Conformational states of the corticotropin releasing factor 1 (CRF1) receptor: detection, and pharmacological evaluation by peptide ligands

The Effects of Osteoporotic and Non-osteoporotic Medications on Fracture Risk and Bone Mineral Density

Osteoporosis is a highly prevalent bone disease affecting more than 37.5 million individuals in the European Union (EU) and the  United States of America (USA). It is characterized by low bone mineral density (BMD), impaired bone quality, and loss of structural and biomechanical properties, resulting in reduced bone strength. An increase in morbidity and mortality is seen in patients with osteoporosis, caused by the approximately 3.5 million new osteoporotic fractures occurring every year in the EU. Currently, different medications are available for the treatment of osteoporosis, including anti-resorptive and osteoanabolic medications. Bisphosphonates, which belong to the anti-resorptive medications, are the standard treatment for osteoporosis based on their positive effects on bone, long-term experience, and low costs. However, not only medications used for the treatment of osteoporosis can affect bone: several other medications are suggested to have an effect on bone as well, especially on fracture risk and BMD. Knowledge about the positive and negative effects of different medications on both fracture risk and BMD is important, as it can contribute to an improvement in osteoporosis prevention and treatment in general, and, even more importantly, to the individual's health. In this review, we therefore discuss the effects of both osteoporotic and non-osteoporotic medications on fracture risk and BMD. In addition, we discuss the underlying mechanisms of action.

Corticotropin releasing factor-binding protein (CRF-BP) as a potential new therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease and stress disorders

Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia and one of the most complex human neurodegenerative diseases. Numerous studies have demonstrated a critical role of the environment in the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of the disease, where daily life stress plays an important role. A lot of epigenetic studies have led to the conclusion that chronic stress and stress-related disorders play an important part in the onset of neurodegenerative disorders, and an enormous amount of research yielded valuable discoveries but has so far not led to the development of effective treatment strategies for Alzheimer's disease. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is one of the major hormones and at the same time a neuropeptide acting in stress response. Deregulation of protein levels of CRF is involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease, but little is known about the precise roles of CRF and its binding protein, CRF-BP, in neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we summarize the key evidence for and against the involvement of stress-associated modulation of the CRF system in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and discuss how recent findings could lead to new potential treatment possibilities in Alzheimer's disease by using CRF-BP as a therapeutic target.

Exploring Pairwise Chemical Crosslinking To Study Peptide-Receptor Interactions

Pairwise crosslinking is a powerful technique to characterize interactions between G protein coupled receptors and their ligands in the live cell. In this work, the "thiol trapping" method, which exploits the proximity-enhanced reaction between haloacetamides and cysteine, is examined to identify intermolecular pairs of vicinal positions. By incorporating cysteine into the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor and either α-chloro- or α-bromoacetamide groups into its ligands, it is shown that thiol trapping provides highly reproducible signals and a low background, and represents a valid alternative to classical "disulfide trapping". The method is advantageous if reducing agents are required during sample analysis. Moreover, it can provide partially distinct spatial constraints, thus giving access to a wider dataset for molecular modeling. Finally, by applying recombinant mini-Gs, GTPγS, and Gαs-depleted HEK293 cells to modulate Gs coupling, it is shown that yields of crosslinking increase in the presence of elevated levels of Gs.

The Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Family: Physiology of the Stress Response

The physiological stress response is responsible for the maintenance of homeostasis in the presence of real or perceived challenges. In this function, the brain activates adaptive responses that involve numerous neural circuits and effector molecules to adapt to the current and future demands. A maladaptive stress response has been linked to the etiology of a variety of disorders, such as anxiety and mood disorders, eating disorders, and the metabolic syndrome. The neuropeptide corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and its relatives, the urocortins 1–3, in concert with their receptors (CRFR1, CRFR2), have emerged as central components of the physiological stress response. This central peptidergic system impinges on a broad spectrum of physiological processes that are the basis for successful adaptation and concomitantly integrate autonomic, neuroendocrine, and behavioral stress responses. This review focuses on the physiology of CRF-related peptides and their cognate receptors with the aim of providing a comprehensive up-to-date overview of the field. We describe the major molecular features covering aspects of gene expression and regulation, structural properties, and molecular interactions, as well as mechanisms of signal transduction and their surveillance. In addition, we discuss the large body of published experimental studies focusing on state-of-the-art genetic approaches with high temporal and spatial precision, which collectively aimed to dissect the contribution of CRF-related ligands and receptors to different levels of the stress response. We discuss the controversies in the field and unravel knowledge gaps that might pave the way for future research directions and open up novel opportunities for therapeutic intervention.

