Ginsenosides for cardiovascular diseases; update on pre-clinical and clinical evidence, pharmacological effects and the mechanisms of action

Ginsenoside Rh3-induced neurotoxicity involving the IP3R-Ca2+/NOX2/NF-κB signaling pathways

Ginsenoside Rh3, a bioactive component of ginsenosides, has gained attention for its potential therapeutic effects, especially in cancer treatment. However, its neurotoxic effects remain poorly characterized, raising concerns about its safety for clinical use. This study investigates the neurotoxic effects of ginsenoside Rh3 and explores the underlying mechanisms. We demonstrate that ginsenoside Rh3 induces significant cytotoxicity in Neuro-2a and C8-D1A cells, as confirmed by methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assays, live-dead staining, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release assays. Neurotoxicity polymerase chain reaction (PCR) array analyses show that the cytotoxicity of ginsenoside Rh3 in Neuro-2a cells involves calcium ion transport, oxidative stress, inflammation, and programmed cell death (PCD). Specifically, ginsenoside Rh3 elevates intracellular Ca2+ levels by activating the inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor (IP3R), which in turn increases oxidative stress via nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (NOX) 2. This cascade activates the phosphorylated nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, exacerbating apoptosis and leading to neuronal cell death. Molecular docking and dynamics simulations suggest direct interactions between ginsenoside Rh3 and both IP3R and NOX2. Notably, the neurotoxic effects of ginsenoside Rh3 were significantly attenuated by IP3R inhibitor 2-aminoethyl diphenylborinate (2-APB) and NOX2 inhibitor GSK2795039. These findings demonstrate that ginsenoside Rh3 induces neurotoxicity through IP3R-Ca2+/NOX2/NF-κB signaling pathways. This study provides critical insights into the safety concerns of ginsenoside Rh3, highlighting the need for caution in its clinical applications.

Ginsenoside Rg1 in Parkinson's disease: from basic research to clinical applications

This review provides an in-depth exploration of the potential of Ginsenoside Rg1 in the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD). The emphasis of this article was the therapeutic mechanisms of Rg1, which involved the reduction of inflammation, antioxidant properties, support for neuronal survival and regeneration, regulation of cellular energy processes, and enhancement of autophagic pathways. Rg1 may protect neurons and improve both motor and cognitive impairments associated with PD through multiple mechanisms. However, challenges exist in the clinical application of Rg1, such as low bioavailability as well as a lack of comprehensive long-term safety and efficacy data. This article also reviewed network pharmacology analyses published previously to identify and explore the potential molecular targets of Rg1 in PD treatment, while evaluating strategies such as drug delivery technologies, optimizing administration routes, and combination therapies. Ultimately, this review highlights the necessity for large-scale clinical trials to validate the clinical efficacy of Rg1 and discusses its potential for PD treatment clinically.

Natural small molecules regulating the mitophagy pathway counteract the pathogenesis of diabetes and chronic complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder marked by sustained hyperglycemia. These disturbances contribute to extensive damage across various tissues and organs, giving rise to severe complications such as vision loss, kidney failure, amputations, and higher morbidity and mortality rates. Furthermore, DM imposes a substantial economic and emotional burden on patients, families, and healthcare systems. Mitophagy, a selective process that targets the clearance of damaged or dysfunctional mitochondria, is pivotal for sustaining cellular homeostasis through mitochondrial turnover and recycling. Emerging evidence indicates that dysfunctional mitophagy acts as a key pathogenic driver in the pathogenesis of DM and its associated complications. Natural small molecules are particularly attractive in this regard, offering advantages such as low toxicity, favorable pharmacokinetic profiles, excellent biocompatibility, and a broad range of biochemical activities. This review systematically evaluates the mechanistic roles of natural small molecules-including ginsenosides, resveratrol, and berberine-in enhancing mitophagy and restoring mitochondrial homeostasis via activation of core signaling pathways (e.g., PINK1/Parkin, BNIP3/NIX, and FUNDC1). These pathways collectively ameliorate pathological hallmarks of DM, such as oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, and insulin resistance. Furthermore, the integration of nanotechnology with these compounds optimizes their bioavailability and tissue-specific targeting, thereby establishing a transformative therapeutic platform for DM management. Current evidence demonstrates that mitophagy modulation by natural small molecules not only offers novel therapeutic strategies for DM and its chronic complications but also advances the mechanistic foundation for future drug development targeting metabolic disorders.

Post-Stroke Recovery: A Review of Hydrogel-Based Phytochemical Delivery Systems

Stroke remains a leading cause of disability worldwide, underscoring the urgent need for novel and innovative therapeutic strategies to enhance neuroprotection, support regeneration, and improve functional recovery. Previous research has shown that phytochemicals such as curcumin, tannic acid, gallic acid, ginsenosides, resveratrol, and isorhamnetin display extensive neuroprotective properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects. These natural compounds could also promote neurogenesis, angiogenesis, and the preservation of the blood-brain barrier. Despite their promising bioactivities, clinical application is often limited by poor solubility, bioavailability, and suboptimal pharmacokinetics. Hydrogels offer a promising solution by encapsulating and controlling the gradual release of these phytochemicals directly at the site of injury. Recent advancements in hydrogel formulations, constructed from biopolymers and functionalized using nanotechnological approaches, could significantly improve the solubility, stability, and targeted delivery of phytochemicals. Controlled release profiles from pH-sensitive and environment-responsive hydrogels could ensure that the compounds' therapeutic effects are optimally timed with individual and critical stages of post-stroke repair. Moreover, hydrogel scaffolds with tailored material properties and biocompatibility can create a favorable microenvironment, reducing secondary inflammation, enhancing tissue regeneration, and potentially improving functional and cognitive outcomes following stroke. This review explores the potential of integrating phytochemicals within hydrogel-based delivery systems specifically designed for post-stroke recovery. The design and synthesis of biocompatible, biodegradable hydrogels functionalized especially with phytochemicals and their applications are also discussed. Lastly, we emphasize the need for additional robust and translatable preclinical studies.

Omentin-1 as a promising biomarker and therapeutic target in hypertension and heart failure: a comprehensive review

Omentin-1, a novel adipocytokine predominantly secreted by visceral adipose tissue, has emerged as a significant factor in cardiovascular health, particularly regarding hypertension (HTN) and heart failure (HF). This manuscript investigates the multifaceted roles of omentin-1 in these conditions, emphasizing its protective effects on vascular function and its potential as both a biomarker and therapeutic target. Clinical studies indicate that reduced circulating levels of omentin-1 are associated with metabolic syndrome (MetS) and increased cardiovascular risk, while animal studies demonstrate its ability to ameliorate endothelial dysfunction and lower blood pressure. Omentin-1 exerts its beneficial effects through various signaling pathways, including AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and protein kinase B (Akt), thereby promoting vasodilation, enhancing insulin sensitivity, and mitigating inflammation. In the context of HF, particularly heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), omentin-1 levels exhibit a negative correlation with diastolic dysfunction and inflammatory markers, suggesting its role in cardiac protection. Additionally, the manuscript discusses the implications of omentin-1 in managing obesity-related cardiovascular diseases and its potential utility as a prognostic marker for adverse outcomes in HF patients. Collectively, omentin-1 represents a promising avenue for research in cardiovascular health, with the potential to inform novel therapeutic strategies aimed at improving outcomes in patients with HTN and HF. Further research is necessary to elucidate the details of omentin-1 function and evaluate its potential in the treatment of cardiovascular disease.

