87 μM, respectively.

Antinociceptive Activity of Borreria verticillata: In vivo and In silico Studies

Borreria verticillata (L.) G. Mey. known vassourinha has antibacterial, antimalarial, hepatoprotective, antioxidative, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory, however, its antinociceptive action requires further studies. Aim of the study evaluated the antinociceptive activity of B. verticillata hydroalcoholic extract (EHBv) and ethyl acetate fraction (FAc) by in vivo and in silico studies. In vivo assessment included the paw edema test, writhing test, formalin test and tail flick test. Wistar rats and Swiss mice were divided into 6 groups and given the following treatments oral: 0.9% NaCl control group (CTRL), 10 mg/kg memantine (MEM), 10 mg/kg indomethacin (INDO), 500 mg/kg EHBv (EHBv 500), 25 mg/kg FAc (FAc 25) and 50 mg/kg FAc (FAc 50). EHBv, FAc 25 and 50 treatments exhibited anti-edematous and peripheral antinociceptive effects. For in silico assessment, compounds identified in FAc were subjected to molecular docking with COX-2, GluN1a and GluN2B. Ursolic acid (UA) was the compound with best affinity parameters (binding energy and inhibition constant) for COX-2, GluN1a, GluN2B, and was selected for further analysis with molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. In MD simulations, UA exhibited highly frequent interactions with residues Arg120 and Glu524 in the COX-2 active site and NMDA, whereby it might prevent COX-2 and NMDA receptor activation. Treatment with UA 10 mg/Kg showed peripheral and central antinociceptive effect. The antinociceptive effect of B. verticillata might be predominantly attributed to peripheral actions, including the participation of anti-inflammatory components. Ursolic acid is the main active component and seems to be a promising source of COX-2 inhibitors and NMDA receptor antagonists.

Vasorelaxant mode of action of dichloromethane-soluble extract from Agastache mexicana and its main bioactive compounds

CONTEXT

Agastache mexicana (Kunth) Lint & Epling (Lamiaceae) is a plant used in Mexican traditional medicine for the treatment of hypertension, anxiety and so on.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the vasorelaxant effect and functional mode of action of dichloromethane-soluble extract from A. mexicana (DEAm) and isolate the constituents responsible for the pharmacological activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Extracts were prepared from the aerial parts of A. mexicana (225.6 g) by successive maceration with hexane, dichloromethane and methanol (three times for 72 h at room temperature), respectively. DEAm (0.01-1000 μg/mL), fractions (at 174.27 μg/mL), acacetin and ursolic acid (UA) (0.5-500 μM) were evaluated to determine their vasorelaxant effect on ex vivo rat aorta ring model. In vivo UA antihypertensive action was determined on spontaneously hypertensive rats.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

DEAm induced a significant vasorelaxant effect in concentration-dependent and endothelium-independent manners (EC₅₀=174.276 ± 5.98 μg/mL) by a calcium channel blockade and potassium channel opening. Bio-guided fractionation allowed to isolate acacetin (112 mg), UA (2.830 g), acacetin/oleanolic acid (OA) (M1) (155 mg) and acacetin/OA/UA (M2) (1.382 g) mixtures, which also showed significant vasodilation. UA significantly diminished diastolic (80 mmHg) and systolic blood pressure (120 mmHg), but heart rate was not modified.

CONCLUSION

DEAm produced significant vasorelaxant action by myogenic control cation. The presence of acacetin, OA and UA into the extract was substantial for the relaxant activity of DEAm. In vivo antihypertensive action of UA corroborates the use of A. mexicana as an antihypertensive agent on Mexican folk medicine.

Evidence of anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities of Plinia edulis leaf infusion

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Plinia edulis (Vell.) Sobral (Myrtaceae) is native and endemic to the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest. Popularly known as "cambucá", it has been used in folk medicine for the treatment of stomach disorders, diabetes, bronchitis, inflammation and as tonic. Although there are numerous records concerning its popular use as analgesic and anti-inflammatory, scientific information regarding these pharmacological activities is limited. Therefore, the aim of this study was to characterize the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activity of P. edulis leaf infusion (AEPe) in mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The acetic acid-induced writhing response and mechanical nociceptive paw tests were used to evaluate the antinociceptive activity. Carrageenan-induced paw edema and lipopolysaccharide-induced peritonitis were used to investigate the anti-inflammatory activity. The substances in AEPe were identified by HPLC-MS analysis.