Binding Selectivity of Abaloparatide for PTH-Type-1-Receptor Conformations and Effects on Downstream Signaling

The PTH receptor type 1 (PTHR1) mediates the actions of two endogenous polypeptide ligands, PTH and PTHrP, and thereby plays key roles in bone biology. Based on its capacity to stimulate bone formation, the peptide fragment PTH (1-34) is currently in use as therapy for osteoporosis. Abaloparatide (ABL) is a novel synthetic analog of human PTHrP (1-34) that holds promise as a new osteoporosis therapy, as studies in animals suggest that it can stimulate bone formation with less of the accompanying bone resorption and hypercalcemic effects that can occur with PTH (1-34). Recent studies in vitro suggest that certain PTH or PTHrP ligand analogs can distinguish between two high-affinity PTHR1 conformations, R(0) and RG, and that efficient binding to R(0) results in prolonged signaling responses in cells and prolonged calcemic responses in animals, whereas selective binding to RG results in more transient responses. As intermittent PTH ligand action is known to favor the bone-formation response, whereas continuous ligand action favors the net bone-resorption/calcemic response, we hypothesized that ABL binds more selectively to the RG vs the R(0) PTHR1 conformation than does PTH (1-34), and thus induces more transient signaling responses in cells. We show that ABL indeed binds with greater selectivity to the RG conformation than does PTH (1-34), and as a result of this RG bias, ABL mediates more transient cAMP responses in PTHR1-expressing cells. The findings provide a plausible mechanism (ie, transient signaling via RG-selective binding) that can help account for the favorable anabolic effects that ABL has on bone.

International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. XCIII. The parathyroid hormone receptors--family B G protein-coupled receptors

The type-1 parathyroid hormone receptor (PTHR1) is a family B G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that mediates the actions of two polypeptide ligands; parathyroid hormone (PTH), an endocrine hormone that regulates the levels of calcium and inorganic phosphate in the blood by acting on bone and kidney, and PTH-related protein (PTHrP), a paracrine-factor that regulates cell differentiation and proliferation programs in developing bone and other tissues. The type-2 parathyroid hormone receptor (PTHR2) binds a peptide ligand, called tuberoinfundibular peptide-39 (TIP39), and while the biologic role of the PTHR2/TIP39 system is not as defined as that of the PTHR1, it likely plays a role in the central nervous system as well as in spermatogenesis. Mechanisms of action at these receptors have been explored through a variety of pharmacological and biochemical approaches, and the data obtained support a basic "two-site" mode of ligand binding now thought to be used by each of the family B peptide hormone GPCRs. Recent crystallographic studies on the family B GPCRs are providing new insights that help to further refine the specifics of the overall receptor architecture and modes of ligand docking. One intriguing pharmacological finding for the PTHR1 is that it can form surprisingly stable complexes with certain PTH/PTHrP ligand analogs and thereby mediate markedly prolonged cell signaling responses that persist even when the bulk of the complexes are found in internalized vesicles. The PTHR1 thus appears to be able to activate the Gα(s)/cAMP pathway not only from the plasma membrane but also from the endosomal domain. The cumulative findings could have an impact on efforts to develop new drug therapies for the PTH receptors.

