Identification of the short neuropeptide F precursor in the desert locust: evidence for an inhibitory role of sNPF in the control of feeding

Effect of short neuropeptide F signaling on larval feeding in Mythimna separata

Mythimna separata is a notorious phytophagous pest which poses serious threats to cereal crops owing to the gluttony of the larvae. Because short neuropeptide F (sNPF) and its receptor sNPFR are involved in a diversity of physiological functions, especially in functions related to feeding in insects, it is a molecular target for pest control. Herein, an sNPF and 2 sNPFRs were identified and cloned from M. separata. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that the sNPF and its receptors had a highly conserved RLRFamide C-terminus and 7 transmembrane domains, respectively. The sNPF and its receptor genes were distributed across larval periods and tissues, but 2 receptors had distinct expression patterns. The starvation-induced assay elucidated that sNPF and sNPFR expression levels were downregulated under food deprivation and recovered with subsequent re-feeding. RNA interference knockdown of sNPF, sNPFR1, and sNPFR2 by injection of double-stranded RNA into larvae not only suppressed food consumption and increased body size and weight, but also led to decrease of glycogen and total lipid contents, and increase of trehalose compared with double-stranded green fluorescent protein injection. Furthermore, molecular docking was performed on the interaction mode between sNPFR protein and its ligand sNPF based on the 3-dimensional models constructed by AlphaFold; the results indicated that both receptors were presumably activated by the mature peptide sNPF-2. These results revealed that sNPF signaling played a considerably vital role in the feeding regulation of M. separata and represents a potential control target for this pest.

Identification and expression of short neuropeptide F and its receptors in the tick Ixodes ricinus

In Europe, the tick Ixodes ricinus is the most important vector of numerous pathogens that are transmitted during blood feeding on their vertebrate hosts. To elucidate mechanisms controlling blood intake and associated transmission of pathogens we identified and described expression of short neuropeptide F (sNPF) and its receptors which are known to regulate feeding in insects. Using in situ hybridization (ISH) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) we stained numerous neurons producing sNPF in the central nervous system (CNS; synganglion), while a few peripheral neurons were detected anteriorly to the synganglion, and on the surface of the hindgut and leg muscles. Apparent sNPF expression was also found in enteroendocrine cells individually scattered in anterior lobes of the midgut. In silico analyses and BLAST search for sNPF receptors revealed two putative G protein-coupled receptors (sNPFR1 and sNPFR2) in the I. ricinus genome. Aequorin-based functional assay in CHO cells showed that both receptors were specific and sensitive to sNPF in nanomolar concentrations. Increased expression levels of these receptors in the gut during blood intake suggest that sNPF signaling may be involved in regulation of feeding and digestion processes of I. ricinus.

Short Neuropeptide F and Its Receptor Regulate Feeding Behavior in Pea Aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum)

Simple Summary

We know that neuropeptides and G protein-coupled receptors regulate the physiology and behavior of animals and that the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) is a serious agricultural pest and model insect. In this study, we investigated the short neuropeptide F and its receptor in pea aphid. Feeding analysis showed that the probing time and total phloem duration significantly decreased in response to sNPF and predicted sNPFR gene silencing in RNAi assays. The silencing of sNPF significantly reduced the aphid’s reproduction but not survival. Our findings will help in the design of control strategies by using the molecular biological approach.

Abstract

Insect short neuropeptide F (sNPF), an ortholog of prolactin-releasing peptide of invertebrates, regulates diverse biological processes, including feeding, olfaction, locomotion, and sleep homeostasis in insects. However, its function is still unclear in an important model insect and agricultural pest, the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum). Here, we investigated short neuropeptide F (ApsNPF) and its receptor (ApsNPFR) in A. pisum. The sNPF gene contains three exons and two long introns. In addition, the genome contains a single sNPF receptor with seven transmembrane domains. Stage- and tissue-specific transcript profiling by qRT-PCR revealed that ApsNPF and ApsNPFR were mainly expressed in the central nervous system. The receptor was also detected in antennae, midgut, and integument. The highest expression levels were found in first instar nymphs compared to other developmental stages. Besides, the starvation-induced pattern indicated that the sNPF network depends on the nutritional state of the insect. An electrical penetration graph showed that probing time and phloem duration of A. pisum on broad bean plants decreased in response to dssNPF and dssNPFR in RNAi assays. sNPF silencing reduced the number of nymphs per female but not aphid survival. We believe that our results advance in-depth knowledge of the sNPF/sNPFR signaling cascade and its place in regulating feeding behavior in insects. In turn, it may contribute to the potential design of new strategies to control aphids, with a focus on the sNPF system.