GPR30-driven fatty acid oxidation targeted by ginsenoside Rd maintains mitochondrial redox homeostasis to restore vascular barrier in diabetic retinopathy

Blood-retinal barrier (BRB) breakdown, a pivotal contributor to multiple retinal vascular diseases, manifests as a progressive increase in vascular permeability induced by various pathological stimuli. The functional plasticity of retinal endothelial cells can be intricately shaped by metabolic alteration. However, little is known about the mechanisms through which endothelial metabolic disorders trigger the dissolution of inter-vascular junctions and the selective approaches to targeting metabolic homeostasis. Herein, we identify AMPK-associated fatty acid oxidation (FAO) inhibition as a critical driver of vascular barrier dysfunction via exacerbating redox imbalance. Pharmacological facilitation of FAO by ginsenoside Rd (Rd) suppresses BRB collapse and other secondary retinal damage in diabetic retinopathy (DR). Mechanistically, Rd targets GPR30 to phosphorylate AMPK via the PKA-LKB1-AMPK kinase cascade. The AMPK activation induced by Rd revitalizes hyperglycemia-compromised FAO, and then sustains mitochondrial NADPH regeneration by emphasis on IDH2 at various levels, including substrate supply, transcription, and post-translational modifications. Therefore, Rd alleviates the disruption of BRB integrity driven by mitochondrial oxidative stress, with the vasculoprotection of Rd diminished by GPR30 knockdown and pharmacological attenuation of AMPK. These findings collectively reveal the previously-unanticipated role of endothelial FAO in heightened retinal vascular leakage, and highlight the potential translational application of GPR30 agonism with Rd to mitigate barrier dysfunction, providing a metabolic regulatory therapeutic strategy for DR.

Developing a quantitative adulteration discrimination model for forest-grown Panax notoginseng using near-infrared spectroscopy with a dual-branch network

The ecological cultivation of herbs is gaining popularity due to its superior quality and greater economic value, with increasing applications in functional foods. However, profit-driven motives have led to the mislabeling of conventionally grown herbs as ecologically cultivated. Species consistency presents new challenges in authenticity identification, especially in detecting adulteration. In this study, near-infrared spectroscopy was used to analyze samples of Panax notoginseng subjected to simulated adulteration under two cultivation models. A dual-branch network architecture was developed to extract multi-scale features from both spectral sequences and time-frequency images. The results revealed R2 values of 0.991 and 0.987 for the training and testing sets, with RMSEs of 0.225 and 0.347, respectively. Furthermore, external validation showed R2 values of 0.9735 and an RMSE of 0.638, demonstrating superior performance in terms of accuracy and robustness for quantitative analysis. This research offers critical scientific evidence for the quality control and standardization of P. notoginseng, and provides new approaches for the quantitative analysis of products under different cultivation models.

Uncovering the active ingredients of Xinbao pill against chronic heart failure: A chemical profiling, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics integrated study

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Xinbao pill (XBP) is a renowned Chinese patent medicine, primarily efficacious in warming and nourishing the heart and kidneys, supplementing Qi to boost Yang, and promoting blood circulation to remove blood stasis. XBP has been utilized for the treatment of chronic heart failure (CHF) for nearly 30 years, but the lack of clarity regarding the active ingredients of XBP against CHF has hindered its clinical application and further promotion.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To comprehensively elucidate the efficacy-specific ingredients and potential mechanism of XBP against CHF.

METHODS

The efficacy, chemical profiling and pharmacokinetics of XBP was assessed in a CHF model rat. The anti-CHF mechanism of the mixture of the likely active ingredients was clarified by targeted metabolomics and western blotting analysis.

RESULTS

XBP alleviated CHF by enhancing cardiac function, reducing NT-pro BNP, mitigating myocardial damage and degrading extracellular collagen. Following XBP administration, ginsenosides exposed relatively abundant in sham or CHF rats. Ginsenoside Rg1 and notoginsenoside R1 showed downward trends in AUC0-t values in CHF group, accompanied by increasing trends in CL/F values. Moreover, CHF rats presented significantly elevated levels of ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Rg2 and notoginsenoside R1 in heart. The mixture of ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Rg2 and notoginsenoside R1 demonstrated remarkable efficacy in ameliorating CHF as XBP did. Notably, these three compounds were predominantly localized in mitochondria and exhibited significant potential to enhance mitochondrial homeostasis by inhibiting heme synthesis pathway-mediated decomposition of succinyl CoA.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research provides valuable insights that ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Rg2 and notoginsenoside R1 may constitute the anti-CHF active ingredients of XBP for facilitating mitochondrial homeostasis by the suppression of heme synthesis to increase succinyl CoA.

Protopanaxadiol synergizes with glucocorticoids to enhance the therapeutic effect in adriamycin-induced nephrotic syndrome

To date, glucocorticoids remain the mainstay of treatment of nephrotic syndrome (NS). However, serious side effects and development of drug-resistance following long-term use limit the application of glucocorticoids. Protopanaxadiol (PPD) possesses activity of dissociating transactivation from transrepression by glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which may serve as a potential selective GR modulator. However, steroid-like effects of PPD in vivo are unclear and not defined. How to translate PPD into clinical practice remains to be explored. The current study explored the renoprotection and potential mechanism of PPD and its combination with steroid hormones using adriamycin-induced NS rats. Adriamycin was given intravenously to rats to induce nephropathy. The determination of proteinuria, biochemical changes and inflammatory cytokines were performed, and pathological changes were examined by histopathological examination. Immunostaining and PCR were used to analyze the expression of interesting proteins and genes. The results showed that PPD, alone and in combination with prednisone, efficiently alleviate the symptoms of NS, attenuate nephropathy, improve adriamycin-induced podocyte injury by reducing desmin and increasing synaptopodin expression. In addition, the combined treatment reduced the expression of NF-κB protein and mRNA, as well as cytokine levels, and yet increased the expression of GR protein and mRNA. PPD modulated the transactivation of GR, manifested as repressing TAT, PEPCK and ANGPTL4 mRNA expressions mediated by GR. Meanwhile, PPD inhibited elevation of blood glucose and immune organ atrophy induced by prednisone. In summary, PPD increases the therapeutic effect of prednisone in NS while effectively prevents or decreases the appearance of side effects of glucocorticoids.

Whole Genome Identification and Integrated Analysis of Long Non-Coding RNAs Responding ABA-Mediated Drought Stress in Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer

Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer is a perennial herb that is used worldwide for a number of medical purposes. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play a crucial role in diverse biological processes but still remain poorly understood in ginseng, which has limited the application of molecular breeding in this plant. In this study, we identified 17,478 lncRNAs and 3106 novel mRNAs from ginseng by high-throughput illumine sequencing. 50 and 257 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and DE lncRNAs (DELs) were detected under drought + ABA vs. drought conditions, respectively. The DEGs and DELs target genes main enrichment is focused on the "biosynthesis of secondary metabolites", "starch and sucrose metabolism", and "carbon metabolism" pathways under drought + ABA vs. drought conditions according to KEGG pathway enrichment analysis, suggesting that these secondary metabolites biosynthesis pathways might be crucial for ABA-mediated drought stress response in ginseng. Together, we identified drought stress response lncRNAs in ginseng for the first time and found that the target genes of these lncRNAs mainly regulate the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites pathway to response to drought stress. These findings also open up a new visual for molecular breeding in ginseng.