Intrathecal urocortin I in the spinal cord as a murine model of stress hormone-induced musculoskeletal and tactile hyperalgesia

Stress is antinociceptive in some models of pain, but enhances musculoskeletal nociceptive responses in mice and muscle pain in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome. To test the hypothesis that urocortins are stress hormones that are sufficient to enhance tactile and musculoskeletal hyperalgesia, von Frey fibre sensitivity and grip force after injection of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), urocortin I and urocortin II were measured in mice. Urocortin I (a CRF1 and CRF2 receptor ligand) produced hyperalgesia in both assays when injected intrathecally (i.t.) but not intracerebroventricularly, and only at a large dose when injected peripherally, suggesting a spinal action. Morphine inhibited urocortin I-induced changes in nociceptive responses in a dose-related fashion, confirming that changes in behaviour reflect hyperalgesia rather than weakness. No tolerance developed to the effect of urocortin I (i.t.) when injected repeatedly, consistent with a potential to enhance pain chronically. Tactile hyperalgesia was inhibited by NBI-35965, a CRF1 receptor antagonist, but not astressin 2B, a CRF2 receptor antagonist. However, while urocortin I-induced decreases in grip force were not observed when co-administered i.t. with either NBI-35965 or astressin 2B, they were even more sensitive to inhibition by astressin, a non-selective CRF receptor antagonist. Together these data indicate that urocortin I acts at CRF receptors in the mouse spinal cord to elicit a reproducible and persistent tactile (von Frey) and musculoskeletal (grip force) hyperalgesia. Urocortin I-induced hyperalgesia may serve as a screen for drugs that alleviate painful conditions that are exacerbated by stress.

Non-canonical signaling of the PTH receptor

The classical model of arrestin-mediated desensitization of cell-surface G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is thought to be universal. However, this paradigm is incompatible with recent reports that the parathyroid hormone (PTH) receptor (PTHR), a crucial GPCR for bone and mineral ion metabolism, sustains G(S) activity and continues to generate cAMP for prolonged periods after ligand washout; during these periods the receptor is observed mainly in endosomes, associated with the bound ligand, G(S) and β-arrestins. In this review we discuss possible molecular mechanisms underlying sustained signaling by the PTHR, including modes of signal generation and attenuation within endosomes, as well as the biological relevance of such non-canonical signaling.

[(76) Br]BMK-152, a nonpeptide analogue, with high affinity and low nonspecific binding for the corticotropin-releasing factor type 1 receptor

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), a neuropeptide, regulates endocrine and autonomic responses to stress through G-protein coupled receptors, CRF(1) or CRF(2) . A PET ligand able to monitor changes in CRF(1) receptor occupancy in vivo would aid in understanding the pathophysiology of stress-related diseases as well as in the clinical development of nonpeptide antagonists with therapeutic value. We have radiolabeled the CRF(1) receptor ligand, [8-(4-bromo-2,6-dimethoxyphenyl)-2,7-dimethylpyrazolo[1,5-α][1,3,5]triazin-4-yl]-N,N-bis-(2-methoxyethyl)amine (BMK-152) (ClogP = 2.6), at both the 3 and 4 position with [(76) Br]. Using in vitro autoradiography saturation studies the 4-[(76) Br]BMK-152 exhibited high affinity binding to both rat (K(d) = 0.23 ± 0.07 nM; n = 3) and monkey frontal cortex (K(d) = 0.31 ± 0.08 nM; n = 3) consistent with CRF(1) receptor regional distribution whereas with the 3-[(76) Br]BMK-152, the K(d) s could not be determined due to high nonspecific binding. In vitro autoradiography competition studies using [(125) I]Tyr(0) -o-CRF confirmed that 3-Br-BMK-152 (K(i) = 24.4 ± 4.9 nM; n = 3) had lower affinity (70-fold) than 4-Br-BMK-152 (K(i) = 0.35 ± 0.07 nM; n = 3) in monkey frontal cortex and similiar studies using [(125) I]Sauvagine confirmed CRF(1) receptor selectivity. In vivo studies with P-glycoprotein (PGP) knockout mice (KO) and their wild-type littermates (WT) showed that the brain uptake of 3-[(76) Br]BMK/4-[(76) Br]BMK was increased less than twofold in KO versus WT indicating that 3-[(76) Br]BMK-152/4-[(76) Br]BMK was not a Pgp substrate. Rat brain uptakes of 4-[(76) Br] BMK-152 from ex vivo autoradiography studies showed regional localization consistent with known published CRF(1) receptor distribution and potential as a PET ligand for in vivo imaging of CRF(1) receptors.