RESULTS

At the test doses 30-300mg/kg p.o., AEPe has clearly exhibited anti-inflammatory effects, reducing carrageenan-induced paw edema and inhibiting leukocyte recruitment into the peritoneal cavity. The infusion has shown significant antinociceptive activity in both models of nociception. Gallic acid, myricitrin, guaijaverin, quercitrin, quercetin, corosolic acid, maslinic acid, oleanolic acid and ursolic acid were identified in AEPe.

CONCLUSION

P. edulis infusion presented antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities in all experiments realized in this study, which could be related to the presence of triterpenoids and flavonoids. These results provide scientific support for the traditional use of this species in the management of pain and inflammation.

Anticholinesterase, antioxidant, analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity assessment of Xeranthemum annuum L. and isolation of two cyanogenic compounds

CONTEXT

Xeranthemum annuum L. (Asteraceae) (XA) is an ornamental and medicinal species with limited bioactivity and phytochemical data.

OBJECTIVE

Identification of anticholinesterase, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of the flower and root-stem (R-S) extracts of XA.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Anticholinesterase (at 100 μg mL^-1) and antioxidant (at 1000 μg mL^-1) effects of various extracts were evaluated via microtiter assays, while anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of the R-S extracts were tested using carrageenan-induced hind paw oedema (100 and 200 mg kg^-1) and p-benzoquinone (PBQ) writhing models (200 mg kg^-1) in male Swiss albino mice. The R-S ethanol extract of XA was subjected to isolation studies using conventional chromatographic methods.

RESULTS

Most of the extracts showed inhibition over 85% against butyrylcholinesterase and no inhibition towards acetylcholinesterase. The flower chloroform and the R-S ethyl acetate extracts were most effective (97.85 ± 0.94% and 96.89 ± 1.09%, respectively). The R-S ethanol extract displayed a remarkable scavenging activity against DPPH (77.33 ± 1.99%) and in FRAP assay, while the hexane extract of the R-S parts possessed the highest metal-chelating capacity (72.79 ± 0.33%). The chloroform extract of the R-S caused a significant analgesic effect (24.4%) in PBQ writhing model. No anti-inflammatory effect was observed. Isolation of zierin and zierin xyloside, which were inactive in anticholinesterase assays, was achieved from the R-S ethanol extract.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This is the first report of anticholinesterase, antioxidant, analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities and isolation of zierin and zierin xyloside from XA. Therefore, XA seems to contain antioxidant and BChE-inhibiting compounds.

Mexican medicinal plants with anxiolytic or antidepressant activity: Focus on preclinical research

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Anxiety and depression are considered the most prevalent psychiatric disorders worldwide. In Mexico, the use of medicinal plants to alleviate the symptoms associated with these psychiatric disorders is increasing. However, there is little scientific evidence that validates the efficacy of these plants. This evidence needs to be critically revised, and further studied to provided scientific support for their use.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To identify the plants that are used in Mexico for the treatment of disorders related to anxiety and depression, and to review the current preclinical and when available, clinical information of these plants.

METHODS

We searched in scientific databases (Pubmed, Web of Science, Scopus and other web sources such as "Biblioteca digital de la medicina tradicional Mexicana" ) for Mexican plants used for the treatment of anxiety and depression that have been analyzed in preclinical studies. Additional information was obtained from published books. For this review, we also consider those plants used in Mexican traditional medicine for the treatment of "nervios," "susto" or "espanto;" common terms that describe symptoms related to anxiety and depression disorders.