A review of cardioprotective effect of ginsenosides in chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity

Chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity is a significant concern in cancer treatment, as certain chemotherapeutic agents can have adverse effects on the cardiovascular system. This can lead to a range of cardiac complications, including heart failure, arrhythmias, myocardial dysfunction, pericardial complications, and vascular toxicity. Strategies to mitigate chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity may include the use of cardioprotective agents (e.g., dexrazoxane), dose adjustments, alternative treatment regimens, and the implementation of preventive measures, such as lifestyle modifications and the management of cardiovascular risk factors. Ginsenosides, the active compounds found in ginseng (Panax ginseng), have been studied for their potential cardioprotective effects in the context of chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity. In this review, we investigate the cardioprotective effect of ginsenosides in chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity. Ginsenosides have been shown to possess potent antioxidant properties, which can help mitigate the oxidative stress and inflammation associated with chemotherapy-induced cardiac injury. They can modulate the expression of antioxidant enzymes and reduce the production of reactive oxygen species, thereby protecting cardiomyocytes from damage. Ginsenosides can also inhibit apoptosis (programmed cell death) of cardiomyocytes, which is a key mechanism underlying chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity. Modulation of ion channels, improvement of lipid profiles, anti-platelet and anti-thrombotic effects, and promotion of angiogenesis and neovascularization are another important mechanisms behind potential effects of ginsenosides on cardiovascular health. Ginsenosides can improve various parameters of cardiac function, such as ejection fraction, fractional shortening, and cardiac output, in animal models of chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity. The cardioprotective effects of ginsenosides have been observed in preclinical studies using various chemotherapeutic agents, including doxorubicin, cisplatin, and 5-fluorouracil. However, more clinical studies are needed to fully elucidate the therapeutic potential of ginsenosides in preventing and managing chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity in cancer patients.

Sources, metabolism, health benefits and future development of saponins from plants

Saponins are a class of glycoside compounds whose aglycones are triterpenoids or spirostanes, widely exist in a variety of Chinese herbs. Saponins are one of the important active components of medicinal plants and have a wide range of bioactivities. In order to promote the better development and utilization of saponins, the process of digestion, absorption and metabolism of saponins in vivo was reviewed in this paper. At the same time, the main bioactivities of common saponins and their potential mechanisms for alleviating diseases were summarized. Finally, the potential of saponins as functional food has been pointed out, and microbial transformation can make saponins better play this potential in the future.

Effects of Ginseng Consumption on Cardiovascular Health Biomarkers in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Ginseng, with various pharmacological activities, has received increasing attention to improve cardiovascular health (CVH). Therefore, this meta-analysis synthesized the effect of ginseng consumption on biomarkers of CVH in adults. A systematic search was performed in the databases of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Embase, and the Cochrane Library through July 24, 2023 to screen out English-language randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating the effects of ginseng consumption on body composition, blood pressure, vascular stiffness, lipid metabolism, glucose metabolism, insulin resistance, inflammatory cytokines, and adipocytokines in adults. The weighted mean difference (WMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were used to evaluate the overall effect size, and STATA 12.0 was used for comprehensive analysis. Forty-five studies were included in the meta-analysis. Ginseng consumption significantly reduced systolic blood pressure (SBP) (WMD = -2.57 mmHg, 95% CI = -4.99 to -0.14, p = 0.038), total cholesterol (TC) (WMD = -4.40 mg/dL, 95% CI = -8.67 to -0.132, p = 0.043), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) (WMD = -2.81 mg/dL, 95% CI = -4.89 to -0.72, p = 0.008), C-reactive protein (CRP) (WMD = -0.41 mg/L, 95% CI = -0.73 to -0.10, p = 0.010), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) (WMD = -2.82 pg./mL, 95% CI = -4.31 to -1.32, p < 0.001). Subgroup analyses suggested that supplementation with ginseng for less than 12 weeks significantly reduced SBP, but 12 weeks or more improved TC and CRP. Ginseng consumption on SBP, TC, and CRP seemed to be more effective on unhealthy participants. The meta-analysis showed that ginseng consumption might have the potential to improve SBP, TC, LDL-C, CRP, and IL-6. These findings suggest that ginseng is a potential candidate for the maintenance of CVH. However, our results had high heterogeneity. Future high-quality studies are needed to firmly establish the clinical efficacy of ginseng consumption.

The sugar moiety in protopanaxadiol ginsenoside affects its ability to target glucocorticoid receptor to regulate lipid metabolism

Ginsenosides are natural products with hydrophobic rings adorned with sugar molecules. The elucidation of the impact of ginsenosides structure on their activity is crucial for facilitating precision-oriented modifications, thereby enhancing their suitability for drug development. Here, utilizing an ob/ob mouse model, we demonstrated that as the number of sugar moiety on the protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides decreased, the hypolipidemic potency increased, while the aglycon exhibited negligible activity. Mechanistically, we demonstrated the dependency of ginsenosides on the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) for the regulation of lipid metabolism. Interestingly, ginsenoside CK was found to promote the transcription of lipid metabolism-related genes via GR contrast to the effects of glucocorticoids, suggesting a unique mode of action. Furthermore, we observed that a reduction in the number of sugar molecules strengthened the binding affinity of ginsenosides to GR, as determined by microscale thermophoresis. These findings highlight the critical role of the sugar moiety in modulating the lipid-regulating capacity of ginsenosides, providing valuable insights for the development of these compounds as potential therapeutic agents.

Ginsenoside Rh4 prevents endothelial dysfunction as a novel AMPK activator

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signalling pathway is a desirable target for various cardiovascular diseases (CVD), while the involvement of AMPK-mediated specific downstream pathways and effective interventions in hyperlipidaemia-induced endothelial dysfunction remain largely unknown. Herein, we aim to identify an effective AMPK activator and to explore its efficacy and mechanism against endothelial dysfunction.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Molecular docking technique was adopted to screen for the potent AMPK activator among 11 most common rare ginsenosides. In vivo, poloxamer 407 (P407) was used to induce acute hyperlipidaemia in C57BL/6J mice. In vitro, palmitic acid (PA) was used to induce lipid toxicity in HAEC cells.

KEY RESULTS

We discovered the strongest binding of ginsenoside Rh4 to AMPKα1 and confirmed the action of Rh4 on AMPK activation. Rh4 effectively attenuated hyperlipidaemia-related endothelial injury and oxidative stress both in vivo and in vitro and restored cell viability, mitochondrial membrane potential and mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate in HAEC cells. Mechanistically, Rh4 bound to AMPKα1 and simultaneously up-regulated AKT/eNOS-mediated NO release, promoted PGC-1α-mediated mitochondrial biogenesis and inhibited P38 MAPK/NFκB-mediated inflammatory responses in both P407-treated mice and PA-treated HAEC cells. The AMPK inhibitor Compound C treatment completely abrogated the regulation of Rh4 on the above pathways and weakened the lowering effect of Rh4 on endothelial impairment markers, suggesting that the beneficial effects of Rh4 are AMPK dependent.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Rh4 may serve as a novel AMPK activator to protect against hyperlipidaemia-induced endothelial dysfunction, providing new insights into the prevention and treatment of endothelial injury-associated CVD.