Corticotropin releasing factor receptor antagonists for major depressive disorder

INTRODUCTION

Major depressive disorder is a serious and common psychiatric illness, and many of the depressive patients benefit from pharmacological treatment. Available antidepressants produce remission in only about 30 -- 40% of the patients. Therefore, new concepts are being explored for the development of innovative antidepressants with higher efficacy.

AREAS COVERED

The use of corticotropin releasing factor type 1 (CRF1) receptor antagonists for depression is supported by abundant evidence of target validation, the availability of in vitro and in vivo assays and specific small ligands. Some of these compounds have advanced to clinical studies, with discouraging results so far in depression. This review covers the development of CRF1 receptor antagonists at different stages of the development pipeline of the pharmaceutical industry and its bottlenecks. Most of the available CRF1 receptor antagonists known so far share a common chemical scaffold. We present possible strategies to overcome obstacles in the discovery and development process at the levels of library screenings and clinical studies to find more diverse compounds.

EXPERT OPINION

CRF1 receptor antagonists are expected to be beneficial only for those patients with CRF overexpression and the need for tests to identify these individuals is discussed. New technical developments and diagnostic tools might eventually lead to a more successful treatment of major depression with CRF1 receptor antagonists.

Molecular basis of parathyroid hormone receptor signaling and trafficking: a family B GPCR paradigm

The parathyroid hormone (PTH) receptor type 1 (PTHR), a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), transmits signals to two hormone systems-PTH, endocrine and homeostatic, and PTH-related peptide (PTHrP), paracrine-to regulate different biological processes. PTHR responds to these hormonal stimuli by activating heterotrimeric G proteins, such as G(S) that stimulates cAMP production. It was thought that the PTHR, as for all other GPCRs, is only active and signals through G proteins on the cell membrane, and internalizes into a cell to be desensitized and eventually degraded or recycled. Recent studies with cultured cell and animal models reveal a new pathway that involves sustained cAMP signaling from intracellular domains. Not only do these studies challenge the paradigm that cAMP production triggered by activated GPCRs originates exclusively at the cell membrane but they also advance a comprehensive model to account for the functional differences between PTH and PTHrP acting through the same receptor.

Dopamine D2 receptors as treatment targets in schizophrenia

The antipsychotic effectiveness of chlorpromazine and haloperidol started a search for their therapeutic targets. The antipsychotic receptor target turned out to be a dopamine receptor, now cloned as the dopamine D2 receptor. The D2 receptor is the common target for antipsychotics. Antipsychotic clinical doses correlate with their affinities for this receptor. Therapeutic doses of antipsychotics occupy 60 to 80% of brain D2 receptors in patients, but aripiprazole occupies up to 90%. While antipsychotics may take up to six hours to occupy D2 receptors, much clinical improvement occurs within a few days. The receptor has high- and low-affinity states. The D2High state is functional for dopamine-like agonists such as aripiprazole. Most individuals with schizophrenia are supersensitive to dopamine. Animal models of psychosis show that a variety of risk factors, genetic and nongenetic, are associated with behavioral supersensitivity to dopamine, reflected in elevated levels of dopamine D2High receptors. Although antipsychotics such as haloperidol alleviate psychosis and reverse the elevation of D2High receptors, long-term use of traditional antipsychotics can further enhance dopamine supersensitivity in patients. Therefore, switching from a traditional antipsychotic to an agonist antipsychotic such as aripiprazole can result in the emergence of psychotic signs and symptoms. Clozapine and quetiapine do not elicit parkinsonism and rarely result in tardive dyskinesia because they are released from D2 within 12 to 24 hours. Traditional antipsychotics remain attached to D2 receptors for days, preventing relapse, but allowing accumulation that can lead to tardive dyskinesia. Future goals include imaging D2High receptors and desensitizing them in early-stage psychosis.