RESULTS

The bibliographic search identified 49 plants used in Mexican traditional medicine for the treatment of disorders related to anxiety and depression. From all these plants, 59% were analyzed in preclinical research, and only 8% were tested in clinical studies; only a few of these studies tried to elucidate their mechanism of action. In general, it is proposed that the plant extracts interact with the GABAergic system. However, only part of these studies attempted to analyze other neurotransmitter systems. Finally, in some cases, drug-herbal interactions were reported.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a large number of Mexican medicinal plants used as a treatment for anxiety and depression disorders. Although some of these plants have been studied in preclinical research, in most cases these studies are preliminary, and the understanding of the mechanism of action is inconclusive. The need for systematic studies in preclinical and clinical research is evident, and efforts should be done to fulfill these research. Finally, it is important also to study possible drug-herbal interactions to establish specific recommendations for people that use these plants as anxiolytic or antidepressant treatments either alone or in combination with another type of medicine.

A Study of Agastachis Herba on Ovalbumin-induced Asthma in the Mouse

Agastachis Herba is one of the well-known medicinal herbs in Korean traditional medicine. This study was taken up to examine the beneficial effects of Agastachis Herba on a mice model of asthma. BALB/c mice were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin to produce a murine model of asthma. Methanol extracts of Agastachis Herba were orally administered to the ovalbumin-induced asthmatic mice. The effects of methanol extract of Agastachis Herba on airway hyper responsiveness, immune cell distributions in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, ovalbumin-specific immunoglobulin E in serum, and histopathological changes were evaluated. Mice treated with the methanol extract of Agastachis Herba showed reduction of airway hyper responsiveness as well as inhibited immune cell infiltration in bronchoalveolar region. Also ovalbumin-specific immunoglobulin E levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid significantly decreased in extract treated mice. Histopathological findings showed significant beneficial changes in inflammatory cell infiltration.

Anxiolytic-like effects of ursolic acid in mice

Ursolic acid is a pentacyclic triterpenoid that possesses several biological and neuropharmacological effects including antidepressant-like activity. Anxiety disorders represent common and disability psychiatric conditions that are often associated with depressive symptoms. This work investigated the anxiolytic-like effects of ursolic acid administration in different behavioral paradigms that evaluate anxiety in mice: open field test, elevated plus maze test, light/dark box test and marble burying test. To this end, mice were administered with ursolic acid (0.1, 1 and 10mg/kg, p.o.) or diazepam (2mg/kg, p.o.), positive control, and submitted to the behavioral tests. The results show that ursolic acid (10mg/kg) elicited an anxiolytic-like effect observed by the increased total time in the center and decreased number of rearings responses in the open field test and an increased percentage of entries and total time spent in the open arms of elevated plus maze, similarly to diazepam. No significant effects of ursolic acid were shown in the light/dark box and marble burying test. These data indicate that ursolic acid exhibits anxiolytic-like effects in the open field and elevated plus maze test, but not in the light/dark box and marble burying test, showing the relevance of testing several behavioral paradigms in the evaluation of anxiolytic-like actions. Of note, the results extend the understanding on the effects of ursolic acid in the central nervous system and suggest that it may be a novel approach for the management of anxiety-related disorders.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2013

This paper is the thirty-sixth consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2013 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior, and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia; stress and social status; tolerance and dependence; learning and memory; eating and drinking; alcohol and drugs of abuse; sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology; mental illness and mood; seizures and neurologic disorders; electrical-related activity and neurophysiology; general activity and locomotion; gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions; cardiovascular responses; respiration and thermoregulation; and immunological responses.

Ursolic Acid-induced elevation of serum irisin augments muscle strength during resistance training in men

Ursolic acid (UA), a type of pentacyclic triterpenoid carboxylic acid purified from natural plants, can promote skeletal muscle development. We measured the effect of resistance training (RT) with/without UA on skeletal muscle development and related factors in men. Sixteen healthy male participants (age, 29.37±5.14 years; body mass index=27.13±2.16 kg/m²) were randomly assigned to RT (n=7) or RT with UA (RT+UA, n=9) groups. Both groups completed 8 weeks of intervention consisting of 5 sets of 26 exercises, with 10~15 repetitions at 60~80% of 1 repetition maximum and a 60~90-s rest interval between sets, performed 6 times/week. UA or placebo was orally ingested as 1 capsule 3 times/day for 8 weeks. The following factors were measured pre-and post-intervention: body composition, insulin, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), irisin, and skeletal muscle strength. Body fat percentage was significantly decreased (p<0.001) in the RT+UA group, despite body weight, body mass index, lean body mass, glucose, and insulin levels remaining unchanged. IGF-1 and irisin were significantly increased compared with baseline levels in the RT+UA group (p<0.05). Maximal right and left extension (p<0.01), right flexion (p<0.05), and left flexion (p<0.001) were significantly increased compared with baseline levels in the RT+UA group. These findings suggest that UA-induced elevation of serum irisin may be useful as an agent for the enhancement of skeletal muscle strength during RT.