The short neuropeptide F (sNPF) promotes the formation of appetitive visual memories in honey bees

Motivation can critically influence learning and memory. Multiple neural mechanisms regulate motivational states, among which signalling via specific neuropeptides, such as NPY in vertebrates and NPF and its short variant sNPF in invertebrates, plays an essential role. The honey bee (Apis mellifera) is a privileged model for the study of appetitive learning and memory. Bees learn and memorize sensory cues associated with nectar reward while foraging, and their learning is affected by their feeding state. However, the neural underpinnings of their motivational states remain poorly known. Here we focused on the short neuropeptide F (sNPF) and studied if it modulates the acquisition and formation of colour memories. Artificially increasing sNPF levels in partially fed foragers with a reduced motivation to learn colours resulted in significant colour learning and memory above the levels exhibited by starved foragers. Our results thus identify sNPF as a critical component of motivational processes involved in foraging and in the cognitive processes associated with this activity in honey bees.

Schistocerca neuropeptides - An update

We compiled a comprehensive list of 67 precursor genes encoding neuropeptides and neuropeptide-like peptides using the Schistocerca gregaria genome and several transcriptome datasets. 11 of these 67 precursor genes have alternative transcripts, bringing the total number of S. gregaria precursors identified in this study to 81. Based on this precursor information, we used different mass spectrometry approaches to identify the putative mature, bioactive peptides processed in the nervous system of S. gregaria. The thereby generated dataset for S. gregaria confirms significant conservation of the entire neuropeptidergic gene set typical of insects and also contains precursors typical of Polyneoptera only. This is in striking contrast to the substantial losses of peptidergic systems in some holometabolous species. The neuropeptidome of S. gregaria, apart from species-specific sequences within the known range of variation, is quite similar to that of Locusta migratoria and even to that of less closely related Polyneoptera. With the S. gregaria peptidomics data presented here, we have thus generated a very useful source of information that could also be relevant for the study of other polyneopteran species.

What You Eat Matters: Nutrient Inputs Alter the Metabolism and Neuropeptide Expression in Egyptian Cotton Leaf Worm, Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Lipids and carbohydrates are the two primary energy sources for both animals and insects. Energy homeostasis is under strict control by the neuroendocrine system, and disruption of energy homeostasis leads to the development of various disorders, such as obesity, diabetes, fatty liver syndrome, and cardiac dysfunction. One critical factor in this respect is feeding habits and diet composition. Insects are good models to study the physiological and biochemical background of the effect of diet on energy homeostasis and related disorders; however, most studies are based on a single model species, Drosophila melanogaster. In the current study, we examined the effects of four different diets, high fat (HFD), high sugar (HSD), calcium-rich (CRD), and a plant-based (PBD) on energy homeostasis in younger (third instar) and older (fifth instar) larvae of the Egyptian cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in comparison to a regular artificial bean diet. Both HSD and HFD led to weight gain, while CRD had the opposite effect and PBD had no effect in fifth instar larvae and pupae. The pattern was the same for HSD and CRD in third instar larvae while a reduction in weight was detected with HFD and PBD. Larval development was shortest with the HSD, while HFD, CRD, and PBD led to retardation compared to the control. Triglyceride (TG) levels were higher with HFD, HSD, and PBD, with larger lipid droplet sizes, while CRD led to a reduction of TG levels and lipid droplet size. Trehalose levels were highest with HSD, while CRD led to a reduction at third instar larvae, and HFD and PBD had no effect. Fifth instar larvae had similar levels of trehalose with all diets. There was no difference in the expression of the genes encoding neuropeptides SpoliAKH and SpoliILP1-2 with different diets in third instar larvae, while all three genes were expressed primarily with HSD, and SpolisNPF was primarily expressed with HFD in fifth instar larvae. In summary, different diet treatments alter the development of insects, and energy and metabolic pathways through the regulation of peptide hormones.

Identification of the Short Neuropeptide F and Short Neuropeptide F Receptor Genes and Their Roles of Food Intake in Dendroctonus armandi

The short neuropeptide F (sNPF) is an essential signaling molecule that is evolutionarily conserved and involved in a broad range of physiological functions in the invertebrates, by interacting with sNPF receptors, which belong to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). However, the function of sNPF in regulating the food intake of Dendroctonus armandi has been unclear. In this study, we cloned and characterized cDNAs encoding sNPF and sNPF receptor in the D. armandi and made bioinformatics predictions on the deduced amino acid sequences. They had a high degree of similarity to that of Dendroctonus ponderosa. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) revealed that the transcript levels of both sNPF and sNPFR varied across developmental stages and body parts. In addition, the sNPF and sNPFR expression levels were upregulated in starved beetles, and the expression levels recovered after re-feeding. Furthermore, RNAi knockdown by the injection of sNPF and sNPFR dsRNA into beetles significantly increased mortality and reduced their food intake and body weight, and also caused decrease of glycogen and free fatty acid and increase of trehalose. These results indicate that sNPF signaling pathway plays an important role in the regulation of food intake and provides a potential molecular target for the eco-friendly control strategies of this pest.