Residue 17 of sauvagine cross-links to the first transmembrane domain of corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 (CRFR1)

Corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 (CRFR1) mediates the physiological actions of corticotropin-releasing factor in the anterior pituitary gland and the central nervous system. Using chemical cross-linking we have previously reported that residue 16 of sauvagine (SVG) is in a close proximity to the second extracellular loop of CRFR1. Here we introduced p-benzoylphenylalanine (Bpa) at position 17 of a sauvagine analog, [Tyr0, Gln1, Bpa17]SVG, to covalently label CRFR1 and characterize the cross-linking site. Using a combination of receptor mutagenesis, peptide mapping, and N-terminal sequencing, we identified His117 within the first transmembrane domain (TM1) of CRFR1 as the cross-linking site for Bpa17 of 125I-[Tyr0, Gln1, Bpa17]SVG. These data indicate that, within the SVG-CRFR1 complex, residue 17 of the ligand lies within a 9 angstroms distance from residue 117 of the TM1 of CRFR1. The molecular proximity between residue 17 of the ligand and TM1 of CRFR1 described here and between residue 16 of the ligand and the CRFR1 second extracellular loop described previously provides useful molecular constraints for modeling ligand-receptor interaction in mammalian cells expressing CRFR1.

Prolonged signaling at the parathyroid hormone receptor by peptide ligands targeted to a specific receptor conformation

The parathyroid hormone receptor (PTHR) is a class B G protein-coupled receptor that plays critical roles in bone and mineral ion metabolism. Ligand binding to the PTHR involves interactions to both the amino-terminal extracellular (N) domain, and transmembrane/extracellular loop, or juxtamembrane (J) regions of the receptor. Recently, we found that PTH(1-34), but not PTH-related protein, PTHrP(1-36), or M-PTH(1-14) (M = Ala/Aib(1),Aib(3),Gln(10),Har(11),Ala(12),Trp(14),Arg(19)), binds to the PTHR in a largely GTPgammaS-resistant fashion, suggesting selective binding to a novel, high-affinity conformation (R(0)), distinct from the GTPgammaS-sensitive conformation (RG). We examined the effects in vitro and in vivo of introducing the M substitutions, which enhance interaction to the J domain, into PTH analogs extended C-terminally to incorporate residues involved in the N domain interaction. As compared with PTH(1-34), M-PTH(1-28) and M-PTH(1-34) bound to R(0) with higher affinity, produced more sustained cAMP responses in cells, formed more stable complexes with the PTHR in FRET and subcellular localization assays, and induced more prolonged calcemic and phosphate responses in mice. Moreover, after 2 weeks of daily injection in mice, M-PTH(1-34) induced larger increases in trabecular bone volume and greater increases in cortical bone turnover, than did PTH(1-34). Thus, the putative R(0) PTHR conformation can form highly stable complexes with certain PTH ligand analogs and thereby mediate surprisingly prolonged signaling responses in bone and/or kidney PTH target cells. Controlling, via ligand analog design, the selectivity with which a PTH ligand binds to R(0), versus RG, may be a strategy for optimizing signaling duration time, and hence therapeutic efficacy, of PTHR agonist ligands.

Altered selectivity of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH-related protein (PTHrP) for distinct conformations of the PTH/PTHrP receptor

PTH and PTHrP use the same G protein-coupled receptor, the PTH/PTHrP receptor (PTHR), to mediate their distinct biological actions. The extent to which the mechanisms by which the two ligands bind to the PTHR differ is unclear. We examined this question using several pharmacological and biophysical approaches. Kinetic dissociation and equilibrium binding assays revealed that the binding of [(125)I]PTHrP(1-36) to the PTHR was more sensitive to GTPgammaS (added to functionally uncouple PTHR-G protein complexes) than was the binding of [(125)I]PTH(1-34) ( approximately 75% maximal inhibition vs. approximately 20%). Fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based kinetic analyses revealed that PTHrP(1-36) bound to the PTHR more slowly and dissociated from it more rapidly than did PTH(1-34). The cAMP signaling response capacity of PTHrP(1-36) in cells decayed more rapidly than did that of PTH(1-34) (t(1/2) = approximately 1 vs. approximately 2 h). Divergent residue 5 in the ligand, Ile in PTH and His in PTHrP, was identified as a key determinant of the altered receptor-interaction responses exhibited by the two peptides. We conclude that whereas PTH and PTHrP bind similarly to the G protein-coupled PTHR conformation (RG), PTH has a greater capacity to bind to the G protein-uncoupled conformation (R(0)) and, hence, can produce cumulatively greater signaling responses (via R(0)-->RG isomerization) than can PTHrP. Such conformational selectivity may relate to the distinct modes by which PTH and PTHrP act biologically, endocrine vs. paracrine, and may help explain reported differences in the effects that the ligands have on calcium and bone metabolism when administered to humans.