Korean Red Ginseng Improves Oxidative Stress-Induced Hepatic Insulin Resistance via Enhancing Mitophagy

This study explored the potential of saponins from Korean Red Ginseng to target the PINK1/Parkin mitophagy pathway, aiming to enhance insulin sensitivity in hepatocytes-a key factor in metabolic disorders like metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) and type 2 diabetes. Results from both in vitro and in vivo experiments showed increased expression of PINK1 and Parkin, activating mitophagy and reducing oxidative stress through reduction in mitochondrial and total reactive oxygen species. Additionally, improvements in insulin signaling were observed, including the upregulation of phosphorylated IRS and AKT, and downregulation of gluconeogenic enzymes, underscoring the saponins' efficacy in boosting insulin sensitivity. The findings highlighted Korean Red Ginseng-derived saponins as potential treatments for insulin resistance and related metabolic conditions.

Exploring the Efficacy Enhancement Mechanism of Qixue Shuangbu prescription after TCM processing for treating chronic heart failure by regulating ERK/Bcl-2/Bax/Caspases-3 signaling pathway

Qixue Shuangbu prescription (QSP) has been used for the treatment of chronic heart failure (CHF) with remarkable curative effect. Processed QSP (PQSP) could significantly improve the treatment of CHF after traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) processing. This study elucidated the underlying efficacy enhancement mechanism of QSP after TCM processing for treating CHF in vitro and in vivo. The injury of rat cardiomyoblast H9c2 cells was induced by anoxia/reoxygenation to mimic CHF state in vitro. Sixty Sprague-Dawley rats were used to established CHF model by intraperitoneally injecting doxorubicin (the accumulative dose 15 mg/kg). Biochemical examinations were performed in serum and cellular supernatant, respectively. Cardiac functions and histopathological changes were evaluated in CHF model rats. The protein and mRNA levels of ERK1/2, Bcl-2, Bax and Caspase-3 were evaluated by Western blot and RT-PCR, respectively. All above results of low dose crude QSP-treated group (L-CQSP), high dose CQSP-treated group (H-CQSP), low dose PQSP-treated group (L-PQSP), high dose PQSP-treated group (H-PQSP) were compared to systematically explore correlations between TCM processing and the efficacy enhancement for treating CHF of PQSP. Compared with the model group, the L-CQSP group showed significant improvement in cardiac function at 8th weeks, while no significant improvement in cardiomyocyte apoptosis and fibrosis. Both H-CQSP, L-PQSP and H-PQSP exerted beneficial therapeutic effects in injured H9c2 cardiomyocytes and CHF model rats. L-PQSP and H-PQSP significantly increased cell viability and the activity of SOD, decreased the activities of LDH, MDA and NO, up-regulated the expression of ERK1/2 and Bcl-2, down-regulated the expression of Bax and Caspase-3 compared to the same dosage of CQSP. The efficacy enhancement mechanism of PQSP after TCM processing for treating CHF was directly related to the regulation of ERK/Bcl-2/Bax/Caspases-3 signaling pathway.

Effects of scutellarin on the mechanism of cardiovascular diseases: a review

Cardiovascular diseases represent a significant worldwide problem, jeopardizing individuals' physical and mental wellbeing as well as their quality of life as a result of their widespread incidence and fatality. With the aging society, the occurrence of Cardiovascular diseases is progressively rising each year. However, although drugs developed for treating Cardiovascular diseases have clear targets and proven efficacy, they still carry certain toxic and side effect risks. Therefore, finding safe, effective, and practical treatment options is crucial. Scutellarin is the primary constituent of Erigeron breviscapus (Vant.) Hand-Mazz. This article aims to establish a theoretical foundation for the creation and use of secure, productive, and logical medications for Scutellarin in curing heart-related illnesses. Additionally, the examination and analysis of the signal pathway and its associated mechanisms with regard to the employment of SCU in treating heart diseases will impart innovative resolving concepts for the treatment and prevention of Cardiovascular diseases.

Research Progress on Effects of Ginsenoside Rg2 and Rh1 on Nervous System and Related Mechanisms

Neurological-related disorders are diseases that affect the body's neurons or peripheral nerve tissue, such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). The development of neurological disorders can cause serious harm to the quality of life and functioning of the patient. The use of traditional therapeutic agents such as dopamine-promoting drugs, anticholinergic drugs, cholinesterase inhibitors, and NMDA receptor antagonists is often accompanied by a series of side effects such as drug resistance, cardiac arrhythmia, liver function abnormalities, and blurred vision. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find a therapeutic drug with a high safety profile and few side effects. Herbal medicines are rich in active ingredients that are natural macromolecules. Ginsenoside is the main active ingredient of ginseng, which has a variety of pharmacological effects and is considered to have potential value in the treatment of human diseases. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that ginsenosides Rg2 and Rh1 have strong pharmacological activities in the nervous system, with protective effects on nerve cells, improved resistance to neuronal injury, modulation of neural activity, resistance to cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury, improvement of brain damage after eclampsia hemorrhage, improvement of memory and cognitive deficits, treatment of AD and vascular dementia, alleviation of anxiety, pain, and inhibition of ionic-like behavior. In this article, we searched the pharmacological research literature of Rg2 and Rh1 in the field of neurological diseases, summarized the latest research progress of the two ginsenosides, and reviewed the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of Rg2 and Rh1, which provided a new way of thinking for the research of the active ingredients in ginseng anti-neurological diseases and the development of new drugs.

Therapeutic mechanisms of ginseng in coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the most common clinical manifestation of cardiovascular disease. It is characterized by myocardial ischemia, which is caused by coronary atherosclerosis. CHD is a significant global health problem with increasing prevalence every year because of significant changes in the lifestyles and diets. Ginseng is a traditional Chinese medicinal herb that has been used in food preparations and traditional medicine for several centuries. Several studies have demonstrated that ginseng improved cardiac function by normalizing blood glucose levels and decreasing blood pressure, oxidative stress, platelet aggregation, and lipid dysregulation in vivo. This review describes the current understanding of the mechanisms by which ginseng alleviates CHD, and provides a reference for the clinical development and application of ginseng as an alternative therapy for CHD.

Functional annotation map of natural compounds in traditional Chinese medicines library: TCMs with myocardial protection as a case

The chemical complexity of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) makes the active and functional annotation of natural compounds challenging. Herein, we developed the TCMs-Compounds Functional Annotation platform (TCMs-CFA) for large-scale predicting active compounds with potential mechanisms from TCM complex system, without isolating and activity testing every single compound one by one. The platform was established based on the integration of TCMs knowledge base, chemome profiling, and high-content imaging. It mainly included: (1) selection of herbal drugs of target based on TCMs knowledge base; (2) chemome profiling of TCMs extract library by LC‒MS; (3) cytological profiling of TCMs extract library by high-content cell-based imaging; (4) active compounds discovery by combining each mass signal and multi-parametric cell phenotypes; (5) construction of functional annotation map for predicting the potential mechanisms of lead compounds. In this stud TCMs with myocardial protection were applied as a case study, and validated for the feasibility and utility of the platform. Seven frequently used herbal drugs (Ginseng, etc.) were screened from 100,000 TCMs formulas for myocardial protection and subsequently prepared as a library of 700 extracts. By using TCMs-CFA platform, 81 lead compounds, including 10 novel bioactive ones, were quickly identified by correlating 8089 mass signals with 170,100 cytological parameters from an extract library. The TCMs-CFA platform described a new evidence-led tool for the rapid discovery process by data mining strategies, which is valuable for novel lead compounds from TCMs. All computations are done through Python and are publicly available on GitHub.