Expression patterns and functional analysis of the short neuropeptide F and NPF receptor genes in Rhopalosiphum padi

The short neuropeptide F (sNPF) and NPF receptor (NPFR) genes play important roles in many physiological processes. However, information on the survival-related functions of sNPF and NPFR under different stress conditions is lacking in aphids. In this study, we cloned sNPF and NPFR, and investigated the expression levels of these genes in different developmental stages, wing morphs, and stress conditions of the bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi L.), an important agricultural pest. The sNPF and NPFR transcript levels varied among developmental stages, and their expression levels in alate females were significantly higher than those in apterous females. In addition, starvation resulted in significantly increased sNPF expression, which then recovered after refeeding. Heat stress and insecticides significantly affected transcription of both genes. sNPF and NPFR knockdown in R. padi using RNA interference revealed optimal interference efficiency at 48 h post-injection. sNPF knockdown significantly decreased adult longevity, 15-d fecundity, and food intake. Additionally, mortality under starvation, insecticides, and heat stress conditions was significantly higher after injection with double-stranded sNPF in R. padi. NPFR knockdown significantly affected food intake and starvation resistance in R. padi. These results strongly indicate that sNPF plays vital roles in food intake, longevity, and reproduction in R. padi, and it can significantly affect the pest's response to stress conditions.

Short neuropeptide F signaling regulates functioning of male reproductive system in Tenebrio molitor beetle

Neuropeptides of short neuropeptides F family (sNPF) have been identified in various arthropods. They are pleiotropic neuromolecules which so far have been mainly associated with regulation of feeding and metabolism, as well as growth and development, locomotion, circadian rhythm or learning and memory. Here, we describe the effects of Tenebrionid sNPF peptide (SGRSPSLRLRFa) on various aspects of the male reproductive physiology in the Tenebrio molitor beetle. We identified in silico the putative sNPF receptor Tenmo-sNPFR. Based on RT-PCR technique, it was shown that the receptor might be present in the male reproductive tissues of this beetle. The analysis of receptor amino acid sequence showed that it is similar to other beetle sNPFRs, as well as other insect species, and belongs rhodopsin-like G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Injections of Trica-sNPF and its shorter form Trica-sNPF_(4–11) caused differentiated effects in T. molitor male reproductive tissues. After 24 h post injections, the peptides decreased the concentration of the soluble protein fraction in testes of 4- and 8-day-old beetles as well as the dry mass of these organs but only in 8-day-old individuals. The same effects were shown with regard to accessory glands. Both peptides decrease the concentration of the soluble protein fraction but do not affect the dry mass of this organ. Furthermore, injections of Trica-sNPF at the 10^–7 M concentration decrease the total sperm number in the reproductive system. Surprisingly, the same concentration of the shorter form, Trica-sNPF_(4–11) increased the sperm number. It was also shown that both peptides in different manner influence contractions of ejaculatory duct. The data presented in this article give new evidence that sNPFs are involved in the regulation of reproductive events in beetles, which might be the part of a larger neuropeptide network combining feeding, growth and development with the physiology of reproduction.

Echinoderms provide missing link in the evolution of PrRP/sNPF-type neuropeptide signalling

Neuropeptide signalling systems comprising peptide ligands and cognate receptors are evolutionarily ancient regulators of physiology and behaviour. However, there are challenges associated with determination of orthology between neuropeptides in different taxa. Orthologs of vertebrate neuropeptide-Y (NPY) known as neuropeptide-F (NPF) have been identified in protostome invertebrates, whilst prolactin-releasing peptide (PrRP) and short neuropeptide-F (sNPF) have been identified as paralogs of NPY/NPF in vertebrates and protostomes, respectively. Here we investigated the occurrence of NPY/NPF/PrRP/sNPF-related signalling systems in a deuterostome invertebrate phylum - the Echinodermata. Analysis of transcriptome/genome sequence data revealed loss of NPY/NPF-type signalling, but orthologs of PrRP-type neuropeptides and sNPF/PrRP-type receptors were identified in echinoderms. Furthermore, experimental studies revealed that the PrRP-type neuropeptide pQDRSKAMQAERTGQLRRLNPRF-NH₂ is a potent ligand for a sNPF/PrRP-type receptor in the starfish Asterias rubens. Our findings indicate that PrRP-type and sNPF-type signalling systems are orthologous and originated as a paralog of NPY/NPF-type signalling in Urbilateria.