The corticotropin-releasing factor receptor: a novel target for the treatment of depression and anxiety-related disorders

The treatment of mood disorders has been the subject of intense study for more than half a century and has resulted in the discovery and availability of a number of compounds that have seen tremendous success in the management of major depression and anxiety-related disorders. In spite of this success, these drugs have not provided a complete therapeutic solution for all patients and this has revitalised the need for a greater understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms and targets involved in these disorders. Elucidation of these novel targets will enable the development of a better class of compounds which could benefit a greater majority of the patient population and be devoid of the current side effect liabilities. Towards that end, this review examines, in detail, the prospect of one such target, the corticotropin-releasing factor system, as having an enhanced therapeutic profile with the potential of a broader range of efficacy with reduced side effect liabilities.

CRF signaling: molecular specificity for drug targeting in the CNS

Corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) is the key mediator of the central nervous system response needed to adapt to stress. If adaptation fails, hypersecretion of CRF continues and produces, via CRF type 1 receptors, symptoms pertaining to cognition, appetite, sleep and anxiety, implicating CRF as a causal factor in affective disorders. Clinical studies with CRF receptor 1 antagonists support a novel pharmacological strategy for treating stress-related disorders. Here we summarize recent information obtained on CRF receptor 1 signaling and propose the concept of a more focused pharmacological intervention based on the signaling pathways involved. Recent findings suggest that CRF activates, via the same CRF receptor 1, different signaling pathways in specific areas of the brain. This intracellular and neuroanatomical signaling specificity will facilitate the search for less pleiotropic antagonists and new chemical compounds that modulate signal transduction in a site-specific manner.

Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) receptor signaling in the central nervous system: new molecular targets

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and the related urocortin peptides mediate behavioral, cognitive, autonomic, neuroendocrine and immunologic responses to aversive stimuli by activating CRF(1) or CRF(2) receptors in the central nervous system and anterior pituitary. Markers of hyperactive central CRF systems, including CRF hypersecretion and abnormal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning, have been identified in subpopulations of patients with anxiety, stress and depressive disorders. Because CRF receptors are rapidly desensitized in the presence of high agonist concentrations, CRF hypersecretion alone may be insufficient to account for the enhanced CRF neurotransmission observed in these patients. Concomitant dysregulation of mechanisms stringently controlling magnitude and duration of CRF receptor signaling also may contribute to this phenomenon. While it is well established that the CRF(1) receptor mediates many anxiety- and depression-like behaviors as well as HPA axis stress responses, CRF(2) receptor functions are not well understood at present. One hypothesis holds that CRF(1) receptor activation initiates fear and anxiety-like responses, while CRF(2) receptor activation re-establishes homeostasis by counteracting the aversive effects of CRF(1) receptor signaling. An alternative hypothesis posits that CRF(1) and CRF(2) receptors contribute to opposite defensive modes, with CRF(1) receptors mediating active defensive responses triggered by escapable stressors, and CRF(2) receptors mediating anxiety- and depression-like responses induced by inescapable, uncontrollable stressors. CRF(1) receptor antagonists are being developed as novel treatments for affective and stress disorders. If it is confirmed that the CRF(2) receptor contributes importantly to anxiety and depression, the development of small molecule CRF(2) receptor antagonists would be therapeutically useful.