Serotonergic and noradrenergic systems are implicated in the antidepressant-like effect of ursolic acid in mice

Ursolic acid (UA) is a natural pentacyclic triterpenoid carboxylic acid that exerts antidepressant-like effects in the tail suspension test (TST) and in the forced swimming test, and this effect was reported to be mediated by the dopaminergic system. Many studies show that currently available antidepressant agents have effects on multiple neurotransmitter systems which account for their efficacy. Therefore, this study was aimed at investigating the possible involvement of the serotonergic, noradrenergic, glutamatergic and opioid systems in the antidepressant-like effect of UA. To this end, several pharmacological agents were administered to verify their ability to influence the antidepressant-like responses elicited by UA in the TST in mice. The open-field test was used to assess the locomotor activity. The results show that the pre-treatment of mice with ρ-chlorophenylalanine (100mg/kg, i.p., 4 days) or α-methyl-ρ-tyrosine (100mg/kg, i.p.) but not with N-methyl-d-aspartate (0.1 pmol/mouse, i.c.v.) or naloxone (1mg/kg, i.p.), was able to prevent the antidepressant-like effect of UA (0.1mg/kg, p.o.). Sub-effective doses of fluoxetine (5mg/kg, p.o.) or reboxetine (2mg/kg, p.o.), but not ketamine (0.1mg/kg, i.p.) or MK-801 (0.001 mg/kg, p.o.), was capable of potentiating the effect of a sub-effective dose of UA (0.001 mg/kg, p.o.) in the TST. None of the treatments affected locomotor activity. Altogether, the results show an involvement of the serotonergic and noradrenergic systems, but not the glutamatergic or opioid systems, in the antidepressant-like effect of UA.

Phytochemistry and bioactivity of aromatic and medicinal plants from the genus Agastache (Lamiaceae)

Agastache is a small genus of Lamiaceae, comprising 22 species of perennial aromatic medicinal herbs. In this article, we review recent advances in phytochemical, pharmacological, biotechnological and molecular research on Agastache. The phytochemical profile of all Agastache species studied to date is generally similar, consisted of two main metabolic classes-phenylpropanoids and terpenoids. In the relatively variable essential oils, most populations of different Agastache species contain over 50 % of a phenylallyl compound-estragole. Also, other volatile compounds (methyleugenol, pulegone, menthone, isomenthone and spathulenol) were reported in various proportions. Major non-volatile metabolites belong to phenolic compounds, such as caffeic acid derivatives, especially rosmarinic acid as well as several flavones and flavone glycosides like acacetin, tilianin, agastachoside, and a rare dimeric malonyl flavone (agastachin). Two unique lignans-agastenol and agastinol-were also isolated. Terpenoids include triterpenoids of oleanane-type (maslinic acid, oleanolic acid and β-amyrin), ursane-type (ursolic acid, corosolic acid and α-amyrin), and typical plant sterols, as well as abietane-type oxidized diterpenes (e.g., agastaquinone, agastol, and others). The bioactivity of various extracts or individual compounds in vitro and in vivo include antimicrobial, antiviral and anti-mutagenic activity, cytotoxic activity to cancer cell lines, and anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherogenic, antioxidant as well as biocidal activity to several foodstuff pests. Biotechnological and molecular studies have focused on in vitro propagation and enhancing the biosynthesis of bioactive metabolites in cell or organ cultures, as well as on the expression of genes involved in phenolic biosynthesis.