The Role of Peptide Hormones in Insect Lipid Metabolism

Lipids are the primary storage molecules and an essential source of energy in insects during reproduction, prolonged periods of flight, starvation, and diapause. The coordination center for insect lipid metabolism is the fat body, which is analogous to the vertebrate adipose tissue and liver. The fat body is primarily composed of adipocytes, which accumulate triacylglycerols in intracellular lipid droplets. Genomics and proteomics, together with functional analyses, such as RNA interference and CRISPR/Cas9-targeted genome editing, identified various genes involved in lipid metabolism and elucidated their functions. However, the endocrine control of insect lipid metabolism, in particular the roles of peptide hormones in lipogenesis and lipolysis are relatively less-known topics. In the current review, the neuropeptides that directly or indirectly affect insect lipid metabolism are introduced. The primary lipolytic and lipogenic peptide hormones are adipokinetic hormone and the brain insulin-like peptides (ILP2, ILP3, ILP5). Other neuropeptides, such as insulin-growth factor ILP6, neuropeptide F, allatostatin-A, corazonin, leucokinin, tachykinins and limostatin, might stimulate lipolysis, while diapause hormone-pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide, short neuropeptide F, CCHamide-2, and the cytokines Unpaired 1 and Unpaired 2 might induce lipogenesis. Most of these peptides interact with one another, but mostly with insulin signaling, and therefore affect lipid metabolism indirectly. Peptide hormones are also involved in lipid metabolism during reproduction, flight, diapause, starvation, infections and immunity; these are also highlighted. The review concludes with a discussion of the potential of lipid metabolism-related peptide hormones in pest management.

Regulation of Feeding and Metabolism by Neuropeptide F and Short Neuropeptide F in Invertebrates

Numerous neuropeptide systems have been implicated to coordinately control energy homeostasis, both centrally and peripherally. However, the vertebrate neuropeptide Y (NPY) system has emerged as the best described one regarding this biological process. The protostomian ortholog of NPY is neuropeptide F, characterized by an RXRF(Y)amide carboxyterminal motif. A second neuropeptide system is short NPF, characterized by an M/T/L/FRF(W)amide carboxyterminal motif. Although both short and long NPF neuropeptide systems display carboxyterminal sequence similarities, they are evolutionary distant and likely already arose as separate signaling systems in the common ancestor of deuterostomes and protostomes, indicating the functional importance of both. Both NPF and short-NPF systems seem to have roles in the coordination of feeding across bilaterian species, but during chordate evolution, the short NPF system appears to have been lost or evolved into the prolactin releasing peptide signaling system, which regulates feeding and has been suggested to be orthologous to sNPF. Here we review the roles of both NPF and sNPF systems in the regulation of feeding and metabolism in invertebrates.

Functional characterization of mosquito short neuropeptide F receptors

Mosquito blood feeding transiently inhibits sugar- and host seeking through neuropeptide signaling. Short neuropeptide F (sNPF) is one of the neuromodulators involved in this regulation. Here, we identified the genes for the sNPF precursor and the sNPF receptor in the southern house mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus. Comparative analyses are made with the genes of the sNPF precursor and receptor from two other important vectors, Aedes aegypti and Anopheles coluzzii. We functionally characterized the receptors in all three species using endogenous neuropeptides, and quantified their transcript expression following a blood meal and a sugar meal. Our analysis reveals several Cx. quinquefasciatus-specific duplications of the sNPF-3 isoform on the sNPF precursor, which are not reflected in the precursors of the other two species. In contrast, the structure of the sNPF receptors is highly conserved within mosquitoes, and a putative ligand binding region is proposed and discussed. Reflecting the high structural conservation, the sNPF receptor sensitivity to endogenous sNPF isoforms is conserved across mosquito species. Using quantitative real time PCR, we demonstrate that transcript abundance of the sNPF receptor and precursor is regulated following feeding, only in Cx. quinquefasciatus. We discuss our findings in relation to previous work on sNPF signaling and its role in feeding regulation.

Inhibitory Role of the Mud Crab Short Neuropeptide F in Vitellogenesis and Oocyte Maturation via Autocrine/Paracrine Signaling

Neuropeptides, in addition to their classical role in the nervous system, act on intraovarian factors to regulate reproductive functions in vertebrates. However, this function of neuropeptides has not been characterized in crustaceans. Short neuropeptide F (sNPF), a highly conserved invertebrate neuropeptide, has been reported to be involved in feeding, metabolism, and in differentiation processes including reproduction. Although sNPF and its receptor (sNPFR) have been detected in the ovary in different species, ovarian colocalization of sNPF/sNPFR has not been investigated. In this study, we identified Scylla paramamosain (mud crab) sNPF (Sp-sNPF) as an endogenous ligand for the S. paramamosain orphan G protein-coupled receptor NPY2R in mammalian cell line HEK293T. We designated this receptor as Sp-sNPFR. RNA in situ hybridization in pre-vitellogenic ovary and reverse transcription-PCR on isolated denuded oocytes and follicle layers showed that Sp-sNPF was exclusively localized to the follicle cells, whereas Sp-sNPFR was detected in both follicle cells and oocytes. We also found that Sp-sNPF partly suppressed spontaneous maturation of denuded oocytes and caused intracellular cAMP accumulation and Ca²⁺ mobilization. Moreover, injection of synthetic Sp-sNPF peptides inhibited the expression of vitellogenin and vitellogenin receptor genes in vivo. These combined results suggest for the first time that Sp-sNPF may have inhibitory functions in vitellogenesis and oocyte maturation possibly via the autocrine/paracrine pathway.