Immune Enhancement of Clam Peptides on Immunosuppressed Mice Induced by Hydrocortisone

Clam peptides, marine-derived biological peptides, have been broadly investigated and applied as health foods, among which immunomodulation is one of their biological activities that cannot be ignored in vivo. In this study, we concentrated on exploring the effects of Ruditapes philippinarum peptides (RPPs) on immunomodulation and the balance of intestinal microbiota in hydrocortisone (HC)-induced immunosuppressed mice. The results revealed that RPPs could increase the thymus and spleen indices and number of white blood cells, promote the secretion level of cytokines (IL-2, IL-6, TNF-α, and INF-γ), repair the morphology of the spleen and thymus, and enhance the proliferation of T-lymphocyte subsets in immunosuppressed mice. Moreover, RPPs improved the abundance of beneficial bacteria and preserved the ecological equilibrium of the gut microbiota. In conclusion, RPPs have significant immunomodulatory effects on immunosuppressed mice and may be developed as immunomodulators or immune adjuvants in functional foods and drugs; they are also beneficial to the utilization of the high value of marine shellfish.

Structure Modification of Ginsenoside Rh2 and Cytostatic Activity on Cancer Cells

Ginsenoside Rh₂ (Rh₂) is one of the most effective anticancer components extracted from red ginseng, but the poor solubility limits its clinical application. In this paper, ginsenoside Rh₂ was modified with maleimidocaproic acid or maleimidoundecanoic acid with functional groups at both ends. The structures of derivatives were determined by analysis of 1D and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared, and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Antiproliferative cell experiments showed that Rh₂ modified with maleimidocaproic acid (C-Rh₂) displayed higher cytostatic activity against different tumor cells compared with Rh₂, while Rh₂ modified with maleimidoundecanoic acid (U-Rh₂) did not exhibit obvious cytotoxicity. The results suggest that the length of the spacer arm may play an important role in the cytostatic activity of the Rh₂ derivatives.

A comprehensive perspective on the disposition, metabolism, and pharmacokinetics of representative multi-components of Dengzhan Shengmai in rats with chronic cerebral hypoperfusion after oral administration

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dengzhan Shengmai capsule (DZSM), an evidence-based Chinese medicine comprising Erigeron breviscapus (Vaniot) Hand. -Mazz., Panax ginseng C.A.Mey., Ophiopogon japonicus (Thunb.) Ker Gawl., and Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill., exhibits an excellent efficacy in treating cardio- and cerebrovascular diseases. It contains caffeoyl compounds, flavonoids, saponins, and lignans as primary active components. However, so far, the characteristics of disposition, metabolism, and pharmacokinetics of its active components remain mostly unclear.

AIM OF STUDY

To elucidate disposition, metabolism, and pharmacokinetics of representative components of DZSM in rats with chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) by integrating ex vivo and in situ approaches.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Exposure and distribution of absorbed prototypes and their metabolites were comprehensively investigated using sensitive LC-MS/MS and high-resolution LC-Q-TOF/MS. Pharmacokinetics of representative 16 components (12 prototypes and 4 metabolites) with different chemical categories, relatively high in vivo levels, wide tissue distribution, and reported neuroprotective activities were profiled. The ex vivo everted gut sac and in situ linked-rat models were adopted.

RESULTS

Representative 12 prototypes including 6 caffeoyl compounds (CA, 5-CQA, 3-CQA, 4-CQA, 1,3-CQA, and 3,4-CQA), 1 flavonoid (Scu), 2 saponins (Rd and Rg2), and 3 lignans (SchA, SchB, and SolA) presented characteristic absorption, disposition, and pharmacokinetics profiles in CCH rats. The caffeoyl compounds and flavonoid were well absorbed, exhibited wide distribution, and underwent extensive intestinal metabolism, such as methylation, isomerization, and sulfoconjugation. For CA, 5-CQA, Scu, and 4 related metabolites, the enterohepatic circulation was observed and resulted in bimodal or multimodal pharmacokinetic profiles. Saponins showed relatively low systemic exposure and limited distribution. The PPD-type ginsenoside Rd exhibited longer elimination half-life and systemic circulation than the PPT-type ginsenoside Rg2. No enterohepatic circulation was observed regarding saponins, suggesting that the multimodal pharmacokinetic profile of Rd could be due to its multi-site intestinal absorption. Lignans presented a low in vivo exposure and broad distribution. They were mainly transformed into hydroxylated metabolites. Corresponding to its bimodal pharmacokinetic profile, one metabolite of lignans completed the enterohepatic cycle.

CONCLUSION

The disposition, metabolism, and pharmacokinetic profiles of representative active components of DZSM were comprehensively characterized and elucidated.

Inhibition of the pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathway: The important potential mechanism of ginsenosides in ameliorating diabetes and its complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and its complications have become an important global public health issue, affecting human health and negatively impacting life and lifespan. Pyroptosis is a recently discovered form of pro-inflammatory programmed cell death (PCD). To date, pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways have been identified primarily in the canonical and non-canonical inflammasome pathway, apoptotic caspase-mediated pathway, granzyme-mediated pathway, and streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B (SpeB)-mediated pathway. The activation of diabetes-mediated pyroptosis-associated factors play an important role in the pathophysiology of DM and its complications. Studies have shown that ginsenosides exert significant protective effects on DM and its complications. Through inhibiting the activation of pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways, and then the DM and its complications are improved. This review summarizes the subtypes of ginsenosides and their chemical characteristics, pharmacokinetics and side effects, the main pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways that have been discovered to date, and the potential mechanism of different subtypes of ginsenosides in the treatment of DM and its complications (such as diabetic cardiomyopathy, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic liver injury, diabetic retinopathy, and diabetic ischemic stroke) via anti-pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways. These findings may provide ideas for further research to explore ginsenoside mechanism in improving DM and its complications. However, many pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways and targets involved in the occurrence and development of DM and its complications are still unknown. In the future, further studies using in vitro cell models, in vivo animal models, and human disease models can be used to further elucidate the mechanism of ginsenosides in the treatment of DM and its complications.

Detoxification mechanisms of ginseng to aconite: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Aconite (Fuzi, FZ), the processed root tuber of Aconitum carmichaelii Debx., is utilized as a classic medicine to treat diseases of the cardiovascular system and immune system. Resulting from the narrow margin of safety between a therapeutic dose and a toxic dose, FZ often causes cardiotoxicity including hypotension, palpitation, and bradycardia. Contributing to the detoxification effects of the other famous herbal medicine ginseng (Renshen, RS), which is the dried root and rhizome of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, people broadly combine FZ and RS as compatibility more than 1800 years to attenuate the toxicity of FZ. However, the systematic detoxification mechanisms of RS to FZ have not been fully revealed.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

Aiming to provide a comprehensive interpretation of the attenuation processes of FZ via RS, this review summarizes the up-to-date information about regulatory mechanisms of RS to FZ to shed the light on the essence of detoxification.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Literature was searched in electronic databases, including PubMed, Web of Science ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, CNKI and WanFang Data. Relevant studies on detoxification mechanisms were included while irrelevant and duplicate studies were excluded. According to the study design, subject, intervention regime, outcome, first author and year of publication of included data, detoxification mechanisms of RS to FZ were summarized and visualized.