Single amino acid residue determinants of non-peptide antagonist binding to the corticotropin-releasing factor1 (CRF1) receptor

The molecular interactions between non-peptide antagonists and the corticotropin-releasing factor type 1 (CRF1) receptor are poorly understood. A CRF1 receptor mutation has been identified that reduces binding affinity of the non-peptide antagonist NBI 27914 (M276I in transmembrane domain 5). We have investigated the mechanism of the mutation's effect using a combination of peptide and non-peptide ligands and receptor mutations. The M276I mutation reduced binding affinity of standard non-peptide antagonists 5-75-fold while having no effect on peptide ligand binding. We hypothesized that the side chain of isoleucine, beta-branched and so rotationally constrained when within an alpha-helix, introduces a barrier to non-peptide antagonist binding. In agreement with this hypothesis, mutation of M276 to the rotationally constrained valine produced similar reductions of affinity as M276I mutation, whereas mutation to leucine (with an unbranched beta-carbon) minimally affected non-peptide antagonist affinity. Mutation to alanine did not appreciably affect non-peptide antagonist affinity, implying the methionine side chain does not contribute directly to binding. Three observations suggested M276I/V mutations interfere with binding of the heterocyclic core of the compounds: (1) all compounds affected by M276I/V mutations possess a planar heterocyclic core. (2) None of the M276 mutations affected binding of an acylic compound. (3) The mutations differentially affected affinity of two compounds that differ only by core methylation. These findings imply that non-peptide antagonists, and specifically the heterocyclic core of such molecules, bind in the vicinity of M276 of the CRF1 receptor. M276 mutations did not affect peptide ligand binding and this residue is distant from determinants of peptide binding (predominantly in the extracellular regions), providing molecular evidence for non-overlapping (allosteric) binding sites for peptide and non-peptide ligands within the CRF1 receptor.

Dimerization of corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1 is not coupled to ligand binding

As described previously, receptor dimerization of G protein-coupled receptors may influence signaling, trafficking, and regulation in vivo. Up to now, most studies aiming at the possible role of receptor dimerization in receptor activation and signal transduction are focused on class A GPCRs. In the present work, the dimerization behavior of the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1 (CRF1R), which belongs to class B of GPCRs and plays an important role in coordination of the immune response, stress, and learning behavior, was investigated by using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). For this purpose, we generated fusion proteins of CRF1R tagged at their C-terminus to a cyan or yellow fluorescent protein, which can be used as a FRET pair. Binding studies verified that the receptor constructs were able to bind their natural ligands in a manner comparable with the wild-type receptor, whereas cAMP accumulation proved the functionality of the constructs. In microscopic studies, a dimerization of the CRF1R was observed, but the addition of either CRF-related agonists or antagonists did not show any dose-related increase of the observed FRET signal, indicating that the dimer-monomer ratio is not changed on addition of ligand.

Impact of state of arousal and stress neuropeptides on urodynamic function in freely moving rats

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is a neurotransmitter in Barrington's nucleus neurons. These neurons can coregulate parasympathetic tone to the bladder (to modulate micturition) and brain noradrenergic activity (to affect arousal). To identify the role of CRF in the regulation of micturition, the effects of CRF agonists and antagonists on urodynamics in the unanesthetized rat were characterized. Rats were implanted with bladder and intrathecal or intraperitoneal catheters under isoflurane anesthesia. Cystometry was performed in the unanesthetized, unrestrained state at least 24 h later. In some cases, cortical electroencephalographic activity (EEG) was recorded simultaneously to assess arousal state. During cystometry, the state of arousal often shifted between waking and sleeping and urodynamic function changed depending on the state. Micturition threshold, bladder capacity, and micturition volume were all increased during sleep. The CRF1/CRF2 receptor agonists CRF and urocortin 2 increased bladder capacity and micturition volume in awake but not in sleeping rats. Conversely, the CRF1 receptor antagonists antalarmin and NBI-30775 increased urinary frequency and decreased bladder capacity in awake rats. The present results demonstrate a profound effect of the state of arousal on urodynamic function and suggest that simultaneous monitoring of EEG and cystometry may provide a useful model for studying nocturnal enuresis and other urinary disorders. In addition, the results provide evidence for an inhibitory influence of CRF in the spinal pathway on micturition. Targeting the CRF system in the spinal cord may provide a novel approach for treating urinary disorders.