Calcitonin-like peptide hormone (CT/DH) in the frontal ganglia as a feeding regulatory peptide of the silkworm, Bombyx mori

The frontal ganglion (FrG) in insects contributes to the modulation of feeding behavior via the regulation of foregut contraction and other neural networks. Profiling the peptides of the FrG is important to understand endocrine regulation of feeding behavior in insects. High-resolution spiral matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) identified an ion peak, corresponding to calcitonin-like diuretic hormone 31 (CT/DH) in the FrG of silkworm Bombyx mori larvae. RT-PCR confirmed that CT/DH is expressed in the FrG, as are other peptide hormones, including allatoregulatory peptides. A feeding latency assay using synthetic CT/DH revealed that it increases the time to the initiation of feeding in a dose-dependent manner. These data indicate that CT/DH is a candidate regulatory peptide that modulates the feeding behavior of B. mori.

Feeding-induced changes in allatostatin-A and short neuropeptide F in the antennal lobes affect odor-mediated host seeking in the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti

Aedes aegypti is a model species in which the endogenous regulation of odor-mediated host seeking behavior has received some attention. Sugar feeding and host seeking in female A. aegypti are transiently inhibited following a blood meal. This inhibition is partially mediated by short neuropeptide F (sNPF). The paired antennal lobes (ALs), as the first processing centers for olfactory information, has been shown to play a significant role in the neuropeptidergic regulation of odor-mediated behaviors in insects. The expression of sNPF, along with other peptides in the ALs of A. aegypti, indicate parallel neuromodulatory systems that may affect olfactory processing. To identify neuropeptides involved in regulating the odor-mediated host seeking behavior in A. aegypti, we use a semi-quantitative neuropeptidomic analysis of single ALs to analyze changes in the levels of five individual neuropeptides in response to different feeding regimes. Our results show that the level of sNPF-2, allatostatin-A-5 (AstA-5) and neuropeptide-like precursor-1-5 (NPLP-1-5), but not of tachykinin-related-peptides and SIFamide (SIFa), in the AL of female mosquitoes, changes 24 h and 48 h post-blood meal, and are dependent on prior access to sugar. To assess the role of these neuropeptides in modulating host seeking behavior, when systemically injected individually, sNPF-2 and AstA-5 significantly reduced host seeking behavior. However, only the injection of the binary mixture of the two neuropeptides lead to a host seeking inhibition similar to that observed in blood fed females. We conclude that modulation of the odor mediated host seeking behavior of A. aegypti is likely regulated by a dual neuropeptidergic pathway acting in concert in the ALs.

The short neuropeptide F modulates olfactory sensitivity of Bactrocera dorsalis upon starvation

The insect short neuropeptide F (sNPF) family has been shown to modulate diverse physiological processes, such as feeding, appetitive olfactory behavior, locomotion, sleep homeostasis and hormone release. In this study, we identified the sNPF (BdsNPF) and its receptor (BdsNPFR) in an important agricultural pest, the oriental fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel). Afterwards, the receptor cDNA was functionally expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cell lines. Activation of BdsNPFR by sNPF peptides caused an increase in intracellular calcium ions, with a 50% effective concentration values at the nanomolar level. As indicated by qPCR, the BdsNPF and BdsNPFR transcripts were mainly detected in the central nervous system and antennae, and they showed significantly starvation-induced expression patterns. Furthermore, we found that the starved flies had an increased electroantennogram response compared to the normally fed flies. However, this enhanced olfactory sensitivity was reversed when we decreased the expression of BdsNPF by double-stranded RNA injection in adults. We concluded that sNPF plays an important role in modulating the olfactory sensitivity of B. dorsalis upon starvation. Our results will facilitate the understanding of the regulation of early olfactory processing in B. dorsalis.

Neuropeptides as Regulators of Behavior in Insects

Neuropeptides are by far the largest and most diverse group of signaling molecules in multicellular organisms. They are ancient molecules important in regulating a multitude of processes. Their small proteinaceous character allowed them to evolve and radiate quickly into numerous different molecules. On average, hundreds of distinct neuropeptides are present in animals, sometimes with unique classes that do not occur in distantly related species. Acting as neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, hormones, or growth factors, they are extremely diverse and are involved in controlling growth, development, ecdysis, digestion, diuresis, and many more physiological processes. Neuropeptides are also crucial in regulating myriad behavioral actions associated with feeding, courtship, sleep, learning and memory, stress, addiction, and social interactions. In general, behavior ensures that an organism can survive in its environment and is defined as any action that can change an organism's relationship to its surroundings. Even though the mode of action of neuropeptides in insects has been vigorously studied, relatively little is known about most neuropeptides and only a few model insects have been investigated. Here, we provide an overview of the roles neuropeptides play in insect behavior. We conclude that multiple neuropeptides need to work in concert to coordinate certain behaviors. Additionally, most neuropeptides studied to date have more than a single function.