RESULTS

A total of 144 studies were identified through databases from their inception up to Oct. 2022. Included information indicated that diester-diterpenoid alkaloids (DDAs) were the main toxic substances of FZ. The main mechanisms that RS attenuates the toxicity of FZ were transforming toxic compounds of FZ, affecting the absorption and metabolism of FZ as well as the FZ-induced cell toxicity alleviation.

CONCLUSION

FZ, as a famous traditional Chinese medicine, has good prospects for utilization. The narrow margin of safety between a therapeutic dose and a toxic dose of FZ limits its clinical effect and safety while RS is always combined with FZ to alleviate its toxicity. However, mechanisms responsible for the detoxification process have not been well identified. Therefore, detoxification mechanisms of RS to FZ are reviewed to ensure the safety and effectiveness of FZ.

Efficacy and Safety of Shenfu Injection on Acute Heart Failure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

The adjunctive efficacy and safety of Shenfu Injection (SFI) for acute heart failure (AHF) still remains ambiguous even though previous studies made initial conclusions.

OBJECTIVE

To comprehensively evaluate the adjunctive efficacy and safety of SFI in the treatment of AHF.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a meta-analysis and systematic review.

METHODS

8 databases were searched for qualified randomized controlled trials (RCTs) from May 1990 to May 2022. The primary results included total clinical effective rate (TCER) and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). The secondary results included left ventricular end diastolic dimension (LVEDD), heart rate (HR), N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and adverse events (AE). The quality evaluation, meta-analysis, sensitivity analysis, subgroup analysis and publication bias were conducted by RevMan5.3 software. Meta-regression analysis was conducted using Stata software 15.0, and trial sequential analyses (TSA) was performed by TSA program. Finally, the GRADE (Grading of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation) system was applied for evaluating the quality of evidence.

RESULTS

61 RCTs containing 5505 AHF patients were included. The meta results demonstrated SFI combined with conventional western treatment (CWT) for AHF was superior to CWT alone in improving the TCER (RR = 1.21; 95% CI (1.18, 1.24); p < 0.001), improving LVEF (SMD = 0.85; 95% CI (0.77,0.92); p < 0.001) and reducing HR (SMD = -0.67; 95% CI (0.80, -0.54) p < 0.001). It had a lower AE rate in the SFI+CWT group (27/753, 3.59%) than the CWT group (68/739, 9.20%) (RR = 0.40; 95% CI (0.26, 0.61); p < 0.001). The outcomes' evidentiary quality of TCER, HR, LVEF and AE were assessed as moderate.

CONCLUSION

Adjunctive use of SFI was safer to improve TCER and heart function of AHF, but the results should be interpreted with cautious for clinical practice until high quality-designed RCTs were require for further confirmation due to poor quality of part of the included studies.

How ginseng regulates autophagy: Insights from multistep process

BACKGROUND

Although autophagy is a recognized contributor to the pathogenesis of human diseases, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are the only two FDA-approved autophagy inhibitors to date. Emerging evidence has revealed the potential therapeutic benefits of various extracts and active compounds isolated from ginseng, especially ginsenosides and their derivatives, by mediating autophagy. Mechanistically, active components from ginseng mediate key regulators in the multistep processes of autophagy, namely, initiation, autophagosome biogenesis and cargo degradation.

AIM OF REVIEW

To date, a review that systematically described the relationship between ginseng and autophagy is still lacking. Breakthroughs in finding the key players in ginseng-autophagy regulation will be a promising research area, and will provide positive insights into the development of new drugs based on ginseng and autophagy.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

Here, we comprehensively summarized the critical roles of ginseng-regulated autophagy in treating diseases, including cancers, neurological disorders, cardiovascular diseases, inflammation, and neurotoxicity. The dual effects of the autophagy response in certain diseases are worthy of note; thus, we highlight the complex impacts of both ginseng-induced and ginseng-inhibited autophagy. Moreover, autophagy and apoptosis are controlled by multiple common upstream signals, cross-regulate each other and affect certain diseases, especially cancers. Therefore, this review also discusses the cross-signal transduction pathways underlying the molecular mechanisms and interaction between ginseng-regulated autophagy and apoptosis.

Natural compounds from botanical drugs targeting mTOR signaling pathway as promising therapeutics for atherosclerosis: A review

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease that is a major cause of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), including coronary artery disease, hypertension, myocardial infarction, and heart failure. Hence, the mechanisms of AS are still being explored. A growing compendium of evidence supports that the activity of the mechanistic/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is highly correlated with the risk of AS. The mTOR signaling pathway contributes to AS progression by regulating autophagy, cell senescence, immune response, and lipid metabolism. Various botanical drugs and their functional compounds have been found to exert anti- AS effects by modulating the activity of the mTOR signaling pathway. In this review, we summarize the pathogenesis of AS based on the mTOR signaling pathway from the aspects of immune response, autophagy, cell senescence, and lipid metabolism, and comb the recent advances in natural compounds from botanical drugs to inhibit the mTOR signaling pathway and delay AS development. This review will provide a new perspective on the mechanisms and precision treatments of AS.

Genome-wide identification and systematic analysis of the HD-Zip gene family and its roles in response to pH in Panax ginseng Meyer

BACKGROUND

Ginseng, Panax ginseng Meyer, is a traditional herb that is immensely valuable both for human health and medicine and for medicinal plant research. The homeodomain leucine zipper (HD-Zip) gene family is a plant-specific transcription factor gene family indispensable in the regulation of plant growth and development and plant response to environmental stresses.

RESULTS

We identified 117 HD-Zip transcripts from the transcriptome of ginseng cv. Damaya that is widely grown in Jilin, China where approximately 60% of the world's ginseng is produced. These transcripts were positioned to 64 loci in the ginseng genome and the ginseng HD-Zip genes were designated as PgHDZ genes. Identification of 82 and 83 PgHDZ genes from the ginseng acc. IR826 and cv. ChP genomes, respectively, indicated that the PgHDZ gene family consists of approximately 80 PgHDZ genes. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the gene family originated after Angiosperm split from Gymnosperm and before Dicots split from Monocots. The gene family was classified into four subfamilies and has dramatically diverged not only in gene structure and functionality but also in expression characteristics. Nevertheless, co-expression network analysis showed that the activities of the genes in the family remain significantly correlated, suggesting their functional correlation. Five hub PgHDZ genes were identified that might have central functions in ginseng biological processes and four of them were shown to be actively involved in plant response to environmental pH stress in ginseng.

CONCLUSIONS

The PgHDZ gene family was identified from ginseng and analyzed systematically. Five potential hub genes were identified and four of them were shown to be involved in ginseng response to environmental pH stress. The results provide new insights into the characteristics, diversity, evolution, and functionality of the PgHDZ gene family in ginseng and lay a foundation for comprehensive research of the gene family in plants.