Mechanisms of ligand binding to the parathyroid hormone (PTH)/PTH-related protein receptor: selectivity of a modified PTH(1-15) radioligand for GalphaS-coupled receptor conformations

Mechanisms of ligand binding to the PTH/PTHrP receptor (PTHR) were explored using PTH fragment analogs as radioligands in binding assays. In particular, the modified amino-terminal fragment analog, (125)I-[Aib(1,3),Nle8,Gln10,homoarginine11,Ala12,Trp14,Tyr15]rPTH(1-15)NH2, (125)I-[Aib(1,3),M]PTH(1-15), was used as a radioligand that we hypothesized to bind solely to the juxtamembrane (J) portion of the PTHR containing the extracellular loops and transmembrane helices. We also employed (125)I-PTH(1-34) as a radioligand that binds to both the amino-terminal extracellular (N) and J domains of the PTHR. Binding was examined in membranes derived from cells expressing either wild-type or mutant PTHRs. We found that the binding of (125)I-[Aib(1,3),M]PTH(1-15) to the wild-type PTHR was strongly (approximately 90%) inhibited by guanosine 5'-O-(3-thio)triphosphate (GTPgammaS), whereas the binding of (125)I-PTH(1-34) was only mildly (approximately 25%) inhibited by GTPgammaS. Of these two radioligands, only (125)I-[Aib(1,3),M]PTH(1-15) bound to PTHR-delNt, which lacks most of the receptor's N domain, and again this binding was strongly inhibited by GTPgammaS. Binding of (125)I-[Aib(1,3),M]PTH(1-15) to the constitutively active receptor, PTHR-H223R, was only mildly (approximately 20%) inhibited by GTPgammaS, as was the binding of (125)I-PTH(1-34). In membranes prepared from cells lacking Galpha(S) via knockout mutation of Gnas, no binding of (125)I-[Aib(1,3),M]PTH(1-15) was observed, but binding of (125)I-[Aib(1,3),M]PTH(1-15) was recovered by virally transducing the cells to heterologously express Galpha(S). (125)I-PTH(1-34) bound to the membranes with or without Galpha(S). The overall findings confirm the hypothesis that (125)I-[Aib(1,3),M]PTH(1-15) binds solely to the J domain of the PTHR. They further show that this binding is strongly dependent on coupling of the receptor to Galpha(S)-containing heterotrimeric G proteins, whereas the binding of (125)I-PTH(1-34) can occur in the absence of such coupling. Thus, (125)I-[Aib(1,3),M]PTH(1-15) appears to function as a selective probe of Galpha(S)-coupled, active-state PTHR conformations.

Peptide ligand binding properties of the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) type 2 receptor: pharmacology of endogenously expressed receptors, G-protein-coupling sensitivity and determinants of CRF2 receptor selectivity

The CRF2 receptor is involved in stress responses, cardiovascular function and gastric motility. Endogenous agonists (urocortin (UCN) 2, UCN 3) and synthetic antagonists (astressin2-B, antisauvagine-30) are selective for CRF2 over the CRF1 receptor. Peptide ligand binding properties of the CRF2 receptor require further investigation, including ligand affinity for endogenously expressed receptors, the effect of receptor-G-protein coupling on ligand affinity, and the molecular basis of ligand selectivity. Ligand affinity for rat CRF(2a) in olfactory bulb and CRF(2b) in A7r5 cells was similar to that for the cloned human CRF(2a) receptor (within three-fold), except for oCRF (9.4- and 5.4-fold higher affinity in olfactory bulb and A7r5 cells, respectively). Receptor-G-protein uncoupling reduced agonist affinity only 1.2- to 6.5-fold (compared with 92-1300-fold for the CRF1 receptor). Ligand selectivity mechanisms were investigated using chimeric CRF2/CRF1 receptors. The juxtamembrane receptor domain determined selectivity of antisauvagine-30, the N-terminal-extracellular domain contributed to selectivity of UCN 3, and both domains contributed to selectivity of UCN 2 and astressin2-B. Therefore ligands differ in the contribution of receptor domains to their selectivity, and CRF2-selective antagonists bind the juxtamembrane domain. These findings will be important for identifying the CRF2 receptor in tissues and for developing ligands targeting the receptor, both of which will be useful in identifying the emerging physiological functions of the CRF2 receptor.