Intra-amygdala microinfusion of neuropeptide S attenuates neuropathic pain and suppresses the response of spinal microglia and astrocytes after spinal nerve ligation in rats

The amygdala circuitry and neuropeptide S (NPS) have been shown to play an important role in the pain modulation. However, the alleviative effect of NPS in amygdala on neuropathic pain (NP) is not fully understood. Here, we demonstrate a possibility that the intra-amygdala microinfusion of NPS attenuates NP symptoms and suppresses the response of spinal microglia and astrocytes after spinal nerve injury. Spinal nerve ligation (SNL) in rats resulted in a striking decline in level of NPS and density of NPS-immunopositive cells in amygdala. SNL rats randomly received chronic bilateral microinjections of NPS (1, 10 and 100pmol/side) or saline into the amygdala via cannulas on days 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 post-surgery. Chronic treatment with NPS increased thermal withdrawal latency (TWL) and mechanical withdrawal threshold (MWT) on day 11-21 post-SNL. The simultaneous treatment with SHA68 as non-peptide NPS receptor antagonist decreased the TWL and MWT, and reversed the inhibitory effects of NPS in SNL rats. NPS also significantly attenuated immunoreactivities of ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 and glial fibrillary acidic protein for microglia and astrocytes. Furthermore, the elevated levels of inflammatory mediators and expressions of nuclear factor κB p65 and CX3C chemokine receptor 1 due to SNL were significantly attenuated by NPS in amygdala. These effects of NPS were also counteracted by SHA 68. SHA 68 per se deteriorated the symptom of NP and the response of spinal microglia and astrocytes in SNL rats. Our study identified a protective role for NPS in amygdala against the development of NP, possibly attributing to its anti-inflammatory activity and inhibition of spinal microglia and astrocytes.

Identification and expression profiles of neuropeptides and their G protein-coupled receptors in the rice stem borer Chilo suppressalis

In insects, neuropeptides play important roles in the regulation of multiple physiological processes by binding to their corresponding receptors, which are primarily G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The genes encoding neuropeptides and their associated GPCRs in the rice stem borer Chilo suppressalis were identified by a transcriptomic analysis and were used to identify potential targets for the disruption of physiological processes and the protection of crops. Forty-three candidate genes were found to encode the neuropeptide precursors for all known insect neuropeptides except for arginine-vasopressin-like peptide (AVLP), CNMamide, neuropeptide-like precursors 2-4 (NPLP2-4), and proctolin. In addition, novel alternative splicing variants of three neuropeptide genes (allatostatin CC, CCHamide 1, and short neuropeptide F) are reported for the first time, and 51 putative neuropeptide GPCRs were identified. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that 44 of these GPCRs belong to the A-family (or rhodopsin-like), 5 belong to the B-family (or secretin-like), and 2 are leucine-rich repeat-containing GPCRs. These GPCRs and their likely ligands were also described. qRT-PCR analyses revealed the expression profiles of the neuropeptide precursors and GPCR genes in various tissues of C. suppressalis. Our study provides fundamental information that may further our understanding of neuropeptidergic signaling systems in Lepidoptera and aid in the design of peptidomimetics, pseudopeptides or small molecules capable of disrupting the physiological processes regulated by these signaling molecules and their receptors.

Insulin receptor regulates food intake through sulfakinin signaling in the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum

Insects obtain energy and nutrients via feeding to support growth and development. The insulin signaling pathway is involved in the regulation of feeding; however, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, we show that insulin signaling regulates food intake via crosstalk with neuropeptide sulfakinin in the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum. Silencing of the insulin receptor (InR) decreased the food intake in the penultimate and final instar stages, leading to a decrease of weight gain and mortality during larval-pupal metamorphosis. Interestingly, the knockdown of InR co-occurred with an increased expression of sulfakinin (sk), a gene encoding neuropeptide SK functioning as a satiety signal. In parallel, double silencing of sk and InR eliminated the inhibitory effect on food intake as induced by silencing of InR and the larvae died as prepupae. In conclusion, this study shows, for the first time, that the insulin/InR signaling regulates food intake through the sulfakinin signaling pathway in the larval stages of this important model and pest insect, indicating a novel target for pest control.