Ginsenoside Rc, as an FXR activator, alleviates acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity via relieving inflammation and oxidative stress

Acetaminophen (APAP) intake leads to excessive NAPQI deposition, stimulating inflammatory and oxidative stress and causing fatal liver injury. However, the detailed molecular mechanism involved is unknown, and effective therapeutic approaches remain insufficient. In this study, we discovered that treatment with ginsenoside Rc can prevent the inflammatory response caused by APAP and oxidative stress in mouse primary hepatocytes (MPHs), along with the corresponding changes in related genes. Additionally, Ginsenoside Rc effectively alleviates APAP-induced cellular apoptosis and NAPQI accumulation in MPHs. In vivo, Ginsenoside Rc administration remarkably attenuates APAP-induced hepatotoxicity, repairing liver damage and improving survival. Moreover, Ginsenoside Rc treatment modulates genes involved in APAP metabolism, leading to a decrease in NAPQI and resulting in the alleviation of fatal oxidative stress and inflammatory response after APAP exposure, along with the expression of their related indicators. Furthermore, our RNA-seq and molecular docking analysis implies that FXR expression and FXR transcriptional activity are stimulated by Ginsenoside Rc treatment. Notably, due to the lack of FXR in mice and MPHs, ginsenoside Rc can no longer play its original protective role against hepatotoxicity and cell damage caused by APAP, and it is difficult to improve the corresponding survival rate and prevent hepatic apoptosis, NAPQI generation, fatal oxidative stress, and the inflammatory response induced by APAP and the expression of related genes. In summary, our results indicate that Ginsenoside Rc could act as an effective FXR activator and effectively regulate FXR-induced antioxidant stress and eliminate inflammation while also having an anti-apoptotic function.

Ginsenoside Rb3 upregulates sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase expression and improves the contractility of cardiomyocytes by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway

A causal relationship between ginsenoside Rb3 (G-Rb3) and improved inflammation and cardiac function has not been established. To determine which specific signaling pathways were involved in G-Rb3 improvement of inflammation and myocardial function. In vivo, we found that G-Rb3 decreased the levels of both nuclear factor κB (NF-κB p65) and CD45, an inflammatory marker. G-Rb3 also enhanced key proteins of the contraction unit (cardiac troponin protein I (cTnI) and α-actinin) to improve cardiac function. G-Rb3 inhibited NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation in vitro, as verified by western blot and IF. When NF-κB p65 was overexpressed, a decrease in cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase 3B (PDE3B) and SERCA2a expression, while no statistical significance was observed in the expressions of cAMP, PKA, and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase type II (CaMKⅡ) in each group. The NF-κB p65 plasmid blocked the SERCA2a promoter, as verified by the luciferase reporter system, and G-Rb3 truncated the NF-κB p65 block on the SERCA2a promoter. qPCR was also used to confirm that G-Rb3 increased the mRNA of SERCA2a. In conclusion, we confirmed that the mechanisms of G-Rb3 on ventricular systolic dysfunction causing inflammation are not via the cAMP/PKA pathway, but via suppressing the blockage of NF-κB p65 on the SERCA2a promoter and increasing the SERCA2a expression.

The Uroprotective Efficacy of Total Ginsenosides in Chinese Ginseng on Chemotherapy with Cyclophosphamide

Hemorrhagic cystitis is a recognizable complication of cyclophosphamide (CYP) attributable to its lively metabolite acrolein, which produces urothelial injury. The study intended to examine the uroprotective efficacy of total ginsenosides in Chinese ginseng (TGCG) in CYP-induced hemorrhagic cystitis. In total, 24 virgin female rats were randomized into four groups as follows: group 1 (control group; injected with normal saline), group 2 (injected with CYP plus a placebo with normal saline), group 3 (given CYP and TGCG (200 mg/kg)), and group 4 (given CYP and 2-mercaptoethane sulfonate sodium (Mesna, 30 mg/kg)). An evaluation by cystometry was conducted. Values of the voiding interval were assessed in anesthetized rats and histological examinations of the bladders were measured. In the cystometry analysis, the voiding interval was significantly reduced in the CYP group. TGCG and Mesna significantly increased in the voiding interval values, individually. Bladder edema and urothelial injury were examined after contact with CYP. Contrasted to the group given CYP, CYP-induced hemorrhagic cystitis, TGCG significantly increased the urothelial thickness, and significantly reduced scores of mucosal break and submucosal edema in the bladder. In conclusion, these findings mean that the treatment with TGCG in CYP rats can avoid hemorrhagic cystitis. TGCG decreases urothelial injury. TGCG may participate as the chief character of uroprotection in CYP-induced hemorrhagic cystitis.

Biotransformation, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacological Activities of Ginsenoside Rd Against Multiple Diseases

Panax ginseng C.A. Mey. has a history of more than 4000 years and is widely used in Asian countries. Modern pharmacological studies have proved that ginsenosides and their compounds have a variety of significant biological activities on specific diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, certain types of cancer, gastrointestinal disease, and metabolic diseases, in which most of the interest has focused on ginsenoside Rd. The evidentiary basis showed that ginsenoside Rd ameliorates ischemic stroke, nerve injury, cancer, and other diseases involved in apoptosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, and autophagy. In this review, we summarized available reports on the molecular biological mechanisms of ginsenoside Rd in neurological diseases, cancer, metabolic diseases, and other diseases. We also discussed the main biotransformation pathways of ginsenoside Rd obtained by fermentation.

Chip-DSF: A rapid screening strategy for drug protein targets

Identification of the drug target of lead compounds is an important means for rapid and efficient drug discovery. Protein chips are a high-throughput protein function analysis technology that has been widely used in screening drug protein targets in recent years. However, the verification of the results after high-throughput protein chip screening is still cumbersome. Based on our mature protein chip preparation platform, we prepared a protein chip containing 150 important high-frequency protein targets and used antibodies to prove the availability of the protein chip. To improve the accuracy of target screening, we combined the label-free differential scanning fluorimetry (DSF) with the protein chip, proposing the Chip-DSF strategy. Subsequently, we tested the method with small molecular ginsenoside-Rg2 (Rg2). The Chip-DSF strategy was used to successfully screen the potential target protein KRAS(G12C) of Rg2. Consistently, we found that Rg2 could inhibit NCI-H23 cell proliferation by inducing cell cycle arrest. Also, we found that Rg2 could reduce the amount of KRAS protein and inhibit the phosphorylation of KRAS downstream key signaling protein ERK1, RPS6, and P70S6K in NCI-H23 cells. Collectively, our Chip-DSF strategy could achieve rapid target verification which improved the accuracy and efficiency of target screening of protein chips.

Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases with Plant Phytochemicals: A Review

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the world's leading killers, accounting for 30% deaths. According to the WHO report, CVDs kill 17.9 million people per year, and there will be 22.2 million deaths from CVD in 2030. The death rates rise as people get older. Regarding gender, the death rate of women by CVD (51%) is higher than that of men (42%). To decrease and prevent CVD, most people rely on traditional medicine originating from the plant (phytochemicals) in addition to or in preference to commercially available drugs to recover from their illness. The CVD therapy efficacy of 92 plants, including 15 terrestrial plants, is examined. Some medicinal plants well known to treat CVD are, Daucus carota, Nerium oleander, Amaranthus Viridis, Ginkgo biloba, Terminalia arjuna, Picrorhiza kurroa, Salvia miltiorrhiza, Tinospora cordifolia, Mucuna pruriens, Hydrocotyle asiatica, Bombax ceiba, and Andrographis paniculate. The active phytochemicals found in these plants are flavonoids, polyphenols, plant sterol, plant sulphur compounds, and terpenoids. A general flavonoid mechanism of action is to prevent low-density lipoprotein oxidation, which promotes vasodilatation. Plant sterols prevent CVD by decreasing cholesterol absorption in the blood. Plant sulphur compound also prevent CVD by activation of nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and inhibition of cholesterol synthesis. Quinone decreases the risk of CVD by increasing ATP production in mitochondria while terpenoids by decreasing atherosclerotic lesion in the aortic valve. Although several physiologically active compounds with recognized biological effects have been found in various plants because of the increased prevalence of CVD, appropriate CVD prevention and treatment measures are required. More research is needed to understand the mechanism and specific plants' phytochemicals responsible for treating CVD.

Ginsenoside compound K inhibits the proliferation, migration and invasion of Eca109 cell via VEGF-A/Pi3k/Akt pathway

OBJECTIVE

Esophageal cancer, one of the most common cancers in the upper digestive tract and is one of the leading cancer-related mortality worldwide. Accumulating studies found that Ginsenoside compound K (CK) has significantly anti-tumor effects, especially in the suppression of proliferation, migration, as well as invasion in various human cancers. While the effects of Ginsenoside CK in esophageal cancer have not been well studied. In our present study, we aim to explore the functions and mechanisms of Ginsenoside CK in the progression of esophageal cancer cells (Eca109).

METHODS

Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), wound healing, transwell and flow cytometry assays were applied to analyze the effects of Ginsenoside CK in the progression of Eca109 cell, western blot assay was used to investigate the potential downstream signaling pathway after Ginsenoside CK treatment.

RESULTS

Our study found that Ginsenoside CK can suppress cell proliferation, migration and invasion of Eca109 cell. Furthermore, the flow cytometry showed that Ginsenoside CK increased of apoptosis rates in Eca109 cell. The western blot results indicated that Ginsenoside CK decreased the expression of VEGF-A, P-Pi3k and P-Akt proteins. Moreover, the knockdown of VEGF-A gene could suppress cell proliferation, migration, invasion and induce apoptosis in Eca109 cell, and the expression of P-Pi3k and P-Akt proteins were significantly downregulated.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests that Ginsenoside CK inhibits the proliferation, migration, invasion, and induced apoptosis of Eca109 cell by blocking VEGF-A/Pi3k/Akt signaling pathway.

Pseudo-sapogenin DQ 3-mimaleate acid derivative induces ovarian carcinoma cell apoptosis via mitochondrial pathway

In the present study, four novel ginsenosides fatty acid and aromatic acid derivatives were designed and synthesized, and their cytotoxic effects on human ovarian carcinoma cells (SKOV3) were assessed using the MTT assay. The results demonstrated that all derivatives inhibited SKOV3 cell growth, and Compound 3 showed the most outstanding anti-proliferative effect on SKOV3 cells. The IC₅₀ value of Compound 3 was 33.8 ± 2.21 μM, less than half of that of cis-platinum (70.1 ± 7.64 μM). Subsequent analysis revealed that Compound 3 could promote SKOV3 cell apoptosis, and the percentage of apoptotic cell population increased with increasing Compound 3 concentrations. In addition, the expression ratios of Bax/Bcl-2, cleaved-Caspase-3/Caspase-3 and cleaved-Caspase-9/Caspase-9 were gradually elevated in Compound 3-treated SKOV3 cells compared with control cells. Furthermore, translocation of Bax to mitochondria was associated with the release of Cytochrome C. Molecular docking analysis revealed three hydrogen-bonds existed in Compound 3 with PARP receptor (PDB code: 5DSY), which may be the target of the anti-ovarian cancer effect of Compound 3. Altogether, our study indicates that Compound 3 induces SKOV3 cell apoptosis via ROS-dependent mitochondrial pathway, and can serve as an anti-cancer agent for treating ovarian carcinoma.

Ginsenoside Rh1 Inhibits Angiotensin II-Induced Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Migration and Proliferation through Suppression of the ROS-Mediated ERK1/2/p90RSK/KLF4 Signaling Pathway

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and migration play key roles in the progression of atherosclerosis and restenosis. A variety of ginsenosides exert various cardiovascular benefits. However, whether and how ginsenoside Rh1 (Rh1) inhibits VSMC dysfunction remain unclear. Here, we investigated the inhibitory effects of Rh1 on rat aortic smooth muscle cell (RASMC) migration and proliferation induced by angiotensin II (Ang II) and the underlying mechanisms. Cell proliferation and migration were evaluated using sulforhodamine B and wound-healing assay. The molecular mechanisms were investigated using Western blotting, quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis, immunofluorescence staining, and luciferase assay. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was measured using dihydroethidium and MitoSOX staining. We found that Rh1 dose-dependently suppressed Ang II-induced cell proliferation and migration. Concomitantly, Ang II increased protein levels of osteopontin, vimentin, MMP2, MMP9, PCNA, and cyclin D1, while these were reduced by Rh1 pretreatment. Notably, Ang II enhanced both the protein expression and promoter activity of KLF4, a key regulator of phenotypic switching, whereas pretreatment with Rh1 reversed these effects. Mechanistically, the effects of Rh1 on VSMC proliferation and migration were found to be associated with inhibition of ERK1/2/p90RSK signaling. Furthermore, the inhibitory effects of Rh1 were accompanied by inhibition of ROS production. In conclusion, Rh1 inhibited the Ang II-induced migration and proliferation of RASMCs by suppressing the ROS-mediated ERK1/2/p90RSK signaling pathway.

Ginsenoside Rd ameliorates high glucose-induced retinal endothelial injury through AMPK-STRT1 interdependence

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) manifests as a complicated and blinding complication in diabetes mellitus. First-line treatments for advanced DR have shown ocular side-effects in some patients. Ginsenoside Rd (Rd), an active ingredient isolated from Panax notoginseng and P. ginseng, has demonstrated diverse and powerful activities on neuroprotection, anticancer and anti-inflammation, but its vascular protective effects have rarely been reported. Herein, this study aims to investigate the protective effects of Rd on retinal endothelial injury with emphasis on AMPK/SIRT1 interaction. The results indicated that Rd promoted AMPK activation and SIRT1 expression. Besides, Rd strengthened the interaction between AMPK and SIRT1 by increasing NAD⁺/NADH levels and LKB1 deacetylation in endothelial cells. Moreover, Rd reversed high glucose-induced activation of NOX2, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and endothelial apoptosis in an AMPK/SIRT1-interdependent manner. Hyperglycemia induced loss of endothelial cells and other retinal damage, which was restored by Rd via activating AMPK and SIRT1 in vivo. The enhancement of AMPK/SIRT1 interaction by Rd beneficially modulated oxidative stress and apoptosis, and ameliorated diabetes-driven vascular damage. These data also supported the evidence for Rd clinical development of pharmacological interventions and provided a novel potential vascular protective drug for early DR.