Nutrient-dependent control of short neuropeptide F transcript levels via components of the insulin/IGF signaling pathway in the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria

Peptides of the short neuropeptide F (sNPF) family modulate feeding behavior in a wide variety of insect species, including the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria. Likewise, the nutritional state of the animal can strongly affect sNPF expression. Although several studies have been published describing these nutrient-dependent effects, it remains largely unclear how they are achieved. In this study, we describe a series of in vivo experiments which indicate that it is not the act of feeding in se, but rather the consequent availability of nutrients in the insect's hemolymph that gives rise to the postprandial modulation of sNPF expression. Furthermore, by performing a series of RNAi-mediated knockdown experiments, we were able to show that components of the evolutionarily conserved insulin/insulin-related growth factor (IGF) signaling pathway form a functional link between nutrient levels and sNPF transcript levels.

Peptidomics of Neuropeptidergic Tissues of the Tsetse Fly Glossina morsitans morsitans

Neuropeptides and peptide hormones are essential signaling molecules that regulate nearly all physiological processes. The recent release of the tsetse fly genome allowed the construction of a detailed in silico neuropeptide database (International Glossina Genome Consortium, Science 344, 380-386 (2014)), as well as an in-depth mass spectrometric analysis of the most important neuropeptidergic tissues of this medically and economically important insect species. Mass spectrometric confirmation of predicted peptides is a vital step in the functional characterization of neuropeptides, as in vivo peptides can be modified, cleaved, or even mispredicted. Using a nanoscale reversed phase liquid chromatography coupled to a Q Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometer, we detected 51 putative bioactive neuropeptides encoded by 19 precursors: adipokinetic hormone (AKH) I and II, allatostatin A and B, capability/pyrokinin (capa/PK), corazonin, calcitonin-like diuretic hormone (CT/DH), FMRFamide, hugin, leucokinin, myosuppressin, natalisin, neuropeptide-like precursor (NPLP) 1, orcokinin, pigment dispersing factor (PDF), RYamide, SIFamide, short neuropeptide F (sNPF) and tachykinin. In addition, propeptides, truncated and spacer peptides derived from seven additional precursors were found, and include the precursors of allatostatin C, crustacean cardioactive peptide, corticotropin releasing factor-like diuretic hormone (CRF/DH), ecdysis triggering hormone (ETH), ion transport peptide (ITP), neuropeptide F, and proctolin, respectively. The majority of the identified neuropeptides are present in the central nervous system, with only a limited number of peptides in the corpora cardiaca-corpora allata and midgut. Owing to the large number of identified peptides, this study can be used as a reference for comparative studies in other insects. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

Superfamily of genes encoding G protein-coupled receptors in the diamondback moth Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest and most versatile superfamily of cell membrane proteins, which mediate various physiological processes including reproduction, development and behaviour. The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), is one of the most notorious insect pests, preferentially feeding on cruciferous plants. P. xylostella is not only one of the world's most widespread lepidopteran insects, but has also developed resistance to nearly all classes of insecticides. Although the mechanisms of insecticide resistance have been studied extensively in many insect species, few investigations have been carried out on GPCRs in P. xylostella. In the present study, we identified 95 putative GPCRs in the P. xylostella genome. The identified GPCRs were compared with their homologues in Bombyx mori and Drosophila melanogaster. Our results suggest that GPCRs in different insect species may have evolved by a birth-and-death process. One of the differences among compared insects is the duplication of short neuropeptide F receptor and adipokinetic hormone receptors in P. xylostella and B. mori. Another divergence is the decrease in quantity and diversity of the stress-tolerance gene, Mth, in P. xylostella. The evolution by the birth-and-death process is probably involved in adaptation to the feeding behaviour, reproduction and stress responses of P. xylostella. Some of the genes identified in the present study could be potential targets for the development of novel pesticides.

Assaying Visual Memory in the Desert Locust

The involvement of associative learning cues has been demonstrated in several stages of feeding and food selection. Short neuropeptide F (sNPF), an insect neuropeptide whose effects on feeding behavior have previously been well established, may be one of the factors bridging feeding and learning behavior. Recently, it was shown in Drosophila melanogaster that the targeted reduction of Drome-sNPF transcript levels significantly reduced sugar-rewarded olfactory memory. While Drosophila mainly relies on olfactory perception in its food searching behavior, locust foraging behavior is likely to be more visually orientated. Furthermore, a feeding-dependent regulation of Schgr-sNPF transcript levels has previously been observed in the optic lobes of the locust brain, suggesting a possible involvement in visual perception of food and visual associative memory in this insect species. In this study, we describe the development of a robust and reproducible assay allowing visual associative memory to be studied in the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria. Furthermore, we performed an exploratory series of experiments, studying the role of Schgr-sNPF in this complex process.

Drosha, Dicer-1 and Argonaute-1 in the desert locust: phylogenetic analyses, transcript profiling and regulation during phase transition and feeding

In this article, we identify and characterise the miRNA machinery components Drosha, Dicer-1 and Argonaute-1 of the desert locust. By means of phylogenetic analyses, we reveal important insights in the evolutionary context of these components. Our data illustrate that insect Argonaute-1 proteins form a monophyletic group with ALG-1 and ALG-2 of Caenorhabditis elegans and with the four (non-Piwi) Argonaute proteins present in humans. On the other hand, humans apparently lack clear homologues of the insect Argonaute-2 proteins. In addition, we demonstrate that drosha, dicer-1 and argonaute-1 display wide transcript tissue-distribution in adult desert locusts, and that during locust phase transition and feeding of starved locusts the expression levels of the miRNA pathway are regulated at the transcript level.

Systemic RNA interference in locusts: reverse genetics and possibilities for locust pest control

RNA interference (RNAi) is a biological process triggered by double stranded (ds)RNA that results in sequence-dependent mRNA degradation. Because of its high specificity, this post-transcriptional gene silencing mechanism is a widely used tool for reverse genetics in several insect species. In particular, locusts possess a very robust and sensitive RNAi response that has already been exploited to investigate a diverse range of important physiological processes. These orthopteran insects constitute important model organisms in several areas of entomology, but they can also become voracious swarming pests that threaten the agricultural production in large parts of the world. In comparison to the widely applied chemical insecticides, the RNAi-technology could contribute to the development of a novel generation of insecticides, with high species-specificity. In this article, we discuss the potential of the RNAi-technology in loss of function studies in locusts, as well as to control locust populations.

The contribution of the genomes of a termite and a locust to our understanding of insect neuropeptides and neurohormones

The genomes of the migratory locust Locusta migratoria and the termite Zootermopsis nevadensis were mined for the presence of genes encoding neuropeptides, neurohormones, and their G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Both species have retained a larger number of neuropeptide and neuropeptide GPCRs than the better known holometabolous insect species, while other genes that in holometabolous species appear to have a single transcript produce two different precursors in the locust, the termite or both. Thus, the recently discovered CNMa neuropeptide gene has two transcripts predicted to produce two structurally different CNMa peptides in the termite, while the locust produces two different myosuppressin peptides in the same fashion. Both these species also have a calcitonin gene, which is different from the gene encoding the calcitonin-like insect diuretic hormone. This gene produces two types of calcitonins, calcitonins A and B. It is also present in Lepidoptera and Coleoptera and some Diptera, but absent from mosquitoes and Drosophila. However, in holometabolous insect species, only the B transcript is produced. Their putative receptors were also identified. In contrast, Locusta has a highly unusual gene that codes for a salivation stimulatory peptide. The Locusta genes for neuroparsin and vasopressin are particularly interesting. The neuroparsin gene produces five different transcripts, of which only one codes for the neurohormone identified from the corpora cardiaca. The other four transcripts code for neuroparsin-like proteins, which lack four amino acid residues, and that for that reason we called neoneuroparsins. The number of transcripts for the neoneuroparsins is about 200 times larger than the number of neuroparsin transcripts. The first exon and the putative promoter of the vasopressin genes, of which there are about seven copies in the genome, is very well-conserved, but the remainder of these genes is not. The relevance of these findings is discussed.

The red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta Buren) kept Y not F: predicted sNPY endogenous ligands deorphanize the short NPF (sNPF) receptor

Neuropeptides and their receptors play vital roles in controlling the physiology and behavior of animals. Short neuropeptide F (sNPF) signaling regulates several physiological processes in insects such as feeding, locomotion, circadian rhythm and reproduction, among others. Previously, the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) sNPF receptor (S. invicta sNPFR), a G protein-coupled receptor, was immunolocalized in queen and worker brain and queen ovaries. Differential distribution patterns of S. invicta sNPFR protein in fire ant worker brain were associated both with worker subcastes and with presence or absence of brood in the colony. However, the cognate ligand for this sNPFR has not been characterized and attempts to deorphanize the receptor with sNPF peptides from other insect species which ended in the canonical sequence LRLRFamide, failed. Receptor deorphanization is an important step to understand the neuropeptide receptor downstream signaling cascade. We cloned the full length cDNA of the putative S. invicta sNPF prepropeptide and identified the putative “sNPF” ligand within its sequence. The peptide ends with an amidated Tyr residue whereas in other insect species sNPFs have an amidated Phe or Trp residue at the C-terminus. We stably expressed the HA-tagged S. invicta sNPFR in CHO-K1 cells. Two S. invicta sNPFs differing at their N-terminus were synthesized that equally activated the sNPFR, SLRSALAAGHLRYa (EC₅₀ = 3.2 nM) and SALAAGHLRYa (EC₅₀ = 8.6 nM). Both peptides decreased the intracellular cAMP concentration, indicating signaling through the G_αi-subunit. The receptor was not activated by sNPF peptides from other insect species, honey bee long NPF (NPY) or mammalian PYY. Further, a synthesized peptide otherwise identical to the fire ant sequence but in which the C-terminal amidated amino acid residue ‘Y’ was switched to ‘F’, failed to activate the sNPFR. This discovery will now allow us to investigate the function of sNPY and its cognate receptor in fire ant biology.